Re: siklus krebs by Bambang Heri Gunawan - Saturday, 20 May 2006, 10:17 AM A Respirasi yaitu suatu proses pembebasan

energi yang tersimpan dalam zat sumber energi melalui proses kimia dengan menggunakan oksigen. Dari respirasi akan dihasilkan energi kimia ATP untak kegiatan kehidupan, seperti sintesis (anabolisme), gerak, pertumbuhan. Contoh: Respirasi pada Glukosa, reaksi sederhananya: C6H,206 + 6 02 > 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + Energi (gluLosa) Reaksi pembongkaran glukosa sampai menjadi H20 + CO2 + Energi, melalui tiga tahap : 1. Glikolisis. 2. Daur Krebs. 3. Transpor elektron respirasi. 1. Glikolids: Peristiwa perubahan : Glukosa Glulosa - 6 - fosfat Fruktosa 1,6 difosfat 3 fosfogliseral dehid (PGAL) / Triosa fosfat Asam piravat. Jadi hasil dari glikolisis : 1.1. 2 molekul asam piravat. 1.2. 2 molekul NADH yang berfungsi sebagai sumber elektron berenergi tinggi. 1.3. 2 molekul ATP untuk setiap molekul glukosa. 2. Daur Krebs (daur trikarbekdlat): Daur Krebs (daur trikarboksilat) atau daur asam sitrat merupakan pembongkaran asam piravat secara aerob menjadi CO2 dan H2O serta energi kimia 3. Rantai Transportasi Elektron Respiratori: Dari daur Krebs akan keluar elektron dan ion H+ yang dibawa sebagai NADH2 (NADH + H+ + 1 elektron) dan FADH2, sehingga di dalam mitokondria (dengan adanya siklus Krebs yang dilanjutkan dengan oksidasi melalui sistem pengangkutan elektron) akan terbentuk air, sebagai hasil sampingan respirasi selain CO2. Produk sampingan respirasi tersebut pada akhirnya dibuang ke luar tubuh melalui stomata pada tumbuhan dan melalui paru-paru pada peristiwa pernafasan hewan tingkat tinggi. Ketiga proses respirasi yang penting tersebut dapat diringkas sebagai berikut: PROSES AKSEPTOR ATP 1. Glikolisis: Glukosa > 2 asam piruvat 2 NADH 2 ATP 2. Siklus Krebs: 2 asetil piruvat > 2 asetil KoA + 2 C02 2 NADH 2 ATP 2 asetil KoA > 4 CO2 6 NADH 2 PADH2 3. Rantai trsnspor elektron respirator: 10 NADH + 502 > 10 NAD+ + 10 H20 30 ATP 2 FADH2 + O2 > 2 PAD + 2 H20 4 ATP Total Kesimpulan : Pembongkaran 1 mol glukosa (C6H1A206) + O2 sebanyak 38 ATP. 38 ATP

> 6 H20 + 6 CO2 menghasilkan energi

http://els.fk.umy.ac.id/mod/forum/discuss.php?d=468&parent=2278 Siklus asam sitrat

Molekul I. Sitrat II. cis-Akonitat

nzim 1. Akonitase 2. Akonitase

Tipe raksi Dehidrasi Hidrasi

Raktans/ Hasil/ Konzim Konzim H2O H2O

III. Isositrat IV. Oksalosuksinat V. Ketoglutarat VI. SuksinilKoA VII. Suksinat VIII. Fumarat IX. L-Malat

3. Isositrat dehidrognase 4. Isositrat dehidrognase 5. -Ketoglutarat dehidrognase 6. Suksinil-KoA sinttase 7. Suksinat dehidrognase 8. Fumarase 9. Malat dehidrognase

Oksidasi Dekarboksilasi

NAD+

NADH + H+

Oksidatif NAD+ + dekarboksilasi KoA-SH Hidrolisis Oksidasi Adisi (H2O) Oksidasi Kondensasi GDP + Pi FAD H2O NAD+

NADH + H+ + CO2 GTP + KoA-SH FADH2

NADH + H+

X. Oksaloasetat 10. Sitrat sintase XI. Asetil-KoA

Jumlah sadaya raksi na daur asam sitrat, nyata: Asetil-KoA + 3 NAD+ + FAD + GDP + Pi + 2 H2O KoA-SH + 3 NADH + H+ + FADH2 + GTP + 2 CO2 + 3 H+
Dua karbon dioksidasi jadi CO2, nergi nu dihasilkeunana disimpen na ATP (ATP mangrupa "alat tukeur nergi universal" sl), NADH, jeung FADH2. NADH jeung FADH2 mangrupakeun konzim (molekul nu ngafungsikeun atawa ngaronjatkeun fungsi nzim) nu neundeun nergi, nu bisa dipak nalika butuh.
PEMBEBASAN ATP oleh SK Rx dikatalisis oleh Metode produksi ATP Isositrat DH A-Ketoglutarat DH Suksinat tiokinase Suksinat DH Malat DH Oksidasi NADH pada Rantai Res Oksidasi NADH pada Rantai Res Fosforilasi pada level substrat Oksidasi FADH2 pada Rantai Res Oksidasi NADH pada Rantai Res

ATP yang terbentuk 3 3 1 2 3 Net 12

Where are neurotransmitters made and how are they packaged? Small neurotransmitters (like NO and CO ) are synthesized at the presynaptic terminals of a neuron using enzymes manufactured in the cell body. Neurotransmitter precursors are pulled into the cell at the synaptic terminal and used to create neurotransmitter molecules that will be loaded into vesicles before being dumped into the synapse. See diagram below, part B.In contrast, larger polypeptide neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine and serotonin tend to be synthesized in the cell body of the neuron by the rough endoplasmic reticulum before being packaged into vesicles by the Golgi apparatus. These peptide neurotransmitters may undergo further processing inside the vesicles as well. See diagram below, part C. So how do the peptide neurotransmitters get from the cell body to the terminal end of the axon?Fast axonal transport allows vesicles to travel as fast as 400 mm/day (as opposed to ~5 mm/day for the slow axon transport that carries enzymes to the axon terminus). In this fast mode of transport vesicles are moved along long microtubule "tracks" by ATP-driven motor proteins. What happens to neurotransmitters after they are released into the synpase?Once the vesicle holding a neurotransmitter merges with the presynaptic terminal membrane of the neuron, the neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synapse. They then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, opening specific ion channels there. After release neurotransmitter molecules may diffuse away from the synapse, may be broken down by an enzyme (ex. acetylcholinesterase), or may be taken up by a neuron via a membrane protein transporter. In any case, the effect of the neurotransmitter is brief as quick, prompt removal of the neurotransmitter terminates signal transmission. See diagram below, part A, #5. The synthesis, packaging, secretion, and removal of neurotransmitters. (A) The life cycle of transmitter agents entails (1) neurotransmitter synthesis, (2) packaging into vesicles, (3) fusion of vesicles resulting in neurotransmitter release, and (4) activation of postsynaptic receptors. Neurotransmitters are then removed from the synaptic cleft (5). In many cases, the neurotransmitter and/or a breakdown product is reused for neurotransmitter synthesis. (B) Smallmolecule neurotransmitters are synthesized at nerve terminals. The enzymes necessary for neurotransmitter synthesis are made in the cell body of the presynaptic cell (1) and are transported down the axon by slow axonal transport (2). Precursors are taken up into the terminals by specific transporters, and neurotransmitter synthesis and packaging take place within the nerve endings (3). After vesicle fusion and release (4), the neurotransmitter may be enzymatically degraded. The reuptake of the neurotransmitter (or its metabolites) starts another cycle of synthesis, packaging, release, and removal (5). (C) Peptide neurotransmitters, as well as the enzymes that modify their precursors, are synthesized in the cell body (1). Enzymes and propeptides are packaged into vesicles in the Golgi apparatus. During fast axonal transport of these vesicles to the nerve terminals (2), the enzymes modify the propeptides to produce one or more neurotransmitter peptides (3). After vesicle fusion and exocytosis, the peptides diffuse away and are degraded by proteolytic enzymes (4). 2001 by Sinauer Associates, Inc. Source of figure and caption text: Figure 6.6 in Neuroscience, 2nd edition, edited by Dale Purves.

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How Does This Message Get Across?

This is where the electrical message now becomes a chemical 1, the chemicals used are called neurotransmitters. At the synaptic terminal the electrical impulse triggers the migration of small synaptical vesicles (found in the tip of the Axon) which contain neurotransmitters toward the presynaptic membrane. The vesicle's

membrane will fuse with the presynaptic membrane and this allows the release of the neurotransmitters into the gap.The neurotransmitters molecules now diffuse across the synaptic cleft where they can bind with receptor sites (proteins) on the post synaptic ending now triggering an electrical response in the post synaptic neuron. (This post synaptic ending can be either a dendrite, axon or a cell body.)The neurotransmitter which were attracted by the receptors fit into them like keys in a keyhole.

When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the post synaptic side of the synapse, it changes the post synaptic cell's excitability, which means that the cell is either more or less likely to fire an action potential. If the number of excitatory post synaptic events is large enough then action potential will occur in the receiving cell and there will be a continuation of the "message", otherwise the neurotransmitters are said to be inhibitory. Simplified this means that once the neurotransmitters are attached to the receptors they either produce "go" signals allowing the message to continue through to the next neuron or "stop" signals, inhibiting the signal altogether. Since a single receiving neuron may have thousands of receptor sites, which results in receiving many different messages, the brain will have to work hard to figure out what signal to pass on and which 1 to stop. It adds together all the different messages and then decides which 1's to allow through on to the next neuron and which not.
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