Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 5 Chapter 2: Overview of the processes of waste water treatment ................................................... 8 2.12.22.32.4Introduction to waste water treatment.................................................................................. 8 Types of waste water .............................................................................................................. 8 Waste water treatment collection system ............................................................................. 9 Stages of waste water treatment ......................................................................................... 10 Preliminary treatment................................................................................................... 10 Primary treatment ........................................................................................................ 11 Secondary treatment .................................................................................................... 11 Tertiary treatment ........................................................................................................ 12

2.4.12.4.22.4.32.4.4-

Chapter 3: Methods of energy recovery in waste water treatment .............................................. 13 3.1Production of bio-gas ............................................................................................................ 13 Anaerobic digestion of sludge to produce methane (bio-gas) ..................................... 13 Sludge fermentation process ........................................................................................ 14 Exploiting the potential of waste water treatment sludge ........................................... 17 South Shore waste water treatment plant ................................................................... 18

3.1.13.1.23.1.33.1.43.2-

Use of hydro-turbines to generate electrical power ............................................................ 21 The fundamentals of hydro-turbines ............................................................................ 21 Applying hydro-turbines to waste water treatment plants .......................................... 24 European waste water treatment plants that have adopted hydro technology .......... 24

3.2.13.2.23.2.33.3-

Electricity generation using microbial fuel cells ................................................................... 28 How microbial fuel cells work ....................................................................................... 28 Microbial fuel cells for waste water treatment ............................................................ 30 Increasing electrical power generation using MFCs .................................................... 32

3.3.13.3.23.3.33.4-

Power generation from plasma processing of sludge .......................................................... 33 How plasma processing works ...................................................................................... 33 The process of plasma gasification and the production of syn-gas .............................. 34 Plasma processing of sewage sludge............................................................................ 34 Possible advantages and disadvantages ...................................................................... 36

3.4.13.4.23.4.33.4.4-

Chapter 4: Case Studies .............................................................................................................. 39 4.1Esholt Waste Water Treatment Plant, Yorkshire, UK ........................................................... 39 1

4.1.14.1.24.2-

Introduction .................................................................................................................. 39 Installation of new hydro-turbines ............................................................................... 39

Ringsend Waste Water Treatment Plant, Ringsend, Dublin ................................................. 42 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 42 Methane recovery from Ringsend waste water treatment plant................................. 42 Potential power generation from hydro-turbines ........................................................ 44

4.2.14.2.24.2.3-

Chapter 5: Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 48 5.1 5.25.35.4Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 48 Overview ............................................................................................................................... 48 Final Comments & Recommendations ................................................................................. 49 References: ........................................................................................................................... 51

Books and Articles: ........................................................................................................................ 51 Websites: ...................................................................................................................................... 51

I hereby certify that this material, which I now submit for assessment on the programme of study leading to the award of Building Services Engineering Ordinary Degree is entirely my own work and has not been taken from the work of others save and to the extent that such work has been cited and acknowledged within the text of my work.

Signed: _____________________ Student No: Date:

Acknowledgement
Firstly, I would like to extend many thanks to my dissertation supervisor ********, for all her effort in helping and guiding me throughout the course of this dissertation. She has been a constant and reliable means of gaining a good understanding of what this research project is really about, and has helped enormously in seeing that the necessary tasks and goals were achieved.

Secondly, I would like to thank Mr. ********** and all the staff of the building services engineering department and the library who have been of constant support over the last 2 years in ensuring that my classmates and I were provided with all the necessary materials we required to complete not just our research projects but our final year as a whole. And finally, I would like to thank my parents, who have also been a constant source of support not only in academic and financial terms but also in life and for that Im forever grateful. To my mum who is severely ill at the moment, I would like to dedicate this to her.

Chapter 1: Introduction
Due to the recent increase in energy prices over the past decade, the running costs of operating waste water treatment plants has increased significantly. The function of waste water treatment plants is to remove contaminants from the water in order to make it safe to be used once again. In doing so, waste water treatment aims to prevent health hazards, protect drinking water supplies, provide suitable water for recreational functions and protect the ecology of our streams, lakes and other water bodies to which waste water is discharged. For these reasons and the growing depletion of the Earths fossil fuel reserve, the need for fuel conservation and energy management in waste water treatment is important. However, if certain systems and processes are used, waste water treatment plants have the potential to recover energy from various parts of the treatment process as society demands increasingly scrupulous treatment to remove nutrients and chemicals from waste water before it is discharged back into waterways. However, energy consumption is coming under increasing questioning, with the financial cost of energy and the cost of energy generation increasing new interest in the conversion of waste water to energy. Incentives such as the emergence of earning carbon credits for keeping greenhouse gas emissions low is also a driving force behind the need for carrying out waste water treatment while also trying to conserve energy. Energy recovery can be offered as a good alternative in the battle to lower fuel consumption. This problem is putting pressure on local governments to seek more energy efficient ways in which to run their waste water treatment plants or indeed build new ones as they consume vast amounts of energy. I will be investigating the potential for energy recovery in waste water systems; technology that is tried, tested and working at present and also technology that is still at the experimental stages but has the potential for more advanced energy recovery in the future as it becomes more refined. Some typical methods that are available at present for recovering energy from waste water are; the collection of bio-gas (methane), generating electricity using hydro turbines, fuel cell technology that generates power while it cleans water and also power generated using plasma processing of sludge.

Some of these methods are being used at present and are providing various waste water plants around the world with considerable savings. For example, the collection of methane gas from the waste water treatment process is not a new technology and is also being used in many waste water treatment plants around Ireland. Ringsend waste water treatment plant in Dublin is one of the biggest in Ireland and is also one of the plants that use this type of energy recovery. Over fifty per cent of the energy needed to operate the plant is generated from the sludge treatment. Sludge is a product of waste water treatments primary and secondary stages which is high in energy and can be used to harness methane gas. At the waste water treatment plant in Ringsend, they use the processes of hydrolysis and digestion to treat the sludge. It is then before thermally dried, in doing so, killing pathogens and producing an organic based fertiliser called bio-fert. At Ringsend waste water treatment plant, they produce nearly twenty five thousand tonnes of bio-fert each year. The sludge digestion process then produces methane as by-product. This alone produces energy to cater for more than half of the heat and electricity required at the waste water treatment plant. This is the main theme of my dissertation. Energy recovery from waste water treatment seems to be an area of energy recovery that doesnt seem to get a lot of attention and is somewhat of an untapped source of energy generation in many ways. Waste water treatment plants have the potential to one day generate their own electrical power and become somewhat self sufficient and become less reliable on the national grid. Some of the treatment plants that are mentioned in this research are producing up to half of their operating needs, while others are selling some of the power generated back to the national grid. Bruce Logan, a professor of Environmental Engineering at Penn State University, USA said, Were using something thought to be completely useless (Ehrenman, 2004) The aim of this research is to provide an insight into some of the methods available for energy recovery in waste water treatment plants that are functional at present and also being developed. In present times, the economic landscape throughout the world demands an energy efficient approach to all types of processes and for this reason, it is in the interests of local governments to put methods like these into practice in order to save on
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energy costs and provide more sustainable and eco-friendly waste water treatment systems.

Chapter 2: Overview of the processes of waste water treatment

2.1Introduction to waste water treatment

Throughout our lives we use water for a whole different range of purposes and in turn it becomes contaminated with many different substances. Water containing human waste will contain disease-causing organisms, or pathogens. Such pathogens can cause diseases such as hepatitis, polio, cholera and dysentery along with many others. The correct form of waste water treatment can effectively help to control these and many other diseases being spread throughout the water systems in which people come into contact with. Oxygen is used in the process whereby organic wastes in water are broken down through natural biological activity. As this occurs in nature such as a lake or a stream, if the content of organic material is high it may actually consume enough of the oxygen in the water that the fish and other aquatic wildlife may die. Water such as this contains a bad odour and is deemed unfit for human consumption. It is also seen as hazardous for such water recreational activities such as swimming. Water that is polluted will be naturally purified by streams and lakes, but this can take large amounts of time and space. In order to combat this, waste water treatment uses biological, physical and chemical methods to minimise the time and space needed for removing contaminants from water.

2.2-

Types of waste water

Waste water can be described as domestic, industrial or storm water. Domestic sources of waste water would include water used for activities carried out in homes, businesses and other small to medium sized commercial buildings. However, classifying industrial waste water is a little more difficult as it depends on the industrial application that the water is being used for. A lot of industrial waste water can be treated the same way as domestic waste water without much complexity but others can contain very dangerous toxic substances or large amounts of organic materials or solids which may make treatment more challenging. If this is the case, it is not uncommon for some industrial plants to pre-treat its
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waste water to remove these contaminants or lower them to more treatable levels before they are released and received into a publicly owned treatment plant. Storm water though usually very low in contaminants often goes to a treatment plant.

2.3-

Waste water treatment collection system

Waste water is collected and transferred to the waste water treatment facility via a network of pipes called a collection system. This network of pipes usually contains some of the following components; building connections, laterals, mains pipes, interceptors, manholes and lift stations. Building connections transport waste from the building to the collection network. As the pipes return to the treatment facility, the diameters of the pipes increase in size. These building connections feed into the smallest pipes of the system and these are called laterals. The mains pipes are larger in diameter and receive flow from numerous laterals. Interceptors however are major sewer pipes receiving flow from mains pipes and transferring it to the treatment facility. Manholes are used for ease of access to the system for tasks such as inspection or maintenance works. These components are installed where problems in the system are most likely to occur such as changes in gradient, alignment, pipe size or shape and also on long, straight runs of pipe work. Lift stations are pump installations that are located at low points on the system where it is not possible to use gravity to move the contents of the pipes through the line to the treatment facility. It is imperative that the system is inspected and cleaned regularly in order to prevent the accumulation of grease, sludge and sediment build-up in the pipe network and should be flushed at regular intervals to avoid unnecessary blockages and pipe deterioration. Infiltration is water that seeps into the collection network caused by broken pipes, root intrusion or joint failure. Additional water like this may pose an excessive load on the treatment facility. Modern equipment is available to combat this problem where a TV camera is inserted inside the sewer pipe where it can correct infiltration by using chemical grout and other methods. In some areas roof drains and catch basins are directly connected to the collection system and can make up a high percentage of the water actually delivered to the waste water treatment facility. This type of water collection is called inflow and this together with infiltration can affect the overall efficiency of the treatment facility as there is no necessity to treat this type of water.

2.4-

Stages of waste water treatment

Waste water treatment facilities are designed to deal with their waste water in a number of stages. The overall focus in waste water treatment is to remove contaminants from the water by methods of getting them to either settle or to float and then removing this material and allowing the left over water to move on to the next stage of treatment. Some contaminants are uncomplicated to remove while others require more sophisticated methods like converting the contaminants to a settle-able form in order for it to be removed. Modern waste water treatment facilities may contain the following stages; influent, preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment, secondary treatment, tertiary treatment, disinfection and effluent discharge, solids handling and sidestreams. Influent is the raw material that has been collected and transferred to the facility for treatment. Influent is the waste water in its purest form and includes the water and debris that entered the collection system. Awareness of the rate of flow of water into the treatment facility is essential as it is the flow that determines how long the waste water will be held in each of the different units in the facility. The rate of flow can vary significantly with the flow usually being much larger during the day when human activities are at their peak and much lower during the night when people are asleep. Efficient operation of the treatment facility also depends on the operators knowledge of exactly what is entering the plant. The types of treatment practiced on the waste water depend on the types of contaminants in the water and as a result of this; the waste water must be tested strenuously in a laboratory to establish what contaminants are present.
2.4.1- Preliminary treatment

Preliminary treatment is the first process of purification in which the influent will meet when it enters the treatment facility. The purpose of this process is to remove large objects from the waste water. This is done in order to prevent the objects from clogging and causing problems with pumps, pipes and other equipment later on in the treatment process. The three main procedures of preliminary treatment are screening, grinding and grit removal. Screening strains out large objects. These objects are either disposed of directly or sent to a grinding station where the debris is ground and shredded and returned to the waste water stream. Grit removal removes sand, gravel and other heavy debris by means of a grit

10

chamber where the water flows slowly through the chamber and the grit settles to the bottom. This is then sent to the landfill to be disposed of or it may however be treated further before disposal.
2.4.2- Primary treatment

Primary treatment is the removal of the huge amounts of small solid particles that are still suspended in the waste water such as silt, clay, algae, bacteria etc. The removal of these small solids is carried out in large basins called primary clarifiers and are also known as sedimentation basins or settling tanks. Inside the clarifiers, the waste water is stored for many hours. This allows gravity to act on the particles by naturally separating the particles that are heavier than water by sinking to the bottom. The build up of particles on the bottom of the clarifier is called primary sludge. The particles that are lighter than water float to the surface creating a scum. The primary sludge and the scum which is removed from the surface of the water are then pumped to the solids-handling area of the plant. The material that neither settles nor floats will overflow the clarifier and this is then transported to secondary treatment. The overflow from the primary clarifier is called primary effluent.

Fig.2.4.1.1- Primary Clarifier Source: http://www.ci.camarillo.ca.us

2.4.3- Secondary treatment

Secondary treatment is the part of the treatment process where the majority of the unsettle-able material in the waste water is converted to a settle-able form. Activated sludge, trickling filtration, activated bio-filtration and rotating biological contactors are all
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variations of secondary treatment. The common denominator between all these variations is that they all utilise a mixture of micro-organisms which grow and form a stable biological mass. The biological mass absorbs and breaks down the organic matter and captures the suspended solids in the waste water. As the biological mass settles, it leaves a clarified effluent. Another type of clarifier is used called a secondary clarifier to settle out the biological or secondary sludge.
2.4.4- Tertiary treatment

The third stage of treatment is called tertiary treatment or advanced waste water treatment. This type of treatment removes pollutants that were missed in the earlier stages of treatment. Tertiary treatment focuses on removing nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, and other inorganic compounds. It also employs the use of chemical and physical processes in order to deal with highly complex organic compounds such as pesticides. Filters such as sand filters may also be used in this stage of treatment to remove suspended solids. Although it is sometimes called the third stage of treatment, it doesnt necessarily have to follow secondary treatment. Tertiary treatment can be integrated into any part of the system depending on the type of waste water treatment and the problem that is trying to be solved. (Delvecchio et al., 1981)

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Chapter 3: Methods of energy recovery in waste water treatment

3.1Production of bio-gas

3.1.1- Anaerobic digestion of sludge to produce methane (bio-gas)

Apart from water, sludge is the most valuable substance left over as a result of waste water treatment. As sludge does not leave the waste water treatment plant directly, it can used as a source of energy. It must contain a certain percentage concentration of organic matter in order to be useful for sludge fermentation. The function of the primary clarifier is to collect primary sludge with a large quantity of organic matter for sludge treatment. Sludge can also be sourced from the biological treatment, although often times this is less rich in fuel. The elimination of gravel and sand signals the commencement of primary sludge treatment. This process is undertaken by hydro-cyclones (which are devices that separate particles in a liquid suspension) and a combination of sand and gravel drops into the sand-washer. The blend is then taken from the waste water treatment plant following washing. Once the sludge enters over the hydro-cyclones, it then flows to the thickening vessels, which are vessels that are round in shape and incorporate scrapers where the sludge is allowed to revolve for approximately a week. Following this, the water is then separated from the residue and the thickened sludge is then transported via pumps to the sludge fermentation vessels. A product which is created by the biological treatment of waste water is excess sludge. However, if the excess sludge and the floating substances contain too much water content to access the sludge fermentation vessels directly, they can then be thickened using thickening centrifuges. This helps to literally squeeze the water out of the sludge. A polymer can be added to the inlet of the centrifuge in order to gather a more even mix. The excess thickened sludge is then prepared for the process of sludge fermentation. (Lockhart, 2002)

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Fig.3.1.1.1- Anaerobic digestion process Source: http://www.sswm.info

3.1.2- Sludge fermentation process

The main purpose of the sludge fermentation process is to consume a portion of the raw matter, which in turn, will reduce the total volume of sludge that will have need of treatment. After this, bio-gas production is the next aim of the treatment process. 65-70 per cent of bio-gas is made up of methane and approximately 30-35 per cent consists of carbon dioxide. The rest of the gas is made up of less significant quantities of other gases such as ammonia. Sludge fermentation incorporates both biological and anaerobic processes, in that they work with particular bacteria in an environment that has a temperature of 35-40 degrees Celsius. The sludge is stored in very large vessels for approximately two and a half to three weeks where the process runs its course. The storage vessels are each installed with plant such as a heat exchanger, heating system and a recirculation pump for the sludge. The vessels are also installed with thermal insulation. The bio-generators produce hot water which is used in the heating system and does not require supplementary energy.

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Fig.3.1.2.1- Sludge fermentation vessel Source: http://www.r-e-a.net

In order to operate the process as efficient as possible, the contents of the storage vessels are continually rotated to guarantee a sufficient contact between the bacteria and the sludge. Due to the diameter of the sludge fermentation vessel, a decent blend is only certain with bio-gas circulation. This is because the bio-gas is drawn in over and above the sludge level, flows through the compressors and is then transported into the vessels which incorporate sprayers. An overflow pipe and an isolation valve are fitted to each fermentation vessel. A large drop pipe is used to transport the sludge to the buffer vessel which deals with fermented sludge and is then passed through to the dewatering centrifuges. The goal of this process is to include a polymer which will aid in the drying out of the sludge which can then be used for incineration following its removal from the waste water treatment plant. Bio-gas is continuously produced in the process where the organic matter is endlessly consumed. Within the sludge fermentation vessels, the bio-gas is harnessed at a level that is higher than that of the sludge and is then moved through a piping network where it is stored in gas membrane vessels. They act like buffer tanks in that they keep the system somewhat pressurised. The internal membranes of the vessels are enclosed by thick layer of strong steel that provides the protection that the vessels require. The gas is transported using miniature compressors from the storage vessels to supply the bio-gas generators where it is burnt to generate electricity which is used for operations
15

within the waste water treatment plant. This type of energy recovery reduces the running costs and allows the waste water treatment plant a degree of energy independence. Heat that is created from the operation of the thermal motors can be reused and can assist in the process of heating up the sludge fermentation vessels to the correct temperature in order to produce a suitable environment for the growth of methanogenic bacteria . (Anthony, 2007) ((Crowe et al., 2009, Zitomer and Adhikari, 2005)

Using the equation below, the volume of methane gas can be calculated throughout the digestion process and can be worked out using:

Where; = volume of methane produced at standard conditions = = = flow rate, m3 /day ultimate biochemical oxygen demand (BODL) in influent, mg/L ultimate biochemical oxygen demand (BODL) in effluent, mg/L = theoretical conversion factor for the amount of methane produced from the complete conversion of 1kg BODL to methane and carbon dioxide, m3 CH4/kg BODL oxidized = net mass of cell tissue produced per day, kg/day

The production of methane gas is typically estimated from the total percentage of volatile solids reduction. Values of methane gas produced can range from 0.75 to 1.12 m 3/kg of volatile solids destroyed. The ultimate capture of methane depends on the composition and biodegradability of the organic feedstock, however, the creation rate will depend on the

16

number of microorganisms present, their growth environment and their fermentation temperature.
3.1.3- Exploiting the potential of waste water treatment sludge

The production of gas can vary over a wide scale depending on the content of the sludge feed and the biological activity in the digester. A per capita basis can be used to roughly approximate the amount of gas which is produced. Normally, the approximate amount captured per person/day is 15 to 22 litres in primary plants which treat domestic waste water. On the other hand, the approximate amount of gas produced per person/day in secondary treatment plants is about 28 litres. (Eddy, 1991)

Table 3.1.3.1 1

Methane production rates Types of waste water Synthetic Domestic Leachate Olive Mill Poultry breeding Cheese whey (Berktay and Nas, 2008) The methane gas must be cleaned once it has been collected from the reactor from other bio-gas constituents e.g. carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and excess moisture. The removal of carbon dioxide is a costly operation and is only financially viable if the gas is to be sold commercially. The use of a scrubber, which is the absorption through a chemical solution, is the most common method of removing carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is removed to in order to decrease the volume and increase the gas value. Following the
17

Rate of methane (m3CH4/kg COD removed) 0.29 0.48 0.227 0.41 0.31 0.34

scrubbing and cleaning of the gas, it can then be stored and accessed for later usage or it can be consumed straight away. The methane can be burned by direct firing or within a gas engine. It can be used as a fuel to power hot water boilers, water pump motors, blowers and electrical generators. That being said, a very common applications for methane gas that is produced is to fire incinerators or burned to heat up the influent sludge during pretreatment. The most beneficial part of the process is when the fuel is consumed by the plant reducing energy costs. However, gas that is excess to operations in the waste water treatment plant can be sold commercially. Methane gas that is produced during the anaerobic digestion process in waste water treatment plants is somewhat comparable to natural gas. In spite of this, the constituent makeup of natural gas is different than methane as it contains a number of other hydrocarbons such ethane, propane and butane. Therefore, the calorific value of natural gas will always be higher than pure methane. The methane content of bio-gas is generally expected to be in the range of between 55-80%. The energy content which is to be expected of pure methane is 9.25-11KW/m3. The energy content for natural gas will be approximately 10% more due to the fact of added gases such as butane being present. At present methane is regularly used in combustion engines to generate electricity. (Berktay and Nas, 2008) It is well known that the recovery of methane gas from waste water treatment plants is not a new technology; however, advancements have been made around the world to speed up the process of methane production and also create more purified methane gas.
3.1.4- South Shore waste water treatment plant

In South Shore waste water treatment plant in the south of Milwaukee, USA, a research study was carried out by Marquette University to investigate how to produce extra methane from municipal anaerobic digesters. Feedstock from four different companies from around the region were used by the research team at Marquette University including waste from the Miller beer company, Lesaffre yeast fermentation, South-eastern Wisconsin Products fermentation and Pandls food restaurant. Bio-solids were mixed with these potent waste products at the South Shore waste water treatment plant. The plant treats approximately 340 million litres of waste water each day. The peak capacity that the plant can treat on any given day is in the region 1.1 billion litres of municipal waste water. A three phase study was
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carried out where the wastes initially examined for biochemical methane potential and were also analysed using anaerobic toxicity assays. Secondly, digesters of a laboratory scale were activated in the laboratory and thirdly, a full scale demonstration was carried out in that the wastes from the four companies mentioned previously were fed to the plants anaerobic digesters. The values for average maximum BMP (ml CH4, per gram COD) are shown below. COD (chemical oxygen demand) is how the organic matter content or concentration is measured in a liquid.
Table 3.1.4.1 1

Average maximum BMP values (ml CH4/ g of COD) Miller Brewery Lessafre Yeast South-eastern Wisconsin Products Pandls Restaurant (Zitomer and Adhikari, 2005) As seen from the table above, Lessafre Yeast and South-eastern Wisconsin Products have the highest figures by far. This signifies that they can initiate methane production from background COD existing present in the biomass, which was digested sludge from the South Shore treatment plant. The COD present in the waste from the Miller Brewery and Pandls restaurant was in essence entirely convertible to methane gas. Throughout the research, laboratory style anaerobic digesters were applied. The digesters had a capacity of 2 litres and each one used a different mixture of one high strength waste and also municipal waste water solids. After this, each digester was fully mixed and ran on a 2 week solids preservation time at a temperature of 37 degrees Celsius, plus or minus one degree. The findings from the testing were that Lassafre Yeast and South-eastern Wisconsin Products waste water can be effectively co-digested for all mixture proportions examined (20-80% waste water/municipal waste water sludge). Likewise, the waste from Pandls restaurant can also be effectively co-digested for all mixture proportions analysed (3-11% food type waste/municipal waste water sludge). Although the Miller Brewery waste water did not
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413 2274 943 488

effectively digest by itself in the laboratory digester which was used in the test, it did however eventually digest when it was mixed with municipal waste water solids from the treatment plant. Another positive finding of the research was that it found that all of the wastes used in the testing had metal concentrations which were within the regulations set out by the Wisconsin Department of Natural resources restrictions for the application of bio-solids on land. By the end of the research, it was concluded that a seventy per cent increase in methane creation was recorded as a result of South-eastern Wisconsin Products waste water being co-digested. It was also found that the increase in methane production was not as a result of the extra COD; however it may have potentially been due to a synergistic effect caused by the existence of bio-available nutrients such as iron, which is necessary for microbial growth. Due to this, the extra production of methane gas can be used to produce approximately 16,300kWhr/day of electrical power and this could save the treatment plant $200,000 per year incorporating an active methane powered electrical generator at the treatment plant. The research team from Marquette University have provided recommendations that the treatment plant management should consider the co-digestion of South-eastern Wisconsin Products waste water and municipal waste water solids. They believe that this will result in a continual increase in methane gas production. They have also provided recommendations to other anaerobic digestion plants to consider using South-eastern Wisconsin products waste water and other related yeast or fermentation wastes as an addition to boost methane production. (Zitomer and Adhikari, 2005)

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3.2-

Use of hydro-turbines to generate electrical power

3.2.1- The fundamentals of hydro-turbines

Fig.3.2.1.1- Components of a Kaplan turbine and electrical generator

Hydro-turbines are a type of hydro-power which create electrical power from the flow and head of water. The fundamentals of hydro-turbines are that they are positioned in waterways that include an intake and a discharge. Hydro-turbines are usually made up of the following components; a stator, rotor, shaft, wicket gate, and the turbine blades to harness the kinetic energy that exists in the flowing water. In the renewable energy sector, hydro-power outweighs any of the other types of renewable energy for electricity generation. The following are some advantages of using hydro-turbines as a source of energy: They are environmentally friendly as they produce no emissions. There is relatively no cost to operate, apart from maintenance and initial purchase. Operation of hydro-turbines will not be effected by rising fuel costs. They can be retro-fitted relatively easy to cater for rising electrical demand and energy needs.

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The potential power generation from a stream of water can be calculated using:

Where: P= = = g= h= power (w) turbine efficiency density of water (kg/m) acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s) head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional component added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the pressure head plus velocity head. = flow rate (m/s)

Hydro-turbines can be used in new and existing waste water treatment plants by using the influent and effluent water at strategic locations to rotate turbines inside of a generator. Artificial structures such as declines and steep drops are also being used to create the necessary head and volume needed to rotate the turbines and create electricity. In 2010, Sonal Patel wrote in an article on powermag.com that; An Australian sewage plant this April began using treated wastewater falling down a 60meter (m) shaft to produce its own power. The unique 4.5-MW hydroelectric plant, installed as part of a A$150 million (US$124 million) upgrade to North Head sewage treatment plant, is one of three new units the New South Wales government is installing in Sydney Waters water and sewerage networks. The new plant was built by Worley Parsons and Energetics and is supported by the New South Wales governments climate change fund. Along with a methane gas cogeneration unit that was also recently installed, the North Head plant now generates nearly 40% of its own power.

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(Sonal Patel, 2010 source: http://www.powermag.com)

Fig.3.2.1.2- Inside a Pelton turbine

Fig.3.2.1.3- Kaplan turbine

Fig.3.2.1.4- Francis Turbine with spiral casing

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Fig.3.2.1.5- Reverse Pump set being used for treated waste water

3.2.2- Applying hydro-turbines to waste water treatment plants

As mentioned earlier, the possibilities for generating electricity using hydro-turbines in waste water treatment plants are using the influent water (before the waste water treatment plant) and the effluent (after the waste water treatment plant). If the hydroturbine is located before the treatment plant, the wastewater infrastructure will lead to a fore-bay incorporating a thin trash rack that uses a rack cleaner. The waste water is then transported via a penstock to the waste water treatment plant. The waste water treatment plant is at a lower elevation, where the water passes through the turbine prior to the normal treatment processes that that the plant performs. The hydro-turbine must be located as near as can be to the elevation of the water treatment basin in order to take full advantage of the head that is available. The second option available is to locate the hydroturbine after the waste water treatment plant. In this situation, treated waste water leaves the treatment plant and is guided downwards through a penstock to the hydro-turbine prior to be released in to a waterway of some kind. In this case the waste water treatment plant is usually located at a higher elevation than to that of the waterway in which it is discharging effluent into. Hydro-turbines can also be located at the two locations of a waste water treatment plant and there is an example of this in Jordan called As Samra project, where electricity is produced using hydro-turbines on the inflow and outflow sides of the waste water treatment plant.
3.2.3- European waste water treatment plants that have adopted hydro technology

Some waste water treatment plants have adapted multi-purpose schemes that have incorporated hydro-turbines across Europe and a few are listed below;
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The Plobb Seefeld waste treatment plant, Seefeld Zirl, Austria commissioned in 2005 Nyon wastewater treatment plant, Nyon, Switzerland commissioned in 1993 The La Louvre plant, Lausanne, Switzerland commissioned in 2006

The primary task of the waste water treatment plant in Seefeld, Austria is to discharge treated wastewater (effluent) to a river so that dilution criteria can be carried out, while the other is to produce electricity from this treated wastewater. In order for effluent to reach its destination of the Inn River, it has to be pumped to travel over an obstructing hill and then passes through the turbines in the hydro-power plant. Following passing through the turbines, the water is then dispatched through a de-foaming machine before being discharged into the river. A permanently accessible by-pass is installed to allow these types of discharges. The hydro-turbine combined with its by-pass is incorporated in a key process control system for automatic functioning. The investment of 2.2million and the feasibility of the project are warranted for a number of reasons. The first being that hill that lies between the waste water treatment plant and the Inn river is quite small and is in favour of the project feasibility as regards how much pumping will have to be carried out by the treatment plant to get the water to the turbine station. The head for the pumps is 94m and the head for the turbine is 625m. This means that the treatment plant can produce electrical power that surpasses the 1,500,000kWh/yr of energy consumed by the pump and also the 500,000kWh/yr of energy consumed by the waste water treatment plant itself. Excess energy that is surplus to demands by the waste water treatment plant can be sold to the grid network of electrical distribution. The plant has an electrical output of 1,192kW and produces 5,500,000kWh/yr or the electricity consumption of approximately 1,220 European households.

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Fig.3.2.3.1- Treated waste water turbine

In the waste water treatment plant in Nyon, Switzerland, its secondary function after treating waste water is to produce electricity by means of hydro-turbines. About two decades ago, a waste water treatment plant was built in Nyon City about 110m higher than its discharge point, Lake Geneva, due to the lack of construction space that was available close to the lake. Ever since, untreated waste water is gathered in a basin not far from the lake and it is then transported to the waste water treatment plant via a pumping station. After that, the water is then treated and subsequently passed through a hydro-turbine prior to being emitted into the lake. The gross head for hydro-turbine is 94m.The electrical generation of the waste water treatments hydro-turbine represents half of the pumping stations energy and one third of the energy consumption of the waste water treatment plant. The type of turbine use at the treatment plant is a reverse pump type which was designed specifically for its application. The operators of this waste water treatment plant conducted an investigation into the replacement of the existing turbine with a Pelton turbine so that they could gain flexibility, increase overall production of electricity and reduce the noise pollution from the plant. The treatment plant has an electrical output of 220kW and produces 700,000 kWh/yr which is the same as the electricity consumption of approximately 160 European households.

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Fig.3.2.3.2- Pumping Station, Nyon, Switzerland

Fig.3.2.3.3- Reverse pump (generates electricity)

The function of the plant at La Louvre in Lausanne, Switzerland is to split the discharges of nearby river from the main sewer in the area and also to recover electrical energy in the process. Originally the waste water from the area of Lausanne was released into a stream that then made its way into Lake Geneva. The stream became buried in a tunnel at the end of the nineteenth century and was no longer active. In 1964 a new waste water treatment plant was built not far from the lake. Due to the growth of the population in the area over the years in Lausanne, it raised concerns over the capacity of the plant especially when storms hit the area seeing as the water from the stream had no reason to be treated. In light if this, it was decided to separate the stream water from the waste water to reduce the load on the waste water treatment plant. In order to reduce the effects of this problem, an intake was constructed and it collected the discharges of the river in La Louvre by means of
27

a penstock pipe which was put in place in the tunnel. The penstock pipe came to an end in a power station near the lake in which the hydro-turbine, generator and control panel were located. The treatment plant has a gross head of 180m. It has an electrical output of 170kW at maximum conditions and generates 460,000kWh/yr or the equivalent amount of electricity it takes to power of 100 European households. (San Bruno et al., 2010, Griffin, 2000, Saket, 2008)

Fig.3.2.3.4- Pelton turbine, La Louvre, Switzerland

3.3-

Electricity generation using microbial fuel cells

3.3.1- How microbial fuel cells work

Microbial fuel cell technology is not a relatively new type of technology but only until recently has it been advanced into a new approach for generating electricity in waste water. The first type of advancement of electrical current produced by bacteria is by and large credited to M.C Potter in 1911. Following this, hardly any advancement had been made in this area of electrical production really until the 90s, where fuel cells became of more interest to researchers and experimentation with MFCs began to become more popular . The technology for MFCs works by where microorganisms breakdown organic matter and by doing so, create electrons that pass through a chain of respiratory enzymes in the cell and produce energy for the cell in the form of ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate). A (TEA) terminal electron acceptor will accept the electrons that have been released and then become reduced. A number of TEASs such as oxygen, nitrate and sulphate willingly diffuse into the cell where they receive electrons creating products that can diffuse out of the cell.

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However, it is understood that a number of bacteria can transmit electrons exo-genously to a TEA, for example, a metal oxide such as iron oxide. Bacteria such these can exo-genously transmit electrons that can be used to produce electrical power by means of a MFC. This type of electron generating process is known as electro genesis, with the bacteria being exoelectrogens and the reactor type being an MFC. (Logan, 2007) Inside the anode camber of the MFC, oxygen will prevent the generation of electricity. In order to combat this, the system must be designed so that the bacteria will be separated from any oxygen. Separation of this kind can be achieved by inserting a membrane that will stimulate the transfer of electrical charge between the two electrodes and in doing so, creating two separate chambers. The first chamber is the anode chamber, where the bacteria are grown and the second chamber is the cathode chamber where the electrons react with the catholyte. Air is provided to the cathode so that oxygen can dissolve for the reaction to start. A wire acting as a load connects the two electrodes together, however, in a laboratory environment; a resistor is used to replicate the load.

Fig. 3.3.1.1- Microbial Fuel Cell Schematic Source: http://www.sciencebuddies.org

It is important that the (PEM) membrane is permeable in order to allow the protons that are produced in the anode chamber to travel to the cathode where they can then combine with electrons that are transferred by means of the wire and oxygen and in doing so, producing
29

water. The electrical current that is produced by an MFC is usually determined in a laboratory situation by observing the drop in voltage across the resistor using either a voltmeter or a multi-meter which can be connected to a computer for accurate continuous data readings. (Logan, 2007)
3.3.2- Microbial fuel cells for waste water treatment

The idea of marrying the technology of microbial fuel cells and its potential to create electricity from waste water treatment can be largely credited to Bruce Logan, a professor of environmental engineering at Pennsylvania State University and a team of researchers from the USA. Logan and his team were funded $87,000 through a project grant from the National Science foundation Small grants for Explanatory Research program. As microbial fuel cells use the anaerobic oxidation of organic matter in a material to produce electricity, waste water was the idea behind the whole project. The microbial fuel cell in which Logan and his team developed was a single chambered Plexiglas device which measured approximately 6 inches long by 2.5 inches in diameter. The interior of the fuel cell consisted of eight graphite anodes which surrounded the cathode which consisted of carbon/platinum catalyst and a proton exchange membrane layer which fused to a support tube made of plastic. The graphite rods were constructed so that they

(Ehrenman, 2004)

Fig. 3.3.2.1- Single chamber microbial fuel cell

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could be roughened and the reason for this is to make it simpler for the bacteria to make contact with them. A copper wire is used to make the connection in the circuit and this provides the pathway for the electrodes to travel. Waste water is pumped into the chamber that feeds the bacteria and the waste waters organic matter is broken down releasing electrons into the electrical circuit hydrogen ions that are positively charged into the waste water mixture. The positively charged hydrogen ions manage to reduce the mixtures oxygen demand. These hydrogen ions also travel though the proton-exchange membrane layer to arrive at the cathode, which is made exposed to air. It is at the position of the cathode that oxygen which is present in the air, hydrogen ions which pass through the membrane layer and electrons travelling down the circuit meet to produce clean water. The reason for Logan and his team not adopting the two chamber design is that you need to push air into the water to provide oxygen in the dissolved form to the cathode. The single chamber microbial fuel cell used by Logan uses the system of passive direct airflow rather than forced airflow which is used in the two chamber design, which reduces the expensive aeration cost. This is a method still used in traditional waste water treatment plants. The waste water used in his experiment was effluent from the primary clarifier from Pennsylvania States waste water treatment plant. The pH of the waste water used ranged from 7.3-7.6 and had a COD of 210-220mg/l. The variation in the waste water flow did not influence the performance of the MFC too much, however, the higher the organic matter that existed in the water, the more electrical power it could potentially produce. It was also found that waste water containing content from food processing plants etc. would provide the perfect type of fuel for the MFC. The MFC can generate approximately 26 milli-watts of electrical power per sq. metre of electrode surface. For example, a Christmas decoration style light would require roughly 38 sq. metres of surface area in order to illuminate it. In light of this, the process that takes place can still remove up to 78% of the organic matter from the waste water, as measured by BOD demand, and approximately 50 -70% of the COD demand. Logan says the waste water produced by 100,000 people has the potential to generate 2.3MW of electricity, if you could recover all of the energy, it would be enough to power 1,500 homes (Ehrenman, 2004) The proof of this statement can be backed up by an example calculation that Bruce Logan does in his book to find what the potential energy benefit of maximum energy recovery
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using domestic waste water to a town of 100,000 people. The maximum energy production is calculated assuming 500L/d per capita, 300mg/L COD and 14.7 kJ/g COD. The potential electricity produced is also calculated assuming electricity is worth $0.44/kWhr. The amount of homes that can be powered from is then calculated assuming each home uses 1.5kW.

**It must also be noted that these calculations are assuming 100% energy recovery, which is not a realistic figure for energy recovery. It is envisaged to recover 25-50% of the energy that is available which means that the above calculation should be reduced by half to obtain more practical results for this calculation. (Logan, 2007)
3.3.3- Increasing electrical power generation using MFCs

The initial design of the MFC has proved that the potential is there to generate power by means of electricity and clean water at the same time using waste water as the medium for both. The focus now is to work on ways to further advance the power production of the MFC, reduce the cost of production and makes the transition of a laboratory type device to a mass produced product that can be used for energy recovery in the waste water treatment industry. Bruce Logan and his team at Penn State are looking into trying to reduce the cost of the materials, especially the PEM. Other areas that are matters of discussion are the catalyst, configuration and the design of the device. Although the power output of the initial device that Logan and his team designed and operated was quite low, a new model that they have been working on has capacity to power a small electric fan. Although this is still way off the mark as regards applying this technology to waste water treatment plant, the teams goal is to produce a stable level of 500kW of electric power. If this were to be achieved using MFC technology, it would have the potential to power

32

approximately 300 homes. Figures produced by the NSF state that approximately 33 billion gallons of domestic waste water are treated by waste water treatment plants in the US every year. This results in a cost of $25 billion. The majority of this cost goes towards the payment for the energy required to operate the processing systems. In spite of this large cost, if the MFC technology can be further advanced and made more efficient, it has the potential to significantly reduce the cost of energy in the waste water treatment industry. (Ehrenman, 2004)

3.4-

Power generation from plasma processing of sludge

Fig. 3.4- Plasma power plant system using waste water sludge

3.4.1- How plasma processing works

Plasma processing is carried out by the use of plasma torches in order to offer efficient measures of melting solids or waste materials into a lava or magma type form after a short time period between the plasma, which can reach up to and over 5000K, and the solids. The plasma interacts with the waste, and the plasma density decreases with distance. Plasma processing can treat a number of different kinds of waste including municipal waste water dry solids. High temperature plasmas can be used for treatment of solids, liquids and gasses.
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They can be used for the melting of waste and the formation of non-leachable products. Also, these plasmas can provide thermal decomposition of toxic molecules into simpler molecules that are less violent. (Leal-Quiros and Villafafie, 2007)
3.4.2- The process of plasma gasification and the production of syn-gas

Plasma processing at very high temperatures of more than 5000K has the potential to convert inorganic materials into syn-gas, which is made up of CO and H2. The creation of CO2 is impossible. The reason for this is because; this molecule separates itself at less than 1500K. This process is hugely important and is one of the main advantages of plasma processing. The fact that it is physically impossible to produce C0 2, which is a well known unwanted green house gas, means that it is ozone friendly. The gasification process allows waste water sludge to be transformed into syn-gas with a left over product of vitreous slag. The syn-gas which is produced consists of contaminants such as particulate matter, HCI, dioxins, furans, sulphur oxides and others. Syn-gas can act as raw materials for the making of methanol, ethanol or other industrial chemicals. The plasma gasification process needs a source of heat in order for the reaction to take place. One way in which this heat energy can be provided is plasma torches. Plasma exists as an ionised gas which is capable of conducting electric current. Plasma is produced when a gas is exposed to a high energy field that occurs between the two electrodes. Plasma which is produced is slowly moved into the reactor where it will heat up the wastewater sludge and drive the gasification reaction. The syn-gas produced is recovered through a vent at the top of the reactor and the vitreous slag, which is in liquid form, exits at the bottom of the reactor at approximately 1900K. After the syn-gas has been produced from the waste water sludge, it can be pumped to number of different units of operation depending upon the process that is taking place. The syn-gas can be piped to a boiler in order to generate steam and electricity for the plant. (Dollard, 2010)
3.4.3- Plasma processing of sewage sludge

The energy content in which the sewage sludge contains is also known as the heating value. The value for the energy content depends on a number of factors: The waste water source, whether it is industrial, domestic or of some other source.

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Types of waste water treatment processes in which the waste water has received e.g. primary, secondary, tertiary. It is also worth noting that the waste water may not have received any treatment.
Table 3.4.3.1- LHV values of various combustibles

Combustible Light Fuel Granulated tire rubber (crumb rubber) Coal Municipal WWTP sludge 20% DS Municipal WWTP sludge 33% DS Municipal WWTP sludge 60% DS Municipal WWTP sludge 90% DS

LHV in KJ/kg 42000 37000 29000 - 32000 920 3200 8000 - 12000 13000 - 18000

Table 3.4.3 above shows the typical low heating values of a number of different combustibles including municipal waste water treatment sludge at various different dry solid percentages. As the dry solid content of the waste water treatment sludge increases, the LHV increases also. Puerto Rico is one of the main producers of sludge and they are concentrated primarily on secondary treatment plants. The secondary treatment process removes approximately 8090% of the total suspended solids which can accumulate approximate total solids sewage of 45,395 tons/ year. From Table 3.4.3, it can be determined that the total potential energy of the dry sewage sludge that is generated per year equals 9.48 x 10 14 J/year, which has a total power output of 30MW. The approximate energy potential which can be obtained is shown below for their forecasted dry sewage sludge that results from converting all primary waste water treatment plants to secondary treatment plants:

35

The figure of 30MW is sourced from the US environmental protection agency data. From their data, they estimate that approximately 19kg of organic dry solids of waste water sludge are produced by a single person per year. Therefore, if 1kg of organic dry substance has for instance a calorific value of approximately 25000kJ 7kWh, the potential energy

value can be worked out to be in the region of 19kg x 7kWh = 133kWh per person/year or 47500kJ. Of a population of roughly 4 million people, around half of the population of Puerto Rico have working sewage systems. From this information, it can be estimated that the potential energy generation per year is equal to:

It can be seen from these calculations that the use of plasma processing of primary sludge from waste water treatment plants, it is possible to generate electrical power in the region of 30MW. This figure relates to the energy consumed, on average, for approximately 22500 homes in the United States. (Leal-Quiros and Villafafie, 2007)
3.4.4- Possible advantages and disadvantages

The advantages of plasma gasification of municipal waste water solids are valuable products (energy, industrial chemicals and construction material), a solution for waste water treatment sludge and potential environmental impact and risk reduction when compared to other management methods. Although the use of plasma torches is nothing new, the process however is and performance data is limited. However, two plasma gasification plants are operating in Japan, Utashinai and Mihama-Mikata. Engineers have the luxury of using these two plants as reference plants for operational, economic and environmental data. Although this is not an ideal situation as data is only used from two sources, it is

36

however better than estimates calculated by other engineers based purely on operational assumptions.

Fig.3.4.4.1- Plasma gasification Source: http: //www.netl.doe.gov

The plant in Utashinai commenced operations in 2003 and was originally designed to treat 180 metric tonnes/day of a 50/50 blend of municipal waste water sludge and auto shredder residue. There are two process lines in total, one of which to two updraft reactors to produce syn-gas and electricity for the operation of the plant and sale to the grid. The dry solids and the auto shredder residue need to be shredded before being fed to hopper blending operations and further feed to gasification reactors. Each of the reactors is coated with refractory and heated by means of four plasma torches rated at 80 300kW each. From feedback from the plant managers, the performance of the reactors and plasma torches has been of a high standard. The way in which the plant was designed means that each reactor operates with three torches in order for maintenance to be carried out on the fourth torch. The time period between torch maintenances is 500 hours of operation. Challenges that face the plant are the problems that shredding before gasification present. Due to the changing makeup of municipal sludge composition, jamming can occur in the shredder if any small metal objects come through. This can result in the halting of processing and also very costly repairs to the shredder. Also, as the auto-shredder residue is
37

gasified, it produces a build-up of sticky slag. The slag then forms stalactites as it builds up. When they finally decide to break off, they fall and can damage the refractory at the bottom of the combustion chamber. The Mihama-Mikata plant also commenced operation in 2003 but was designed to only process 22 metric tonnes per day of solids waste. From this figure, 4.8 tonnes per day is sewage sludge. There is no electricity produced at the plant. The plants operating cycle is 2 and a half months of operations followed by a two week shutdown in order to carry out necessary maintenance, which means the plant operates 10 months out of 12. The plant shares a lot of the same operational benefits as the one in Utashinai but it has not had the same amount of problems especially relating to the challenges with auto-shredder residue in the feed to the reactors. The reason for this is because the slag in Mihama-Mikata has a different composition. The plant has the added benefit of producing and selling the vitreous slag as a construction aggregate. Utashinai was unable to produce aggregate due to the processing of auto-shredder residue with the municipal solids. The plant at Mihama-Mikata produces 1.5 tonnes of slag per day. Another advantage is the ability to produce industrial chemicals from the syn-gas which is produced. A major drawback of this type of energy recovery is the high initial capital cost for plant construction. For example, one of the largest projects which are still under consideration is a 3000 ton per day processing facility in St. Lucie, Fla., with an estimated cost of $425 million. (Dollard, 2010)

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Chapter 4: Case Studies

4.1Esholt Waste Water Treatment Plant, Yorkshire, UK

4.1.1- Introduction

The Esholt waste water treatment plant which is located in Yorkshire treats wastewater from the regions of Bradford and the north of Leeds, which have a population of approximately 730,000 people. The incoming flow of influent into the plant is in the region of 13.5m3/s and peak flow to treatment of 3.2m3/s. Esholt waste water treatment plant has the capacity to treat roughly 12% of Yorkshires waste water capacity. The site on which the plant is built dates back to the early 1900s. In light of this, there was a need to restore a number of the old structures and equipment with new state of the art processing units. The new waste water treatment plant project can produce up to 45% of the power demand from the on-site sources of the new combined heat and power (CHP) engines and hydroturbines. The new project at the plant was completed in 2009 and also within the authorised budget. The plant is now delivering effluent qualities which are significantly better than in the past and also the plants operation costs are below forecasted levels. 4.1.2- Installation of new hydro-turbines The new hydro-turbines commenced operation in 2009. There are two Archimedean type screw turbines installed in series at the plant, each with a capacity of 90kW. Screw turbines can be used in any application where water flows from a higher level to a lower one, such as rivers, industrial effluent plants and within or at the outlet from water treatment plants. Costs from the use of this type of technology can be kept at a minimum as there is no need for fine screens and the equipment used is suitable for many low head applications. Following the initial period of commissioning, the turbines are now running 24 hours a day and providing approximately 180kW of energy, hence reducing the plants operating costs.

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Table 4.1.2.1

Esholt WWTP Technical Data Flow Head Installed Power Diameter Screw Length Total Weight Medium Output Max up to 3200l/s 8.2m 2 x 90kW 1.8m 14m each 64tn Screened Waste Water 180kW
Source: //www.spaansbabcock.com

The electricity produced from the hydro-turbines is used to offset the imported electrical power demand of the waste water treatment plant. This leads to a saving of nearly 410 per day and 150,000 per year in electricity costs. The hydro -turbines are located between the inlet works grit collectors and the primary settlement tanks, where a flow of roughly 3200l/s is pushed through a 1.8m diameter pipe to the screw turbines. Esholt waste water treatment plant is the first in the UK to use untreated sewage for hydro power generation. Each hydro-turbine is controlled using a regenerative drive unit to control speed and output to the power grid. The hydro-turbines installed at the plant were provided by a company called Spaans-Babcock and have provided Yorkshire water with various equipment including screw pumps for over forty years. The installation of theses hydro-turbines allows Esholt waste water treatment plant and Yorkshire water towards its objective reducing its Carbon Footprint through the use and installation of renewable energy sources. The design of the turbines are also fish friendly and help in meeting regulations set out by the environmental agency.

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Fig.4.1.2.1- Screw turbine at Esholt waste water treatment plant Source: http: //www.spaansbabcock.com

Fig.4.1.2.2- Section of Screw turbines in series Source: http://www.spaansbabcock.com

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4.2-

Ringsend Waste Water Treatment Plant, Ringsend, Dublin

4.2.1- Introduction

Ringsend waste water treatment plant was constructed in order to provide the processes of preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment to a population of approximately 1.7 million people. The construction of the plant began in 1999 while operation processes commenced in 2003. The waste water treatment facilities in which were originally on the site remained operational during the course of the new treatment plant. The site on which the new treatment plant is built was originally an old landfill and required large scale piling in order to support the weight of the new structures of the new plant. Ringsend is also the proud owner of the largest double-decker sequencing batch reactor in the world.

Fig.4.2.1- Ringsend waste water treatment plant Source: http: //conorcreighton.wordpress.com

4.2.2- Methane recovery from Ringsend waste water treatment plant

The treatment plant produces between 80-100 dry matter tonnes of dry sludge each day a by-product of the waste water treatment process. The sludge is a mixture of primary sludge and secondary sludge, which is sourced from the settlement tanks. This is then process in the processed in the sludge treatment section of the plant. A typical mass balance would be as follows, 80 tonnes of sludge sent to the 4 anaerobic digesters. This is fed at a concentration of 10% Dry Solids. The plant can run high a solid as the sludge is hydrolysed in a THP plant firstly, decreasing its viscosity. The solid fraction of sludge is approximately 85% Volatile Solids (which can be digested and converted to Biogas). Approximately 40 tonnes of
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the original 100 tonnes of sludge are digested in the anaerobic digesters and converted to methane rich biogas. The biogas is formed by the anaerobic digestion process. The digesters are mesosphilic (operated at 40deg C) and completely air-tight. Following the digestion process, the remaining sludge is dried out and spread on the land. The biogas is approximately 60% methane. The waste water treatment plant produces 35,000 to 40,000 m3 of biogas each day. The plant utilise 99% of all biogas produced. The remaining 1% is

Fig.4.2.1.1- Settling tank Source: http: //www.caw.ie

flared to the atmosphere. The biogas is used to power 4 CHP steam engines. The plant recovers extra energy on their engines by use of steam generators on the exhausts. This steam is then used in a hydrolysis process for sludge treatment. These can produce up to 75% of the treatment plants daily energy needs. The engines are rated 995 at kW/hr. The treatment plant produces upwards of 92 MW/hrs each day from these engines. This type of power generation greatly offsets the plants need to import electricity from the national grid.
KEY DATA: Population Equivalent: Dry Weather Flow: Flow to Full Treatment: Maximum flow to storm: Maximum flow to works: BOD: 1.7 million 4.65 m3/s 11.1 m3/s 11.5 m3/s 22.6 m3/s 98,400 kg/d

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TSS:
Fig.4.2.2.2- Plant data

101,000 kg/d

Source: http: //www.caw.ie

4.2.3- Potential power generation from hydro-turbines

Ringsend WWTP hydro-turbine power output potential in relation to head and effluent flow rate
600 500 400 Power output 300 potential (kW) 200 100 0 0 1 2 3 Water head (m) 4 5 6 flow rate: 4m3/s flow rate: 5m3/s flow rate: 6m3/s flow rate: 7m3/s flow rate: 8m3/s flow rate: 9m3/s flow rate: 10m3/s

Fig.4.2.3.1

As part of the research regarding Ringsend waste water treatment plant, an interesting study carried out was to find out the power output it could potentially generate by use of hydro-turbines. The reason for this is that it is not an energy recovery method which is used at the plant at present but could perhaps be one for the future. The effluent flow rate from the waste water treatment plant on average is 4m3/s and can rise to levels of 10m3/s at periods of high demand. The formula which has been used to do the calculations is shown earlier in section 3.2.1 to calculate the potential power output of a turbine for Ringsend. The turbine chosen for the sake of the calculations has an efficiency of 95%. This formula has also been used to calculate various power outputs in kW with the head (m) and the flow rate (m3/s) varying. The graph shown above Fig- 4.2.3.1 shows the results of these

44

calculations which were carried out in Microsoft excel and then plotted on a scatter graph. It can be seen from the graph that at a flow rate of 4m 3/s (which is the average flow rate per day of the plant) and head of 1m that the turbine has the potential to generate nearly 50kW of electrical energy. As the flow rate and head height increase, so too does the power output. It is clear to see from this graph that there is huge potential for energy generation from this type of technology in Ringsend waste water treatment plant. Along with the production of bio-gas, Ringsend waste water treatment plant would have the potential to generate enough power to substantially lower its reliability on the national grid and even perhaps generate funds in the sale of electricity to the grid. It is also a possibility to construct some sort of an artificial head height where the plant could feed effluent water into to increase the power output of the turbine. An initiative such as this would have large initial costs but the energy produced by the turbine would offset the payback period of the project in a small amount of time.
The potential power generation from a stream of water can be calculated using: (formula used for calculations)

Where: P= = = g= h= power (w) turbine efficiency density of water (kg/m) acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s) head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height between the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional component added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow. The total head equals the pressure head plus velocity head. = flow rate (m/s)

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Table- 4.2.3: Data table of varying flow rates and head heights (matches graph shown above)

Flow rate: 4m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Flow rate: 6m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Flow rate: 8m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 (kW) 89.47 134.2 (kW) 67.1 100.65 134.2 167.75 201.3 234.85 268.4 301.95 335.5 (kW) 44.73 67.1 89.47 111.84 134.21 156.58 178.95 201.32 223.69

Flow rate: 5m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Flow rate: 7m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Flow rate: 9m3/s Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 (kW) 100.65 150.98 (kW) 78.28 117.43 156.58 195.73 234.88 274.03 313.18 352.33 391.48 (kW) 55.92 83.88 111.84 139.8 167.76 195.72 223.68 251.64 279.6

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2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 Flow rate: 10m3/s

178.93 223.66 268.39 313.12 357.85 402.58 447.31

2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

201.31 251.64 301.97 352.3 402.63 452.96 503.29

Generated power Output Water Head(m) 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 (kW) 111.83 167.75 223.67 279.59 335.51 391.43 447.35 503.27 559.19

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Chapter 5: Conclusions
5.1 Introduction
Over the last decade or so, the engineering world has taken a dramatic change in the way in which processes such as waste water treatment are carried out and managed. New energy buzz words such as efficiency, green, sustainable and recovery are all taking centre stage in the engineering landscape. The reason for this is that the Earths fossil fuel reserve is depleting, this in turn drives up the price of fuel costs and therefore makes it more expensive on the process operator. In light of this, it is in the interest of the operators (governments) of waste water treatment plants to use methods of energy recovery in their facilities in order to reduce fuel costs and become less reliable on the grid. In the past, waste from treatment plants was not utilised efficiently. Today however, the technology is there to deal with the various types of waste from these plants and convert it to energy that can be used to generate electricity within the plant and the sale of any further excess. As part of this research, four main methods of energy recovery in waste water treatment systems were examined; the harnessing of methane gas, the use of microbial fuel cells, hydro-turbines and plasma processing.

5.2-

Overview

It is relatively clear the most widely used method of energy recovery in this field is by means of harnessing methane gas from the waste water sludge. This gas is then stored and burned in a generator in order to produce electricity to meet part or all of the plants electricity load. Methane gas is harnessed at Ringsend waste water treatment plant and used in conjunction with heat recovery to provide up to 75% of the treatment plants daily energy needs. This type of energy recovery is used in a lot of different waste water treatment plants in developed countries around the world. Hydro-turbines as a method for energy recovery in waste water treatment is still at a relatively early phase of development, with only a handful of plants around the world adopting this type of method. The Esholt waste water treatment plant in Yorkshire, UK is a prime example of the savings that can be made from this type of technology. The plant makes a saving of nearly 410 per day and 150,00 0 per year in electricity costs due to the
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installation of its two turbines in 2009. As this technology is being developed in the UK, Australia and the US, there is no reason that this style of energy recovery could not be incorporated into Irish waste water treatment plants. Microbial fuel cells are a type of energy recovery method that is still really at the stage of laboratory testing. However, they have huge potential and could be a major future source of energy recovery in the next few years. Bruce Logan of Penn State University in the USA has carried out various types of research on these types of cells and has at present been able to successfully generate approximately 26 milli-watts of electrical power per sq. metre of electrode surface. For example, a Christmas decoration style light would require roughly 38 sq. metres of surface area in order to illuminate it. This may seem quite minuscule but the process that takes place can still remove up to 78% of the organic matter from the waste water. Logan and his research team at the university are currently working on a cell that can generate enough power to operate a small fan. The teams goal is to produce a stable level of 500kW of electric power. If this were to be achieved using MFC technology, it would have the potential to power approximately 300 homes. Plasma processing is carried out by the use of plasma torches in order to offer efficient measures of melting solids or waste materials into a lava or magma type form after a short time period between the plasma, which can reach up to and over 5000K, and the solids. The plasma interacts with the waste, and the plasma density decreases with distance. Plasma processing can treat a number of different kinds of waste including municipal waste water dry solids. The plasma processing plants in Japan both mix waste water treatment sludge with municipal solid waste. Plasma processing of waste water sludge is a method of energy recovery that is not that advanced. Plasma processing plants are really expensive to build and hence there have currently been no plasma processing plants built in the U.S.. Two plants which have been built in Japan are currently being used for further research into the technology.

5.3- Final Comments & Recommendations

From the four methods of energy recovery discussed in this research project, it is evident that energy recovery in waste water treatment systems is an area that has been and is currently under development. That being said, there is still a lot of scope for improvement.
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The hydro-turbine method is one that really stands out as being potentially the easiest one of the other methods to incorporate into new and existing waste water treatment plants and systems. It is clearly evident from the data and graph provided in section 4.2.3 that the potential savings to be made from the installation of hydro-turbines into a treatment plant such as Ringsend are huge. There is also huge savings to be made from the collection of methane gas as is demonstrated from the treatment plants in the U.S previously discussed in section 3.1.3. Apart from what has been written in this research project, energy recovery in waste water treatment systems still has more to offer. It is an area that is still unexploited to its full potential. However, this project has been able to highlight various methods of energy recovery methods that are available in waste water treatment systems and also the benefits in which they can provide both environmentally and financially. Energy recovery in waste water treatment systems is an area of engineering which must be developed further in order to reap its full benefit. It is an achievable objective between engineers, private companies and governments in which they must work together. This type of partnership will help to save on energy costs and provide more sustainable and ecofriendly waste water treatment systems leading to the earning of carbon credits and a greener image for their nation as a whole.

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5.4-

References:

Books and Articles:

ANTHONY, B. 2007. Energy efficiency: Wastewater treatment and energy production. Filtration & Separation, 44, 1619. BERKTAY, A. & NAS, B. 2008. Biogas Production and Utilization Potential of Wastewater Treatment Sludge. Energy Sources Part A: Recovery, Utilization & Environmental Effects, 30, 179-188. CROWE, J., HAMBRICK, R. W., SNELL, J. & RICKERSON, W. 2009. WASTE WATER PLANTS AS GREEN POWER PRODUCERS. BioCycle, 50, 36-39. DELVECCHIO, F., ENGELHARDT, T. & KLOPPING, P. 1981. Wastewater treatment processes, Technical Publishing. DOLLARD, J. 2010. Hot fix for renewable energy: An introduction to the concepts and process of plasma gasification as it relates to managing municipal solid wastes. Pollution Engineering, 42, 22-29. EDDY, M. A. 1991. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal, Reuse, Mc Graw-Hill. EHRENMAN, G. 2004. From Foul to FUEL. Mechanical Engineering, 126, 32-32-33. GRIFFIN, F. M. 2000. Feasibility of energy recovery from a wastewater treatment scheme. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. Pt.A. Journal of Power and Energy, 214, 41-41-51. LEAL-QUIROS, E. & VILLAFAFIE, C. R. 2007. An Assessment of the Power Generated With Plasma Processing of Sludge From Wastewater Treatment Plants. IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science, 35, 1622-1622-1627. LOCKHART, T. 2002. RECOVERING BIOGAS AT A WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT. BioCycle, 43, 59. LOGAN, B. E. 2007. Microbial Fuel Cells, New Jersey, John Wiley & Sons. SAKET, R. K. Design, development and reliability evaluation of micro hydro power generation system based on municipal waste water. Electric Power Conference, 2008. EPEC 2008. IEEE Canada, 6-7 Oct. 2008 2008. 1-8. SAN BRUNO, G., CHOULOT, A. & DENIS, V. 2010. Energy Recovery in existing infrastructures with small hydro-power plants. In: ESHA (ed.). Shapes. ZITOMER, D. & ADHIKARI, P. 2005. EXTRA METHANE PRODUCTION FROM MUNICIPAL ANAEROBIC DIGESTERS. BioCycle, 46, 64-66.

Websites:
http://www.ci.camarillo.ca.us http://www.sswm.info http://www.r-e-a.net http://www.powermag.com http://www.sciencebuddies.org http://www.netl.doe.gov http://www.spaansbabcock.com http://conorcreighton.wordpress.com http://www.caw.i

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