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EVOLUTION
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

The study of history of life forms on earth is known as evolutionary biology. Evolution is the changes in flora and fauna that have occurred over millions of years on earth. Origin Of Life The universe is very vast and it is very old. Its age is about 20 million years (1 billion =100 crores). The universe is composed of huge clusters of galaxies. Galaxies are formed of stars and clouds of gas and dust. When we consider the size of universe, earth is indeed a speck. The big bang theory The big bang theory explains the origin of universe. As per this theory the universe originated about 20 billion years ago by a thermo nuclear explosion. In the universe, hydrogen and helium are formed sometimes later and these gases are condensed under gravitation and formed the galaxies. In the solar system of Milky Way galaxy, the earth was supposed to have been formed about 4.5 billion years back. Initially, it was a hot ball of gases and vapours of various elements. There was no atmosphere on early earth. With the passage of years, the gases condensed into a molten core and different elements got stratified according to their density. The earlier cloud was rich in hydrogen being present in the form of methane, ammonia and water. The UV rays from the sun broke up water into hydrogen and oxygen. Oxygen combined with ammonia and methane to form water, CO2 etc. The atmospheric water vapour condensed into drops and fell as rain on the super heated earth crust which immediately evaporated and returned into the atmosphere. The cycle was continued for millions of ears and resulted in the cooling of earth and hold large water bodies called oceans Life appeared 500 million years after the origin of earth. i.e. almost 4 billion years back. THEORIES OF EVOLUTION Theory Of Panspermia Early Greek thinkers belived that the unit of life is distributed throughout the universe in the form of resistant living spores. These spores reached the earth and developed into organisms. Theory Of Abiogenesis (Spontaneous Generation) This theory was proposed by Aristotle. According to him the life originated spontaneously on earth from non-living things like mud, soil, rotting matter etc. (fishes from mud, insects from decaying meat, frog from moist soil etc.) Experiments of Louis Paster discarded this theory. He showed that in pre-sterilized flasks, life did not come from killed yeast. While in another flask open to air, new living organisms arose from killed yeast.
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Theory Of Chemical Evolution This theory was proposed by Oparin and Haldane. As per this theory life originated from pre existing non- living organic molecules. UREY MILLER EXPERIMENT Oparin and Haldane theory of organic evolution was experimentally proved by Harold C. Urey and Stanely Miller in 1953. To prove this, they designed a glass apparatus as shown below.

Urey and Miller in their experiment created a condition which was similar to that of the primitive earth. In this apparatus they circulated a mixture of water vapour, methane, ammonia and hydrogen. The mixture was treated with high electric lightning shock. The electric shock simulated the lightning of primitive earth. The mixture was the n cooled in a condenser to liquefy and the liquid was collected in another flask. After 2 weeks of treatment the liquid was analyzed by chromatography. They found many simple organic compounds which included amino acids like glycine, alanine, and aspartic acid, fatty acids and some others like urea. From this experiment Miller suggested that electric discharges produced during lightening in the early atmosphere of earth containing ammonia, nitrogen, methane, hydrogen and water might have resulted in the formation of amino acids and other complex organic compounds.
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

CHARLES DARWIN Charles Darwin, the famous English naturalist at the age of 22 in 1831 went for a voyage in the famous ship HMS Beagle. During his voyage he collected a large number of animals and plants and also prepared an extensive note and scientifically documented data on them. On the basis of this detailed study, Darwin put forward his theory known as theory of natural selection or Darwinism. In 1859, Darwin published this work in his famous book entitled The Origin of Species by Natural Selection. According to Darwin, the existing living forms share similarities among themselves and with the life forms that existed millions of years ago. He said that there has been gradual evolution of life forms. Any population has built in variation in characteristics and those characteristics enable some animals to survive better in natural conditions and others perish. Darwin used another word fitness for individual or population. Animals with reproductive fitness produce more progeny than others. Nature promote animals with fitness to survive better (survival of the fittest). Darwin called it natural selection and implied it as a mechanism of evolution. Alfred Wallace a naturalist worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to the same conclusion. EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION Evolution is the development of organisms through time. The evolutionary process cannot be seen by man during his short life span. Hence evolution can be understood only by a comparative study between living and the extinct animals and also evidences from different sources. The most important evidences are, 1. Paleontological evidences 2. Biochemical evidences 3. Morphological evidences 4. Anatomical evidences 5. Embryological evidences Paleontological evidences The study of fossils is called paleontology. The direct and concrete evidences of the process of evolution can be obtained from the study of fossils. The term fossil refers to the remnants of the previously existed animals and plants preserved in the earth crust. Different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life forms who probably died during the formation of the particular sediment. A study of fossils in different sedimentary layers indicates the geological period in which they existed. The study showed that life forms varied over time and certain life forms are restricted to certain geological life spans. Hence, new forms of life have arisen at different times in the history of earth.
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Homologus Organs The organs which are fundamentally similar in structure and origin but adapted for different functions are called homologus organs and this phenomenon is called homology. Example The fore limb of mammals (whales, bats, cheetah, humans etc.) share similarities in the pattern of bones of fore limbs. Though these fore limbs perform different functions in these animals, they have similar anatomical structure- all of them have humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges in their forelimbs. In plants, the thorns and tendrils of Bougainvillea and Cucurbita represents homology.

Divergent Evolution The animals with homologus organs, the same structure developed along different directions due to adaptations to different needs. This indicates that all these animals evolved from a common ancestor and this type of evolution is called divergent evolution.
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Example Fore limb of mammals, vertebrate hearts or brain. Analogus organs The organs which have similar functions but differ in structure and origin are called analogus organs and this phenomenon is called analogy. Eg. Wings of insects and birds are analogus organs. They perform the same function of flying in the air, but their basic structure is totally different Other examples of analogy are the eyes of octopus and of mammals or the flippers of penguins and dolphins. In plants sweet potato (root modification) and potato (stem modification) are other examples. Convergent evolution The origin of analogus organs due to adaptations for life in similar habitats, is known as convergent evolution Biochemical Evidences Similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function among diverse organisms give clues to common ancestry These biochemical similarities point to the same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms. INDUSTRIAL MELANISM Another interesting observation supporting evolution is industrial melanism. It clearly indicates the process of natural selection. In the early part of 19th century England had two types of peppered moths. One of them was grey coloured and the other was black coloured. The grey coloured moths were abundant before industrial revolution, but the black coloured moths were very rare. The grey coloured moths rest on the tree trunk containing grey lichens. The colour of the lichen and the colour of the moths were similar and the colour of the moth easily blended with the dull background of tree trunk. So they escaped from the enemies from predation, while the black coloured ones were easily spotted and eaten by the enemies. With the advent of industrial revolution, large scale burning of coal became common and the soot and smoke produced by the factories got deposited on tree trunks and made them black. As a result the grey moths become more visible than the black moths and were preyed by predators. Thus the number of grey moths decreased considerably. The black coloured moths survived better because they were not easily spotted by the enemies. Gradual replacement of coal by electricity and oil reduced the soot and smoke deposition on tree trunks and the conditions become once again favorable for the survival of grey coloured moths and they started increasing, while the number of black coloured moths decreased due to predation. This is known as industrial melanism.

(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Evolution by anthropogenic action The excess use of pesticides and herbicides leads to the origin of resistant varieties in a time scale of months or years. This type of evolution due to the action of human beings is called evolution by anthropogenic action. Resistance of mosquitoes to pesticides, resistance of antibiotics and drugs by microbes are examples. ADAPTIVE RADIATION The process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area starting from a point and literally radiating to other geographical areas is called adaptive radiation. Example 1 - Darwins finches Darwin observed nearly 20 verities of small birds in Galapagos islands and found similarity with those found in the main land. He noted the difference are only in the size and shape of the beak and in the colour of their plumage. American main land species was the original one. Later some of them migrated to the islands of Galapagos and adapted to the different environmental conditions of the island. This led to the development of various beaks suited for different feed habits. These adapted forms are considered to be new species.

Example 2- Australian Marsupials A number of marsupials, each differ from the other evolved from the central ancestral stock, but all within the Australian island continent.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Example 3, Placental mammals in Australia Placental mammals in Australia also exhibit adaptive radiation. They appear to be similar to corresponding marsupials (e.g. placental wolf and Tasmanian wolf - marsupial). In this example more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in different habitats or isolated geographical area. So it is called convergent evolution.
Placental mammals Australian marsupials Placental mammals Australian marsupials

Convergent evolution in Australian marsupials and placental mammals BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION The key point of Darwinian Theory is natural selection. Environment favours the animals with favourable characters and allows them to inherit and reproduce to increase their numbers. The process of selection of animals with favourable characters is called natural selection. The end result of the ability to adapt and get selected by nature is called fitness. Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concept of Darwinian theory of natural selection. Darwin was much influenced by Thomas Robert Malthus ( 1766-1834). According to him the population grows in geometrical rate(2,4,6,8,16..) whereas the means of food supply increases only in arithmetical rate (1,2,3,4..) Even before Darwin, Jean Baptist Lamark, the French naturalist explained evolution by the teory of inheritance of acquired characters in his famous book, Philosophic Zoologique published in 1809. His evolutionary theory is popularly called Lamarckism or inheritance of acquired characters. Lamarck had said that evolution of life forms had occurred but driven by use and disuse of organs. He gave the example of giraffe who in an attempt toforage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by elongation of their necks.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

As they passed on this acquired character of elongated neck to succeeding generations, giraffe, slowly over the years, came to acquire long necks. Nobody believes this theory any more. MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION Evolution requires genetic variation. In 1901, a Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries believed that new species arise from preexisting one by mutation. Hugo de Vries explained this, based on his study on evening prime rose, Oenothera lamarkiana. Mutations (sudden heritable change in the genotype) are random and directionless while Darwinian variations are small and directional. According to Darwin, evolution was gradual while de Vries strongly belived that mutation caused evbolution and hence called it saltation (single step large mutation). Any way mutation leads to genetic variation and which inturn leads to evolution. HARDY-WEINBERG PRINCIPLE The genetic structure of a non-evolving population is described by Hardy Weinberg law proposed by G.H. Hardy and W. Weinberg independently in 1908. This law states that in a large population, the gene frequencies of various kinds of genes remain constant generation after generation if mating is random and in the absence of mutation, selection and migration. It is also called Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium because the gene frequencies in a population are maintained in a state of equilibrium. This kind of stability at the genetic level is called genetic equilibrium and evolution occurs only when equilibrium is upset. Hardy-Weinberg principle stated it using algebraic equation. Sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1. Individual frequencies can be named as p, q etc. In a diploid, p and q represent the frequency of the allele A and allele a. The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply p2 . Similarly aa is q2 and for Aa it is 2pq. Hence p2 +2pq +q2 = 1 Actually it is the binomial expansion of (p+q)2 . When frequency measured, differs from expected values, the difference indicates the extent of evolutionary change. The Hardy- Weinberg equilibrium is affected by the following factors 1. Gene migration 2. Genetic drift 3. Mutation 4. Genetic recombination 5. Natural Selection Gene migration or gene flow The gene pool is affected by gene migration. It occurs when the members of a population enter a new population. If breeding takes place between the migrating individuals and the new population, naturally the immigrants (migrating individuals) will add new alleles to the local gene pool of the local population. It is known as gene migration. Gene migration results in the formation of fertile hybrids, if the mating individuals are closely related. These hybrids carry genes from species to species. This known as gene flow. (Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Genetic drift The random changes in the allele frequency occurring by chance in small populations are called genetic drift. It was described by Sewall Wright in 1931. Hence it is called Sewall Wright effect. Genetic drift is a sampling error of the gene pool by chance Genetic Recombination The process of reshuffling of genes between non-sister chromatids during meiosis is called recombination. It occurs not only between genes but also within the genes resulting in the formation of a new allele. Natural Selection Mutation produces favourable and unfavourable changes in the population. Environment favours animals with favourable characters and allows them to reproduce and increase in number. The process of selection of animals with favourable characters is called natural selection. FOUNDERS PRINCIPLE This law or principle was proposed by Mayr in 1963. This law states that when a population is established in isolation, its gene pool is not identical with that of the parental population because the founders represent only a minute sample of the parental population. The word founders mean those who are going to establish a new population. For example, from a large population 10 members are migrated to an island to establish new population. These 10 members are called founders. The original drifted population becomes founders and the effect is called founder effect. Operation of natural selection Natural selection is a process in which heritable variations enabling better survival are enabled to reproduce to enhance their numbers. Variations due to mutation, recombination, gene flow, genetic drift etc. results in changed gene frequency in future generation. Natural selection operates the different traits in the following ways. 1. Stabilising selection Stabilizing selection operates in an unchanging environment and it promotes genetically constant population. This selection favours the normal individuals but it eliminates the individuals with special characters. So in the graphical representation peaks get higher and narrower. 2. Directional selection Directional selection operates when the environment is changing in one direction and it produces genetically changed population. This selection favours the specialized individuals and it eliminates the normal individuals. So in graphical representation the peak shifts in one direction. 3. Disruptive selection In an environment containing many and different microhabitats natural selection favours two or more phenotypic characters. This type of natural selection is disruptive selection. So the graph shows two or more peaks of heterogeneous population.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION About 2000 million years ago (mya ) the first cellular forms appeared on earth. Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular life forms. By the time of 500 mya, invertebrates were formed and active. Jawless fish probably evolved around 350 mya. Sea weeds and few plants existed probably around 320 mya. The first organisms that invaded land were plants. They were wide spread on the land when animals invaded land. About 350 mya, fish with stout and strong fins could move on land and go back to water. In 1938, a fish caught in South Africa happened to be a Coelacanth which was thought to be extinct. These animals called lobefins evolved into the first amphibians that lived on both land and water. The amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay thick shelled eggs which do not dry up in sun unlike those of amphibians. In the next 200 millions of years reptiles of different shapes and sizes dominated on earth.
(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Giant ferns (pteridophytes) were present but they fell to form coal deposits slowly. Probably in 200 mya some of the land reptiles went back into water to evolve into fish like reptiles.(eg. Ichthyosaurs). The land reptiles were dominated by dinosaurs. The biggest of them was Tyranosaurus which was about 20 feet height and had huge dagger like teeth. About 65 mya, the dinosaurs suddenly disappeared from the earth. (we do not know the exact reason. Some scientists say that climatic change killed them. Some say most of them evolved into birds. The truth may lie in between. Small sized reptiles of that era still exist today) The first mammals were like shrews. Their fossils are small sized. When reptiles came down mammals took over this earth.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal) (Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF MAN The gradual evolution of man from ape is fully supported by fossils. For convenience, the fossils are arranged in the order of apes, ape-man and primitive man. They are the following. Dryopithecus Exists in about 15 mya, ape like. Hominids and apes evolved from this.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal) (Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)

Ramapithecus It also exist about 15 mya. It is man like. Hairy body and walked like gorilla and chimpanzee. Australopithecus Lived before 2 mya in east African grass lands. They ate fruit and hunted with stone wapons. Homohabilis Lived before 1.6 to 2 mya. Brain capacity is 650-800 cc. Made stone weapons and hunted animals. Homoerectus Fossils discovered in Java in 1891. Lived before 1.5 mya. They ate meat Brain is large with a capacity of 900 cc. Neanderthal man Lived near east and central Africa between 1 lakh to 40,000 years ago. They used hides to protect their body and buried their dead. Brain capacity is 1400 cc. Homosapiens During ice age between 75,000 10,000 years ago modern man arose. They arose in Africa and moved across continents and developed into distinct races. Pre historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago. Agriculture came around 10,000 years back.

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(Dept.of Zoology, GHSS Mylachal)