Zoo 173 Intro to Parasitology

Parasitic Insects
Parasitology Lecture

Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Subphylum Uniramia
Subphylum Chelicerata

Suphylum Uniramia
Class Myriapoda – no parasitic species
Class Hexapoda
Subclass Myrientomata – no parasites
Subclass Oligoentomata – no parasites
Subclass Diplurata – no parasites
Subclass Pterygota – “Winged Insects”
Order Mallophaga – Biting Lice
Order Anoplura – Sucking Lice
Order Hemiptera – True Bugs
Order Siphonaptera – Fleas
Order Diptera – Flies, Mosquitoes

Hexapoda: Insects
Three pairs of legs, one pair antennae, distinct head, thorax, and abdomen.
Mouthparts vary
Biting
Sucking
Two types of development
Hemimetabolous
Several larval nymph stages
Each nymph looks more like the adult
No sudden, dramatic change
Holometabolous
Several nymph stages looking nothing like adult
Enter a non-feeding, pupal stage to turn into adult
Metamorphosis

Parasitic Insects
Ectoparasites
Temporary
Permanent
Some feed on skin, hair, and feathers
Take blood only accidentally
Mallophaga
Many suck blood
Solenophage
Insert mouthparts into a blood vessel to withdraw blood
Anoplura, mosquitos
Mouthparts cut skin and vessel
Feeds on a pool of blood that collects
Black flies, deer flies

Mallophaga – Biting Lice

2800 species
Ectoparasites on birds
Few species on mammals

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Wingless, with reduced or no eyes
Chewing mouthparts
Most eat feathers, hair or bits of sloughed skin
Some pierce skin or feather shafts
Feed on blood
Tarsal claws are enlarged
For clinging to hair and feathers
2 claws on bird parasites
1 claw on mammal parasites

Development is gradual (no metamorphosis)

Vector for no human diseases
Vector for filarial nematodes of birds
Particularly in coots, grebes and parrots
Serious pest in aviculture
Menacanthus stramineus
Yellow body louse of poultry
Can occur in large numbers
35,000 on one bird
Can disrupt feeding
results in lower egg production
Other species in poultry
Goniocotes gallinae – fluff louse
Lipeurus caponis – wing louse
Cuclotogaster heterographus – chicken head louse
Chelopistes melagridis – large turkey louse

Bovicola bovis
Louse of cattle
Trichodectes canis
Common on dogs
Can be I.H. for Dipylidium caninum
Felicola subrostrus
Common in cats
Haematomyzus elephantis
Found on elephants
Can cause dermatitis

Anoplura – Sucking Lice

Only 500 species
Ectoparasites on mammals only
Including humans
Sucking mouthparts
Feed on blood
Solenophage
Important vectors of disease in humans and domestic animals
Important pests in agricultural settings
Haematopinus suis
Louse of pigs

Pediculus humanis
A.K.A. cooties, nits (eggs)
Definitive Host: Humans
Rarely pigs
Intermediate Host: None
Geographic Distribution: Cosmopolitan
Location on D.H.: Two distinct forms

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 Head Lice P.h. capitis
Found on head
Body Lice P.h. humanus
Found on body and in clothes
Visit body only to feed
Lay eggs and spend time in clothes
Descended from common ancestor
Not yet separate species
Will breed but reduced fertility

Mode of transmission:
Usually direct contact between individuals
including brushing against someone
Also exchanged on brushes, hats, combs, clothing, bedding, etc.
Pathology and Symptoms: Pediculosis
Very little pathology
Louse inserts mouthparts into skin and sucks blood.
Small red papule develop around bite
Causes itching which may lead to secondary bacterial infection
Untreated, it can lead to matting of the hair
Fungus grows in the hair, making it smelly.

Chronic infestations can lead to darkened, thickened skin

Vagabond’s disease
Social stigma
Can be found in very clean children
Particularly common in crowded conditions
Institutions
Classrooms
War / Refugee camps

Allows for passing of the lice between people easier

Vector for several diseases
Louse-borne Typhus, Trench Fever, and Relapsing fever
Particularly body lice

Lice-borne Typhus
Caused by Rickettsia prowazekii, a bacterium
Transmitted mostly by body lice
Epidemics are very common in pre- and post-war situations.
Crowding, stress, poverty and mass migration of people
Very important in shaping the history of Europe in the last century.
Killed Christian and Moorish armies in Spain during 1489-90
1528 epidemic reduced French army from 25,000 to 4,000
Resulted in Spanish dominance in Europe for more than century
Very deadly, mortality may reach 100% in humans
It also kills the louse
Bacteria are transmitted in the feces of the louse.
Humans contract it by rubbing louse feces into wound or eye
Can also inhale it in louse feces

Disease starts with high fever that continues for about two weeks
Continues to malaise, vertigo, loss of appetite, and stupor
Fifth or sixth day, rash appears in armpits and on flanks the spreads to chest, abdomen, back, and ex-
tremities and stays for several weeks
Rarely found on palms, soles, and face
After second week, stupor clears and patient either recovers or the bacteria attacks CNS and patient dies.
Treated with antibiotics

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Both Ricketts and Prowazek, pioneers researching typhus, died from it.

Lice-borne Typhus - Epidemiology

As patient’s fever increases, louse leaves the body
Spread disease to next person
Person can also catch typhus by inhaling louse feces
People who recover from the disease are infective to the lice for several years.
Flying squirrels are reservoir hosts
Becoming popular pets

Trench Fever
Caused by Rochalimaea quintana, a rickettsial bacteria
Transmitted by body lice only.
Epidemics occurred during both World Wars
Not fatal but very debilitating.
Does not kill the louse either so louse remains infective for life.
Humans may have bacteria in blood for eight years after recovery

Person doesn’t develop symptoms for 10-30 days after exposure

Then they experience headache, body pain, and malaise.
Temperature then rises to 40C
Accompanied by headache, pain in back and legs, dizziness, post orbital pain in eyes
Typhus-like rash appears but disappears in 24 hours
Recovery is slow and relapses are frequent.
Tetracycline use for treatment

Relapsing Fever
Caused by Borrelia recurrents, a spirochete bacteria
Transmitted by body lice
Picks up spirochete with blood meal
Human contracts bacteria when crushes louse.
Bacteria enter abraded skin or may penetrate skin
Mortality is usually low.
Can reach 50% in undernourished populations
Has disappeared from U.S.
Small foci in South America, Europe, Africa, and Asia

Indistinguishable from tick-borne relapsing fever caused by another Borrelia.

Incubation period is 2-10 days
Sudden onset of headache, dizziness, muscle pain, and fever.
Rash appears, usually around neck and shoulders then down to abdomen and chest.
Patient is severely ill for 4-5 days then feels better for 3-10 days then another sudden attack.
Cycle may repeat several times
Antibiotics are effective but cause serious side effects.
Frequently co-occurs with Lice-borne Typhus

Control of lice
There are many commercial preparations that are effective against lice.
Shampoos kill the adults
Special combs remove the nits (eggs) from the hairs
Most contain permethrin
Permethrin-resistance is developing
Kerosene and other petroleum products are not effective
Good hygiene practices usually reduces the spread of lice
Ordinary laundering of clothing

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 Not sharing hats, scarves, combs, brushes, etc.

Phthirus pubis – Crab louse

Definitive Host: Humans
Intermediate Host: None.
Geographic Distribution: Cosmopolitan
Location in D.H.: Usually on hairs in the pubic area
Can be located in the armpits.
Rarely in beard, mustache, eyebrows, and eyelashes
Mode of transmission: direct contact with infected body part.

Pathology and Symptoms: Causes “crabs”

Bites cause itchy, weepy welt
Less active than head and body lice
Frequently keeps mouthparts in skin for some time
Bites are usually more irritating
Not a vector for any disease.
Can be treated with the pesticide-laced shampoos and combs used for head lice.

Other important Anoplurans

Haematopinus suis
Normally found on pigs
Can live on humans
Vector for hog cholera
H. eurysternus and H. quadripertusus
Lice on Cattle
H. asini is lice of equines
Solenoptes capillatus found on cattle
Linognathus sp.
Many species that infect cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs
Pediculus mjobergi
Lice in New World Monkeys

Hemiptera –True Bugs

One of the largest insect orders
Over 55,000 species
Hemimetabolous
Nymphs look similar to adults
Most are free-living, non-parasitic
Have sucking mouthparts
Most suck plant juices
Few feed on blood
Mostly in familes Cimicidae and Reduviidae

Family Cimicidae
Small, wingless bugs
Feed on blood of birds and bats
Of 22 genera, 12 are parasites of bats
Bird hosts are species that usually nest in caves
Exception is Oeciacus vicarius which inhabits swallows nesting in colonies
Three species occur in humans
Probably from when we dwelled in caves

Bed bugs

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Three species occur in humans.
Cimex lectularis
Cosmopolitan but most common in temperate zones
Cimex hemipterus
More tropical
Leptocimex boueti
West Africa
Stay on host only 5 to 10 minutes to feed at night
Spend rest of time in bed or crevices in house
Do not carry disease
Very irritating
Can cause anemia
Bites may cause allergic reaction
Can survive up to 18 months

Bed bugs - control

Live in seams of mattresses, box springs, wooden bedsteads, cracks in walls, and behind wallpaper
May be some distance from host
Can be moved from one site to another by used furniture
Only one female needed to create new infestation
Application of residual insecticides can control bedbugs
Cleanliness also helps
Follow temperature or carbon dioxide gradient to find host

Family Reduviidae
A.K.A. – Kissing bugs
Most feed on insects
Assasin bugs
Reduvius personatus eats bedbugs!
Most can bite humans
usually used only in defense
Subfamily Triatominae
Specialize in biting animals and taking blood meals
Not very host specific
Species that feed on humans will also feed on dogs, cats, rats, and other animals in the house
Live in the habitat of the host
Including human dwellings

Subfamily Triatominae
Important vectors of Trypanosoma cruzi
Chagas’ disease
All Triatomines are suitable hosts for T. cruzi.
But differ in susceptibility
Studied 11 species
Dipetalogaster maximus and Triatoma rubrovaria pass the most trypomastigotes
Triatoma vittceps passed the fewest.
Also depends on its domesticity
Panstrongylus megistus, Triatoma infestans, T. dimidiata, and Rhodnius prolixus are most important
vectors
Live in human dwellings

Control
Reduce living spaces for bugs
Replace thatched roof with roof tiles or sheet metal
Cover dirt floors

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 Remove stacked firewood from side of house
Reduce alternate foods like rats, dogs, and cats
Residual insecticides around hiding places
Southern Cone Initiative
South and Central America
Reducing incidence of T. cruzi
Killing bugs and limiting hiding places
Testing blood donors for T. cruzi

Found throughout the U.S. from New England to California

Trypanosoma cruzi is also found throughout the U.S. in wildlife
Including wood rates, raccoons, opossums, and skunks
Only a few human cases of Chagas’ disease occur annually
Particularly in Arizona

Order Siphonaptera: Fleas

2500 species
Most are less than a millimeter to a few millimeters long
Most are parasites of mammals
About 100 species occur on birds
Wingless
Adults feed exclusively on blood
Piercing/sucking mouthparts
Larva are usually not parasitic, feeding on debris in nests or other habitats or on feces of adults
Holometabolous development
Larvae undergo metamorphosis

Amazing jumping ability

Xenopsylla cheopis can jump more than 100 x body length
Ctenocephalides sp. have vertical jump of 33 cm
Equivalent to you jumping 800 feet into the air
Due to unusual structure inherited from winged ancestors
Resilin is a very elastic protein
Releases 97% of stored energy instantly
Compared to 85% in rubber
Found where the wings used to be joined to the body, now attached to hind legs
Flea “cocks” its hind legs and walks rests on front four
Stretches the Resilin and stores the energy
Flea just has to make small muscle movement of back legs to release cocked resilin

Live in the host’s lair

Nests
Carpets
Bedding
Can survive long periods without food
P. irritans – 125 days
X. cheopis – 38 days
Can survive long periods when feed regularly
P. irritans – 513 days
X. cheopis – 100 days
Require high humidity

Most fleas lay eggs on body of host

They usually fall off into the nest/lair
Two genera have reproductive cycles closely tied to host
Spilopsyllus sp. and Cediopsylla sp.
Relatively sedentary
Attaches to hosts (usually rabbits) ears

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 About 10 days before female gives birth, fleas become sexually mature
When rabbit gives birth, fleas migrate to females face then leap onto newborns
Mate and lay eggs on young
Return to female after laying eggs

Most fleas are not very host specific

But they do have preferred hosts
Transfer easily to another host of another species
Name usually refers to the preferred host
Pulex irritans – Human flea
Ctenocephalides canis – dog flea
Ctenocephalides felis – cat flea
19 species bite humans in the U.S.
Over 50 genera have been found to be potential vectors of human diseases
Particularly Plague

Vary in how much time they spend on host

Some rodent fleas are seldom on the host but are abundant in the nest
Conorhinopsylla and Megarthroglossus
Most spend most of their time on host as adults but transfer easily to another host
Females of the sticktight flea, Echidnophaga gallinacea, attach permanently to host skin
The female of Tunga penetrans burrows beneath skin and becomes endoparasite
Larvae of Uropsylla tasmanica are endoparasites under the skin while adults live on skin of host
(Tasmanian Devils).
Glaciopsyllus antarcticus spends entire adult lives on hosts, ocean-going birds

Family Ceratophyllidae
Northern Rat Flea
Nosopsyllus fasciatus
Common in domestic rats and mice
Probably spreads plague between rodents
Ground Squirrel Flea
Diamanus montanus
Common in wild rodents in western U.S.
May spread plague between wild rodents
Western Chicken Flea
Ceratophyllus niger
Will bite humans
European Chicken Flea
Ceratophyllus gallinae
Parasitizes wide variety of birds

Family Pulicidae
Most important medically as vectors for plague
Human Flea
Pulex irritans
Found on pigs, dogs, coyotes, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, burrowing owls
Seems to prefer dogs to humans
Very important vector for plague
Sticktight flea
Echidnophaga gallinacea
Burrows mouthparts into skin and stays on host
Prefers chickens but occurs on ears of dogs, cats, horses, rabbits and other animals, including hu-
mans
Can cause death in heavy infestation

Dog Flea

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 Ctenocephalides canis
Cat Flea
Ctenocephalides felis
More common on dogs than dog flea in N. America
Wide range of mammals including humans, horses, skunks, foxes, mongooses, koalas, and poultry
Very annoying pest of humans
Non-pathenogenic
Rarely carry plague
Can cause allergies
Flea feces have over 15 allergens
About $1billion dollars per year spent on flea treatments
Found throughout U.S. except mid- to north- Rocky Mountain areas

Oriental or Tropical Rat Flea

Xenopsylla cheopis
Cosmopolitan distribution, except cold climates
Found in the U.S. as far north as New Hampshire, Minnesota, and Washington (state)
Usually found on Rats (Rattus sp.)
Most important vector of the plague in humans
Also important vector of murine typhus

Family Tungidae
Tunga penetrans
A.K.A. sand flea, chigoe, jigger
Female burrows into skin and engorges on blood
When she crawls in, she is barely 1mm long
Expands to size of pea
Male mates with her through hole is skin she leaves
She lays eggs in cavity and larvae crawl out after hatching

Tunga penetrans
Original range was Central and South America and West Indies
Introduced to Africa and spread to India
Can occur in humans
Particularly under the nails and on the feet
Called jiggers because causes people to “jig” about
Also found on dogs, particularly between the pads of feet
Causes nasty ulcerations and very itchy allergic reaction
Tetanus and gangrene are occasional complications
Autoamputation can also occur
Surgical removal is the only treatment
Prevention by wearing shoes

Plague
A.K.A. Black death or Bubonic Plague
Caused by bacterium Yersinia pestis (aka Pasturella pestis)
Bacteria releases toxins
Toxins act on the mitochondria
Some animals are mores sensitive to toxins than others
Rats, mice, and humans are sensitive
Dogs, monkeys, and chimpanzees are not
Rodents are reservoir hosts
Most, if not all, populations of rodents are infected
Fleas are vectors
Particularly Xenopsylla cheopis
Transmitted in blood meal

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Very important disease in human history
Major outbreaks in 6th, 14th and 17th century in Europe.
90% of people exposed died!
Pandemic in 14th century killed ¼ the population of Europe, 25 million people
Last pandemic was 1895-1908
Started in Orient then spread throughout world
Most common in port cities
Incidence around the world is declining
Between 1900-1957, 941 cases in U.S. with 711 fatalities (75%)
Between 1958-1972, there were only 51 cases in U.S. with 9 fatalities (17%)
Not clear why there has been a decline

Three forms of plague: bubonic, primary pneumonic, and primary septicemic

Bubonic plague
Starts with buboes
Occurs in only 75% of cases
Hardened, swollen lymph nodes10
As large as chicken eggs
May rupture to the outside
Most common type in epidemics
About 25% to 50% fatalities

Primary Pneumonic
Rapidly moves to the lungs
Causes pneumonia-like symptoms
Highly contagious
Coughing, sneezing or talking spreads bacteria in saliva spray
Primary Septicemic
Systemic blood disease with little or no lymph node swelling
Can cause parts of body to become black and necrotic
Hence the name Black Death
Can also develop secondarily in bubonic and primary pneumonic plagues
Both forms are usually fatal

Incubation period is 2-4 days after flea bite

Starts with rapid rising fever up to 40C
Lymph nodes draining area near bite swell and become necrotic
Damage to vascular and lymphatic endothelium leads to petechial diffuse hemorrhages.
As disease progresses, there is mental dullness, followed by anxiety or excitement, then delirium, leth-
argy, and coma.
Untreated, person usually dies in less than five days
Only three days in primary septicemic plague
If patient recovers, fever drops in two to five days
Treatment is with antibiotics and antitoxins
Vaccination available if traveling

Campestral plague
Associated with open country, not woodlands or towns.
Rarely causes epidemics
Widespread in wild rodents and rabbits in western U.S.
People are exposed when they handle wild animals
Most cases are from New Mexico
One case in California was due to hunting ground squirrels
Hunter contracted bubonic plague with secondary pneumonic plague
Spread to 13 other people, 12 of whom died
Several cases have been associated with skinning, cooking, and eating wild rabbits and hares when
they are bitten by the rabbits fleas

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Although the disease in humans is in decline, we don’t know why
Has always been a cyclical disease
Long periods of low incidence followed by epidemics
Clearly still common in rodents in the wild
We don’t know when or where the next outbreak will occur

Murine Typhus
A.K.A. Flea-borne Typhus
Caused by Rickettsia mooseri
Can infect wide range of mammals, including opossum
Most important reservoir is Norway Rat Rattus novegicus
Causes mild fever in humans for 14 days
Includes chills, severe headaches, body pains and rash
More severe in the elderly
Transmitted by flea bite or by rubbing flea feces into wound
Very common in U.S. before 1945
Rat and flea control has reduced incidence

Hyperparasitism
Dipylidium caninum
Uses C. felis, C. canis and P. irritans as I.H.
Trypanosoma lewis
Parasite of rodents
Uses N. fasciatus as a vector
Hymenolepis nana and H. diminuta
Can develop in X. cheopis, C. felis, C. canis and P. irritans
Dipetalonema reconditum
Filarial worm of dogs
Uses C. canis and C. felis

Control of fleas
Important to prevent/reduce diseases they carry
Keep house clear of debris where they can live
Particularly carpets and pet bedding
Use persistent insecticides on carpets
Air conditioners/dehumidifiers
Light-traps, yellow-green filters may work
Insect repellants offer some protection
Oral and topical treatments for pets have been developed
Insect growth hormone inhibitor
Dips and shampoos need to repeated frequently because dogs and cats are frequently reinfected outside.
Keep debris outside to a minimum

Order Diptera: Flies

Over 120,000 species in 140 families
15 families have parasitic species
Most important order medically
Important vectors for many diseases and parasites
Characterized by having only one pair of wings
Holometabolic development
Larval stages (maggots) look very different than the adults
Undergoes complete metamorphosis

Suborder Nematocera
Family Psychoidae – moth flies and sand flies
Family Culicidae – Mosquitoes
Family Simuliidae – Black flies

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 Family Ceratopogonidae - biting midges
Suborder Brachycera
Family Tabanidae – deer fly, horse flies
Family Chloropidae – eye gnats
Family Glossinidae - Tsetse flies
Family Hippoboscidae – Louse flies
Families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae – bat flies, bat spiders
Family Fanniidae – Latrine flies
Family Muscidae – House Flies
Family Calliphorida – blow flies
Family Sarcophagidae – flesh flies
Family Oestridae – bot flies

Family Psychodidae
Two groups
Subfamily Psychodinae
Moth flies
Little medicinal importance
Breed around sewage and cesspools
Subfamily Phlebotominae
Sand flies
Females feed on blood
Telmophage
Males feed on plant juices
Vectors for Leishmania sp., Carrion’s disease, and sand fly fever

Sand Flies
Three important genera
Phlebotomus and Sergentomyia in the Old World
Lutzomyia in the New World
Weak flyers
Most active at night or twilight
Inactive if there is any wind
Usually avoid hot, dry places
Few desert species are active when it is humid, hiding during the day
Coincides with the activity pattern of humans in the area.

Carrion’s Disease
Caused by Bartonella bacilliformis, a bacteria
Most common in Ecuador, s. Columbia, and Andean region of Peru
Two clinical forms
Oroya fever
Sometimes fatal, visceral form with bone, joint, and muscle pains, anemia, and jaundice
Verruga peruana
Mild, nonfatal cutaneous form
Named after Daniel Carrion who studied the disease
Injected himself with the bacteria from a patient with verruga peruana
Developed Oroya fever
Just before he died, he realized they were caused by the same organism.

Sand Fly Fever

A.K.A. Papatasi or Three-day Fever
Transmitted by Phlebotomus papatasi and P. sergenti.
Occurs in Mediterranean, eastward to central Asia, southern China, and India
Nonfatal, viral disease of short duration.
Long convalescence

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Epidemics can occur

Family Cuculicidae - Mosquitoes

Most important vector of human disease
Extremely important economically
Feed on birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians
Over 3500 species, including 150 in North America

Mosquito life cycle

Females feed on blood
Males do not
Eggs are usually laid in water
Larval and pupal stages develop in water
Connected to surface with air tube
Pupa is actually active
Adult female lives 4-5 months during hibernation, but 2 weeks during summer
Males can live up to 1 month

Mosquitoes
Understanding behavior is important in controlling them and the diseases they transmit
Some are very host specific, others are not
Some feed at night, others during the day
Some breed and feed close to humans, others far away
Species vary in their susceptibility to the pathogens they transmit
Appears to be a genetic resistance

Culex sp.
Mostly feed on birds
Important as vectors of bird malarial parasites
Overwinter as inseminated females
Culex tarsalis
Widespread and common in semiarid western U.S. and southern states to Indiana
Vector for Western Equine Encephalitis (WEE) and St. Louis Encephalitis (SLE)
May also transmit West Nile Virus

Culex pipiens
Common house mosquito
Found worldwide around humans
Lay eggs in all sorts of small water bodies
Enters house at night to bite
Vector for SLE, Wucheria bancrofti, Dirofilaria immitis, avian pox, and several avian malaria
Probably a vector of West Nile Virus

Aedes sp.
Noted for their ferocity
Feed during day or crepuscular (dusk and dawn)
Aedes dorsalis and Aedes vexan most common species in the U.S.
Aedes sollicitans
Flood water mosquitoes in eastern 2/3 of the U.S.
Snow-water mosquitoes
Females lay eggs in summer where they will be covered next spring by snow melt
Aedes taeniorhynchus
Black Salt marsh mosquito

Aedes triseriatus
Tree-hole breeder east of the Rockies

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 Vector of LaCrosse Encephalitis
Aedes albopictus
Asian Tiger Mosquito
Will breed in small containers
Introduced to U.S.
Important vector for dengue, dengue hemorrhagic fever, equine encephalitis, yellow fever, and La-
Crosse Encephalitis

Aedes aegypti
Tree-hole breeder
Adapted to breed in small pools near humans
Very important vector for disease
Wide distribution from 40oN to 40oS around world
Originated in Africa and spread with slave trade
Most important vector for Dengue and yellow fever

Yellow Fever
Caused by Flavivirus
Frequently fatal disease
Vaccines are now available
Caused several epidemics after introduction to New World

Anopheles sp.
Eggs are laid on water
Most breed in stagnant mangrove swamps, sunny pool, edges of trickling streams.
Feed with body slanted away from host.
Very important vectors of human malaria
Primary vectors in U.S. were A. quadrimaculatus and A. freeborni.

Mosquito control
Eliminate breeding sites
Used tires, cans, other trash that holds water
Tree-holes
Use copper-lined vases for cemetery flowers
Biological control
Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis) eat larvae
Great for outdoor ponds and animal water troughs
Larval mosquitoes of Toxorhynchites genus eat other mosquito larvae
Nematode parasites
Insecticides
Many environment costs
Resistance develops

Black Files, Buffalo Gnats

May be tan or gray
Female feed on blood or plant nectar
Males feed on plants only
Most numerous in north temperate and subarctic zones
Larval development only in running, well-oxygenated water.
Much more common around seeps, streams, and rivers
Takes about 7-12 days
Some over winter as larvae

Family Simuliidae
Simulium is the largest genus
More than 1200 species
Prosimulium and Cnephia are found in North America

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Most are host specific and few bite humans
But those that do are very annoying
Take a chunk of skin and muscle
Can cause a nasty reaction if person is allergic
They can actually cause the death of cattle because they are so numerous
Family Simuliidae
Particularly sensitive people may suffer Black Fly Fever
Combination of nausea, headache, fever, and swollen limbs
Vector for Onchocerca volvulus
Cause of river blindness
Mostly Simulium sp.
Also vector of many non-human diseases
Onchocerca gibsoni
Infects cattle
Results in low-quality leather and losses in cattle industry
Leucocytozoon sp.
Causes avian malaria
DEET-based sprays are usually effective to prevent bites
The flies will still annoy you.

Family Ceratopogonidae
Biting midges, punkies, no-see-ums
Less than 1 mm long
Can enter house through screens
Only females feed on blood
Most feed on other insects and ectothermic vertebrates
Four genera bite mammals, including humans
Larval can develop in moist soil as well as in water and salt water
Take six months to one year to complete development

Largest genera is Culicoides

Over 1000 species
Some bite humans
Can affect tourism in infested areas
Several are agricultural pest
Vector for Mansonella nematodes in humans
Vector for Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus in birds,
Vector for Onchocerca gibsoni in cattle, O. cervicalis in horses, and other filarial worms.
May be a vector for encephalitis
Vector for bluetongue
Fatal disease in sheep and cattle
Caused by Orbivirus

Order Diptera
Suborder Nematocera
Family Psychoidae – moth flies and sand flies
Family Culicidae – Mosquitoes
Family Simuliidae – Black flies
Family Ceratopogonidae - biting midges
Suborder Brachycera
Family Tabanidae – deer fly, horse flies
Family Chloropidae – eye gnats
Family Glossinidae - Tsetse flies
Family Hippoboscidae – Louse flies
Families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae – bat flies, bat spiders
Family Calliphorida – blow flies
Family Sarcophagidae – flesh flies
Family Oestridae – bot flies

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 Family Tabanidae
Horse Flies, Deer Flies
About 4000 species
Tabanus - horse flies
Chrysops – deer flies
Females take blood meal
Take chunk of skin and feed on pool of blood
Bite is painful trigger little reaction
Serious pest to humans and livestock
Vector for
Loa loa
Trypanosoma evansi and T. theileri
Elaeophora schneideri
Hog Cholera
Anthrax

Family Chloropidae
Eye Gnats
Look like tiny house flies
Buzz around head and try to land on eye
Lap up eye secretions
Develop in soil
May be mechanical vector of pink eye (bacterial conjunctivitis)

………
Family Glossinidae
Tsetse flies
Glossina only genus
Of 23 species, only 3 are not vectors for Trypansoma brucei
Found in Africa and Arabian peninsula
Both sexes take blood meals
Telmophagous
Do not lay eggs
Female gives birth to single, completely developed larvae
Feed in oviducts on specially produce milk
Larvae then burrow into soil and pupate

Family Hippoboscidae
Louse flies
Both sexes take blood meal.
In most species, males have wings, females wingless
Females give birth to larvae that are ready to pupate
Some spend entire life cycle on same animal
Most are parasites of birds and mammals
Only a few bite humans

Family Hippoboscidae

Pseudolynchia canariensis parasite of pigeons

Vector for Haemaproteus columbae
Melophagus ovinus
Sheep ked
Larvae cement themselves to wool to pupate
Spends entire life on animal

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 Heavy infestations cause emaciation, anemia
Also bites sheep shearers

Families Streblidae and Nycteribiidae

Bat flies
Poorly known
Strebilids
6 species in North America
New World Bats
Nycteribiids
Bat spider flies
Look like 6-legged spiders
5 species in North America
Old World Bats

Family Muscidae
House flies
Most are not parasitic
Do not ingest blood
Important carriers of disease
Body construction favors carrying bacteria and parasite eggs/cysts
Relish human food and human waste
Live close to humans and enter houses
Can transmit typhoid fever, cholera, polio, hepatitis, salmonella, anthrax, leprosy, and even eggs of As-
caris lumbricoides

Stomoxys calcitrans
Stable fly
Cosmopolitan
Both sexes feed on blood
Can occur in great numbers
Can transmit many livestock diseases
Including brucellosis, relapsing fever, equine swamp fever, etc.
Vector for the horse stomach nematode Habronema microstoma

Myiasis
Infection by fly maggots
Usually have opening so insect can get oxygen
Discomfort of host varies by species of fly
Caused primarily by three families
Calliphoridae – bot flies
Sarcophagidae – flesh flies
Oestridae – skin bots and warbles
May be obligate or facultative.

Maggots can be used in therapy

Eat necrotic tissue and leave the healthy tissue alone
Used in World War I to clear wounds
Reduces infections in the wounds and speeds healing of wound

Family Calliphoridae
Blow Flies
Primary niche is to digest dead tissue
Most are facultative parasites
Enter wounds created by other means
Feed on debris in the wound
Protocalliphora spp.
Important parasite of birds

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Cochiliomyia hominivorax
Primary screwworm
Obligate
Most important cause of myiasis in humans
Enter a wound already present on skin

Family Sarcophagidae
Flesh Flies
Most larvae are facultative parasites of invertebrates
Wohlfartia vigil and W. opaca are important causes of cutaneous myiasis in U.S.
Larvae penetrate the skin
Most common in infants left unattended outdoors
Creates a nasty boil in skin

Family Oestridae
Skin Bot Flies, Head maggots, cattle grubs, ox warbles, heel flies, stomach bots
Larvae penetrate the skin
Dermatobia hominis is the most common skin bot in humans
Lay egg on other parasite
When other parasite feeds, egg hatches and larvae drops onto skin
Common from Mexico through South America
Cuterebra most common skin bot in wild animals
Can infect humans
Family Oestridae
Head Maggots develop in sinuses and nasal passages of hoofed mammals
Oestrus ovis – sheep bots
Stomach bots
Found in horses, rhinos, and elephants
Eggs are laid on hairs
Hatch when they are licked up by host
Burrow into tongue, down to stomach, and become endoparasites
Pass out in feces and pupate in soil
All myiasis can be fatal if larvae infect brain

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