ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We own our regards and heartiest gratitude to Dr. I.P Singh (Director) and Er. Manoj Arora (Head of Department of Electronics and Communication) for their guidance, constant encouragement, constructive suggestions, thought provoking decisions and guidance to complete the project in entire duration of this work. At the very outset, we are highly indebted to JMIT, Radaur for giving us an opportunity to carry out our project on ULTRASONIC RADAR. We would specially thank Er. Vishal Chaudhary (Asst. Professor in ECE Dept.), our Project Guide, for giving time and guidance throughout our project period without whom it would have been impossible to attain success. No good work can be done alone, as the saying goes is truly applicable. A friend, Philosopher and Our Guide always acts source of inspiration and motivation to accomplish a given task. Our humble and sincere thanks to our project guide for his guidance and direction, which helped, escalate our practical knowledge. The co-operation and our combined efforts lead to the completion of the project. Our heartiest debts to our parents for their encouragement and understanding which has been a timely factor in completion of this project.

SHIVANSH KANSAL (1209099) VISHAL KAKKAR (1209121) VARUN HOODA (1209113)

ABSTRACT
The goal of our project is to design an Ultrasonic Radar, which is used for the purpose of Object Detection via transmission and reception of Ultrasonic waves. The circuit of Ultrasonic Radar generates (transmits) ultrasonic sound of frequency between 40 and 50 kHz. As with any other remote control system this circuit comprises of a mini transmitter and a receiver circuit. Transmitter generates ultrasonic sound and the receiver senses ultrasonic sound from the transmitter and switches on a relay which further actuates Buzzer and few LEDs attached to it. The ultrasonic transmitter uses a 555 based astable multivibrator. It oscillates at a frequency of 40-50 kHz. An ultrasonic transmitter transducer is used here to transmit ultrasonic sound very effectively. The ultrasonic receiver circuit uses an ultrasonic receiver transducer to sense ultrasonic signals. It also uses a two-stage amplifier, a rectifier stage, and an operational amplifier in inverting mode. Output of op-amp is connected to a relay through a complimentary relay driver stage. The relay can be used to control any electrical or electronic equipment. Although the project aimed only at transmitting and receiving through ultrasonic radar but its implementations and applications are vast. Ultrasonic Radar can be made of use in Security Alarms, Anti-theft Cars, Missile Launching, Detection of Enemies, Air Traffic Control, Defence and many more. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS :Working voltage : 12VDC Current: 30 mA The above description gives a brief view about our project ULTRASONIC RADAR.

TABLE OF FIGURES Figure No. Figure Name Ultrasonic radar project(Top view) Fig-1 Ultrasonic radar project(side view) Fig-2
Fig-3 Fig-4 Fig-5 Fig-6 Fig-7 Fig-8 Fig-9 Fig-10 Fig-11 Fig-12 Fig-13 Fig-14 Fig-15 Fig-16 Fig-17 Fig-18 Fig-19 Fig-20 Fig-21 Fig-22 Fig-23 Fig-24 Fig-25 Fig-26 Fig-27 Fig-28 Fig-29 Fig-30 Fig-31 Circuit Diagram of ultrasonic radar PCB Layout Pin Diagram Of HEF4017BMSI Functional Diagram OF HEF4017BMSI Logic Diagram of 5 STAGE JOHNSON COUNTER 555 TIMER IC 555 MONOSTABLE MODE 555 ASTABLE MODE Pin diagram of ULN2803A Logic diagram Schematci (each darlington pair) Power supply DC power supply Ammeter Voltmeter of 10 V Voltmeter of 150 V Multimeter as a Ammeter Multimeter as Voltmeter Symbol of LED Circuit of LED Seven Segment Display Stepper Motor Poles of Motor Ultrasonic Sensor TO-220(T),TO-3(k) PCB Layout Resistor Colour Coding Colour Coding Table 3

Page No. 10 11
15-16 17 18 19 21 22 22 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 29 30 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 37 38 39 40 41

Fig-32 Fig-33 Fig-34 Fig-35 Fig-36 Fig-37 Fig-38 Fig-39 Fig-40 Fig-41 Fig-42 Fig-43 Fig-44

Transistor Symbol Of Transistor Capacitor Types of Capacitors Symbols of Capacitor Coding in Capacitor 105k Capacitor IC Socket Relay Types of relays Soldering Iron Soldering Stand Soldering Wire

42 43 44 44 45 45 46 46 47 48 50 51 52

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO. NAME OF THE CHAPTER PAGE NO.

ULTRASONIC RADAR
1. INTRODUCTION 2. CONSTRUCTION

1.

3. COMPONENTS 4. WORKING 5. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ULTRASONIC RADAR 6. PCB LAYOUT OF ULTRASONIC RADAR

7-15

IC USED 2. 1. HEF4017BMSI 2. 555 TIMER IC 3. ULN2803 16-22

COMPONENTS USED 1. POWER SUPPLY 2. TESTING & CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT 3. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) 4. SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY 5. STEPPER MOTOR 3. 6. ULTRASONIC SENSOR 7. LM78XX (SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATORS) 8. PCB LAYOUT 9. RESISTORS 10. TRANSISTORS 11. CAPACITORS 12. IC SOCKET 13. RELAY 4. 5 47-49 23-46

TOOLS USED 1. SOLDERING IRON 2. SOLDERING STAND 3. SOLDER WIRE

PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD 1. CLEANING 2. TIPS 3. PCB PREPARATION 5. 6. 7. 4. TESTING CONCLUSION REFERENCE 50-52 53 54

CHAPTER-1 ULTRASONIC RADAR

1.1 INTRODUCTION

This is a very interesting project with many practical applications in security and alarm systems for homes, shops and cars. It consists of a set of ultrasonic receiver and transmitter which operate at the same frequency. When something moves in the area covered by the circuit the circuits fine balance is disturbed, the alarm is triggered and LEDs starts glowing. The circuit is very sensitive and can be adjusted to reset itself . An electronic circuit consist of interconnection of various electrical or electronic components or devices to fulfill a desired function. In electronic circuit, symbols are used to represent these components or devices. It includes active and passive components. A circuit designer must have knowledge of different types of components, there working application, characteristics, operation range, inputs, outputs and other working conditions. The frequent knowledge of all components being used by a designer in a circuit is essential for designer. During designing a new circuit, a designer must have an idea of the features of the final products and also know about the working condition, range and other essential characteristic. Such as environmental conditions; as most of component/devices change their characteristics with change in environment, to be desired for the final equipment. During designing circuit; the temperature conditions of the place where the equipment is to be placed must also be taken into account as it has tremendous effect on the performance of the circuit. A designer should always remain in touch with latest inventions and developments which are taking place in the field of circuit designer. At the time of selection of a component in a circuit, a designer must keep in mind about the substitute components which will give better performance and high accuracy to the final equipment. 1.2 CONSTRUCTION First of all let us consider a few basics in building electronic circuits on a printed circuit board. The board is made of a thin insulating material clad with a thin layer of conductive copper that is shaped in such a way as to form the necessary conductors between the various components of the circuit. The use of a properly designed printed circuit board is 7

very desirable as it speeds construction up considerably and reduces the possibility of making errors. Smart Kit boards also come pre-drilled and with the outline of the components and their identification printed on the component side to make construction easier. To protect the board during storage from oxidation and assure it gets to you in perfect condition the copper is tinned during manufacturing and covered with a special varnish that protects it from getting oxidised and also makes soldering easier. Soldering the components to the board is the only way to build your circuit and from the way you do it depends greatly your success or failure. This work is not very difficult and if you stick to a few rules you should have no problems. The soldering iron that you use must be light and its power should not exceed the 25 Watts. The tip should be fine and must be kept clean at all times. For this purpose come very handy specially made sponges that are kept wet and from time to time you can wipe the hot tip on them to remove all the residues that tend to accumulate on it. DO NOT file or sandpaper a dirty or worn out tip. If the tip cannot be cleaned, replace it. There are many different types of solder in the market and you should choose a good quality one that contains the necessary flux in its core, to assure a perfect joint every time. DO NOT use soldering flux apart from that which is already included in your solder. Too much flux can cause many problems and is one of the main causes of circuit malfunction. If nevertheless you have to use extra flux, as it is the case when you have to tin copper wires, clean it very thoroughly after you finish your work. In order to solder a component correctly you should do the following: Clean the component leads with a small piece of emery paper. Bend them at the correct distance from the components body and insert the component in its place on the board. You may find sometimes a component with heavier gauge leads than usual, that are too thick to enter in the holes of the p.c. board. In this case use a mini drill to enlarge the holes slightly. Do not make the holes too large as this is going to make soldering difficult afterwards. Take the hot iron and place its tip on the component lead while holding the end of the solder wire at the point where the lead emerges from the board. The iron tip must touch the lead slightly above the p.c. board. When the solder starts to melt and flow wait till it covers evenly the area around the hole and the flux boils and gets out from underneath the solder. The whole operation should not take more than 5 seconds. Remove the iron and allow the solder to cool naturally without 8

blowing on it or moving the component. If everything was done properly the surface of the joint must have a bright metallic finish and its edges should be smoothly ended on the component lead and the board track. If the solder looks dull, cracked, or has the shape of a blob then you have made a dry joint and you should remove the solder (with a pump, or a solder wick) and redo it. Take care not to overheat the tracks as it is very easy to lift them from the board and break them. When you are soldering a sensitive component it is good practice to hold the lead from the component side of the board with a pair of long-nose pliers to divert any heat that could possibly damage the component. Make sure that you do not use more solder than it is necessary as you are running the risk of short-circuiting adjacent tracks on the board, especially if they are very close together. When you finish your work cut off the excess of the component leads and clean the board thoroughly with a suitable solvent to remove all flux residues that may still remain on it. There are quite a few components in the circuit and you should be careful to avoid mistakes that will be difficult to trace and repair afterwards. Solder first the pins and the IC sockets and then following if that is possible the parts list the resistors the trimmers and the capacitors paying particular attention to the correct orientation of the electrolytic. Solder then the transistors and the diodes taking care not to overheat them during soldering. The transducers should be positioned in such a way as they do not affect each other directly because this will reduce the efficiency of the circuit. When you finish soldering, check your work to make sure that you have done everything properly, and then insert the ICs in their sockets paying attention to their correct orientation and handling IC3 with great care as it is of the CMOS type and can be damaged quite easily by static discharges. Do not take it out of its aluminum foil wrapper till it is time to insert it in its socket, ground the board and your body to discharge static electricity and then insert the IC carefully in its socket. In the kit you will find a LED and a resistor of 560 which will help you to make the necessary adjustments to the circuit. Connect the resistor in series with the LED and then connect them between point 9 of the circuit and the positive supply rail (point 1).

Connect the power supply across points 1 (+) and 2 (-) of the p.c. board and put P1 at roughly its middle position. Turns then P2 slowly till the LED lights when you move your fingers slightly in front of the transducers. If you have a frequency counter then you can make a much more accurate adjustment of the circuit. Connect the frequency counter across the transducer and adjust P2 till the frequency of the oscillator is exactly the same as the resonant frequency of the transducer. Adjust then P1 for maximum sensitivity. Connecting together pins 7 & 8 on the p.c. board will make the circuit to stay triggered till it is manually reset after an alarm. This can be very useful if you want to know that there was an attempt to enter in the place which are protected by the radar.

10

Fig .1 Ultrasonic radar project

1.2

COMPONENTS

Transmitter Parts: IC1 VR1 R1 R2 R3 R4, R5 C1 C2 D1, D2 T1 T2 NE555 timer IC 10k variable resistor 4.7k resistor 18k potentiometer 1k resistor 220 ohm resistor 680 picofarad capacitor 0.01uf capacitor 1N4148 Diode SL100 NPN transistor SK100 PNP transistor 11

S1 XMTR

SPST momentary contact switch ultrasonic transmitter 40-50khz

Receiver Parts: RCVR RL1 IC2 VR2 R6 R7 R8, R12 R9 R10, R13 R11 R14 R15 C3 C4 C5 T3,T4 T5 T6 Ultrasonic Receiver 40-50khz 6volt 200ohm resistor CA3140 250k Variable Resistor 390k Resistor 470k Resistor 15k Resistor 12k 10k 4.7k 100k Resistor 33 ohm Resistor 0.22uf ceramic capacitor 0.1uf ceramic capacitor 560n ceramic capacitor BC548 NPN Transistor BC558 PNP Transistor SL100 NPN Transistor

D3,D4,D5 1N4148 Diode STEPPER MOTOR BUZZER

1.3

WORKING

The circuit described generates (transmits) ultrasonic sound of frequency between 40 and 50 kHz. As with any other remote control system this circuit comprises of a mini transmitter 12

and a receiver circuit. Transmitter generates ultrasonic sound and the receiver senses ultrasonic sound from the transmitter and switches on a relay. The ultrasonic transmitter uses a 555 based astable multivibrator. It oscillates at a frequency of 40-50 kHz. An ultrasonic transmitter transducer is used here to transmit ultrasonic sound very effectively. The transmitter is powered from a 9-volt power supply made from AC 220v. The ultrasonic receiver circuit uses an ultrasonic receiver transducer to sense ultrasonic signals. It also uses a two-stage amplifier, a rectifier stage, and an operational amplifier in inverting mode. Output of op-amp is connected to a relay through a complimentary relay driver stage. A 9-volt battery eliminator can be used for receiver circuit, if required. When switch S1 of transmitter is pressed, it generates ultrasonic sound. The sound is received by ultrasonic receiver transducer. It converts it to electrical variations of the same frequency. These signals are amplified by transistors T3 and T4. The amplified signals are then rectified and filtered. The filtered DC voltage is given to inverting pin of opamp IC2. The non- inverting pin of IC2 is connected to a variable DC voltage via preset VR2 which determines the threshold value of ultrasonic signal received by receiver for operation of relay RL1. The inverted output of IC2 is used to bias transistor T5. When transistor T5 conducts, it supplies base bias to transistor T6. When transistor T6 conducts, it actuates the relay. The relay can be used to control any electrical or electronic equipment. Important hints: 1. Frequency of ultrasonic sound generated can be varied from 40 to 50 kHz range by adjusting VR1. Adjust it for maximum performance. 2. Ultrasonic sounds are highly directional. So when you are operating the switch the ultrasonic transmitter transducer of transmitter should be placed towards ultrasonic receiver transducer of receiver circuit for proper functioning. 3. Use a 9-volt PP3 battery for transmitter. The receiver can be powered from a battery eliminator and is always kept in switched on position. 4. For latch facility use a DPDT relay if you want to switch on and switch off the load. A flip-flop can be inserted between IC2 and relay. If you want only an ON-time delay use a 555 only at output of IC2. The relay will be energised for the required period determined by the timing components of 555 monostable multivibrator. 5. Ultrasonic waves are emitted by many natural sources. Therefore, sometimes, the circuit

13

might get falsely triggered, espically when a flip-flop is used with the circuit, and there is no remedy for that. Now,In this project we needed to stop the stepper motor when obstacle reflect the waves from transmitter,for some period of time and also we want to switch on the alarm(buzzer) for the same period.these both processes can be controlled by a relay R1 which further is attached with potentiometer which control the time for which stepper motor turn off and buzzer turn on. Actually to accomplish that we used 2 555-timer,one of which provide the clock pulse needed for further operation,and other provide the time for which that clock pulse is allowed to move on.

1.4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF ULTRASONIC RADAR

14

15

Fig: 1 Circuit Diagram of Ultrasonic Radar

16

1.6

PCB LAYOUT OF ULTRASONIC RADAR

Fig: 2 PCB Layout 17

CHAPTER 2 IC USED
2.1 HEF4017BMSI

FIG: 3 PIN DIAGRAM OF HEF4017BMSI DESCRIPTION The HEF4017B is a 5-stage Johnson decade counter with ten spike-free decoded active HIGH outputs (Oo to O9), an active LOW output from the most significant flip-flop (O5-9), active HIGH and active LOW clock inputs (CP0, CP1) and an overriding asynchronous master reset input (MR). The counter is advanced by either a LOW to HIGH transition at CP0 while CP1 is LOW or a HIGH to LOW transition at CP1 while CP0 is HIGH (see also function table). When cascading counters, the O5-9 output, which is LOW while the counter is in states 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9, can be used to drive the CP0 input of the next counter. (Oo = O5-9 = HIGH; O1 to O9 = LOW) independent of the clock inputs (CP0, CP1). Automatic code correction of the counter is provided by an internal circuit: following any illegal code the counter returns to a proper counting mode within 11 clock pulses. Schmitt-trigger action in the clock input makes the circuit highly tolerant to slower clock rise and fall times.

18

Fig: 4 Functional Diagram OF HEF4017BMSI

PINNING CP0 clock input (LOW to HIGH triggered) CP1 clock input (HIGH to LOW triggered) MR master reset input O0 to O9 decoded outputs O5-9 carry output (active LOW) HEF4017BP(N): 16-lead DIL; plastic (SOT38-1) HEF4017BD(F): 16-lead DIL; ceramic (cerdip) (SOT74) HEF4017BT(D): 16-lead SO; plastic (SOT109-1) ( ): Package Designator North America

19

20

5 STAGE JOHNSON COUNTER

Fig: 5 Logic Diagram of 5 STAGE JOHNSON COUNTER

21

Fig: 6 Function Table 1. H = HIGH state (the more positive voltage) 2. L = LOW state (the less positive voltage) 3. X = state is immaterial 4. = positive-going transition 5. = negative-going transition Some examples of applications for the HEF4017B are: Decade counter with decimal decoding 1 out of n decoding counter (when cascaded) Sequential controller Timer.

22

2.2

PIN DIAGRAM OF 555 TIMER IC

top view 0V TRIGGER OUTPUT RESET 1 2 3 4 8 7 6 5 +Vs DISCHARGE THRESHOLD CONTROL

555
IKES0902

FIG: 7 555 TIMER IC 2.4 ASTABLE AND MONOSTABLE GENERATORS THE 555 TIMER:-

1) THE 555 MONOSTABLE:

+Vs R
RESET

+Vs
OUTPUT

TRIGGER THRESHOLD DISCHARGE

Vin C

Vout 10nF
IKES0902

GND CONTROL

0V

Fig: 8 555 MONOSTABLE 23

In theory any combination of R and C is possible to achieve a required time period. In practice, however, there are several things to remember. 1. The transistor connected to the DISCHARGE terminal, as well as having to conduct the short-circuit current of the timing capacitor when the monostable resets, also has to carry the current flowing through the timing resistor. To prevent destruction of this transistor the minimum value of R should be 1k. 2. The minimum value of C should be considered as 100pF, since any smaller value will be similar to the input capacitance of the timer circuit and so the time periods will be inaccurate. 3. There are two factors to consider when looking at the maximum value of C. The first is that any large value capacitors will be electrolytic and so have a leakage current which must pass through R. If the leakage current is too large for the value of R then the time period will be inaccurate. It could well happen, if there is a large leakage current, that the voltage across C never reaches never reached! 2) THE 555 ASTABLE
2 3

Vs and so the threshold switching voltage level is

+Vs R1
RESET

+Vs
OUTPUT

DISCHARGE

R2

TRIGGER THRESHOLD GND CONTROL

Vout 10nF
IKES0902

0V

Fig: 9 555 ASTABLE 24

When first switched on the capacitor, C, is discharged and so the voltage across this capacitor is less than the TRIGGER voltage and so the output goes to Vs. The capacitor, C, charges through R1 and R2 until the voltage across C is greater than the THRESHOLD switching level, at which point the output voltage becomes 0V and the DISCHARGE terminal becomes connected to 0V. The capacitor now discharges through R2 until the voltage across C becomes less than the TRIGGER switching voltage. When this happens, the output voltage becomes Vs and the process repeats. It should be noted that the first pulse is longer than the remainder, since C has to charge from 0V and not
1 3

Vs. The same restrictions apply to the values of C

and R (R1 and R2) as for the monostable.

2.3 ULN2803A (DARTINGTON TRANSISTOR ARRAY)

Description/ordering information The ULN2803A is a high-voltage, high-current Darlington transistor array. The device consists of eight npn Darlington pairs that feature high-voltage outputs with commoncathode clamp diodes for switching inductive loads. The collector-current rating of each Darlington pair is 500 mA. The Darlington pairs may be connected in parallel for higher current Capability. Applications include relay drivers, hammer drivers, lamp drivers, display drivers (LED and gas discharge), line drivers, and logic buffers. The ULN2803A has a 2.7-k series base resistor for each Darlington pair for operation directly with TTL or 5-V CMOS devices.

25

fig .pin diagram of ULN2083A

Logic Diagram

fig. Logic Diagram

26

fig. Schematic (each Darlington pair)

CHAPTER-3 COMPONENTS USED

3.1 POWER SUPPLY 1. All electronic circuits need a power source to work. 2. For electronic circuits made up of transistors and/or ICs, this power source must be a DC voltage of a specific value. 3. A battery is a common DC voltage source for some types of electronic equipment especially portables like cell phones and iPods. 4. Most non-portable equipment uses power supplies that operate from the AC power. Main circuits in most power supplies.

Fig: 10 27

Power Supply DC Power Supply- an Introduction In this section we are going to study how the AC mains supply is converted into the DC supply required for operating many of the common electronic equipments. As you all may be aware almost all of the electronic equipments require DC power supply for their operation. Even those equipments to which we provide AC mains supply, convert it internally into DC supply to power the electronic circuits

Fig: 11 dc power supply So, almost all electronic circuits require DC power supply and we have AC supply commonly available in our homes, offices etc. Now, if we somehow convert the AC mains supply to DC, then we can run our equipments using this converted DC supply. The process of converting the AC mains supply to DC supply is called rectification and the circuit used for this purpose is called rectifier. Using the rectifier circuit and some other electronic components one can make a power supply to provide DC power to our electronic equipments. Let us now see that are those components that together with the rectifier make a complete power supply. 1) Step Down Transformer 2) Rectifier Circuit 3) Filter Circuit 4) Regulator Circuit 1) Step Down Transformer 28

The step down transformer is used to reduce or step down the mains AC supply voltage to a low value. The output from the step down transformer is still in the AC form, only the voltage is reduced. 2) Rectifier Circuit In the next section, this reduced AC voltage is fed to a rectifier circuit. The job of this rectifier is to convert this AC supply into DC. The output of the rectifier will be a DC supply, but it will be a pulsating DC supply, i.e. this DC supply will contain small amount of pulses. 3) Filter Circuit. To remove these pulses from the DC supply and to make it a clean DC supply, this pulsating DC supply is next fed to a filter circuit. It is the job of this filter circuit to convert this DC with pulses into a pure DC. 4) Regulator Circuit This final DC output when given to equipment must provide a constant DC supply. But the DC output from the filter circuit changes according to change in the load value or according to change in the input AC mains voltage. To keep this DC output constant irrespective of change in input AC mains voltage and the load, a circuit known as regulator circuit is used. 3.2 1) TESTING & CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT Physical testing 1) 2) 3) 2) 1) Check front panel. Check power cord. Check the cabinet.

Calibration Analog Voltmeter - For checking analog voltmeter regulated power supply, Digital multimeter is used. The Digital multimeter gives accurate voltage but the meter which connected to the equipment not gives proper accurate voltage.

2)

Analog ammeter - For checking analog ammeter regulated power supply, Digital multimeter is used. Power supply points connected to the multi meter then connected ammeter series with multimeter output of analog multimeter depend upon the scale of analog ammeter. 29

Fig: 13 Ammeter

Fig: 14 Voltmeter of 10 V

30

Fig: 15 Voltmeter of 150 V 3) 4) Component Checking- All the component like resistance,capacitor,Transistor, Digital Multimeter
Diode, Continuity, Voltage, Current measure with the help of Multimeter

A meter is a measuring instrument. An ammeter measures current, a voltmeter measures the potential difference (voltage) between two points, and an ohmmeter measures resistance. A multimeter combines these functions, and possibly some additional ones as well, into a single instrument. 1) Multimeter as a Ammeter 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Turn Power Off before connecting multimeter Break Circuit Place multimeter in series with circuit Select highest current setting, turn power on, and work your way down. Turn power off Disconnect multimeter. Reconnect Circuit POWER

Ammeter mode measures current in Amperes. To measure current you need to power off the circuit, you need to break the circuit so that the ammeter can be connected in series. All the current flowing in the circuit must pass through the ammeter. Meters are not supposed to alter the behavior of the circuit, so the ammeter must have a very low resistance. The diagrams below show the connection of a multimeter to measure current.

Fig: 16 Multimeter as a Ammeter 2) Multimeter as a Voltmeter 31

To use a multimeter as a voltmeter it is connected in parallel between the two points where the measurement is to be made. The voltmeter provides a parallel pathway so it needs to be of a high resistance to allow as little current flow through it as possible. Voltage measurements are the most common measurements. Processing of electronic signals is usually thought of in voltage terms. Voltage messurements are easy to do because you do not need to change the original circuit you only need to touch the points of interests

Fig: 17 Multimeter as Voltmeter 1. 2. Select the DC or AC Volts If not a auto-ranging mutimeter then start at the highest volts scale and work your way

down. 3. Be very careful to not touch any other electronic components within the equipment and do not touch the metal tips. Multimeter uses 1. With the help of multimeter we can easily measure resistance 2. With the help of multimeter we can also measure the forward voltage across the diode. Review 1) 2) A meter capable of checking for voltage, current, and resistance is called a multimeter, As voltage is always relative between two points, a voltage-measuring meter ("voltmeter") must be connected to two points in a circuit in order to obtain a good reading. Be careful not to touch the bare probe tips together while measuring voltage, as this will create a short-circuit! 32 With the help of multimeter we also find the terminal of transistors.

3)

Remember to always check for both AC and DC voltage when using a multimetercheck for the presence of hazardous voltage on a circuit. Make sure you check for voltage between all pair-combinations of conductors, including between the individual conductors and ground!

3.3 3.4

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED) A LED is a diode made from the semi-conductor material gallium arsenide

phosphide. Its component outline and symbol are shown below.

lens anode flat cathode lead

anode lead
IKES0902

cathode

Fig: 18 Symbol of led When forward biased it conducts and emits light of a certain color depending on its composition. No light emission occurs in reverse bias and if the reverse voltage exceeds approximately 5V then the LED may be damaged.

+Vs

0V
IKES0902

0V

Fig: 19 Circuit of led

33

A LED requires a series resistor to ensure the current does not exceed its maximum rating, which should be taken as 20mA.

3.4

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

a f g e d
IKES0902

Fig: 20 Seven segment display Electronic calculators, clocks, cash registers and measuring instruments often have sevensegment LED displays as numerical indicators. Each segment is an LED and by lighting up different segments all numbers from 0 to 9 can be displayed. Each segment needs a separate current limiting resistor to prevent damage to the segment by excess power dissipation. All the cathodes (common cathode type) or all the anodes (common anode type) are joined to form a common connection. If the driving circuit is made from transistors, so that the seven-segment display segments are connected in the collector circuits, then a common anode display will be required 3.5 STEPPER MOTOR

A stepper motor is an electromechanical device which converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical movements. The shaft or spindle of a stepper motor rotates in discrete step increments when electrical command pulses are applied to it in the proper sequence. The motors rotation has several direct relationships to these applied input pulses. The sequence of the applied pulses is directly related to the direction of motor shafts rotation. 34

The speed of the motor shafts rotation is directly related to the frequency of the input pulses and the length of rotation is directly related to the number of input pulses applied.

Fig: 21 Stepper Motor

Fig: 22 Poles of Motor

In addition to being classified by their step angle stepper motors are also classified according to frame sizes which correspond to the diameter of the body of the motor. For instance a size 11 stepper motor has a body diameter of approximately 1.1 inches. Likewise a size 23 stepper motor has a body diameter of 2.3 inches (58 mm), etc. The body length may however, vary from motor to motor within the same frame size classification. As a general rule the available torque output from a motor of a particular frame size will increase with increased body length.

35

3.6

ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Ultrasonic sensors (also known as transceivers when they both send and receive)

work on a principle similar to radar or sonar which evaluate attributes of a target by interpreting the echoes from radio or sound waves respectively. Ultrasonic sensors generate high frequency sound waves and evaluate the echo which is received back by the sensor. Sensors calculate the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo to determine the distance to an object. Fig: 23 Ultrasonic Sensor

This technology can be used for measuring: wind speed and direction (anemometer), fullness of a tank and speed through air or water. For measuring speed or direction a device uses multiple detectors and calculates the speed from the relative distances to particulates in the air or water. To measure the amount of liquid in a tank, the sensor measures the distance 36

to the surface of the fluid. Further applications include: humidifiers, sonar, medical ultrasonography, burglar alarms and non-destructive testing. An ultrasonic transducer is a device that converts energy into ultrasound, or sound waves above the normal range of human hearing. While technically a dog whistle is an ultrasonic transducer that converts mechanical energy in the form of air pressure into ultrasonic sound waves, the term is more apt to be used to refer to piezoelectric transducers that convert electrical energy into sound. Piezoelectric crystals have the property of changing size when a voltage is applied, thus applying an alternating current (AC) across them causes them to oscillate at very high frequencies, thus producing very high frequency sound waves. Systems typically use a transducer which generates sound waves in the ultrasonic range, above 18,000 hertz, by turning electrical energy into sound, then upon receiving the echo turn the sound waves into electrical energy which can be measured and displayed. The technology is limited by the shapes of surfaces and the density or consistency of the material. For example foam on the surface of a fluid in a tank could distort a reading.

3.7

LM78XX (SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATORS)

GENERAL DESCRIPTION The LM78XX series of three terminal regulators is available with several fixed output voltages making them useful in a wide range of applications. One of these is local on card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single point regulation. The voltages available allow these regulators to be used in logic systems, instrumentation, HiFi, and other solid state electronic equipment. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents. The LM78XX series is available in an aluminum TO-3 package which will allow over 1.0A load current if adequate heat sinking is provided. Current limiting is included to limit the peak output current to a safe value. Safe area protection for the output transistor is provided to limit internal power dissipation. If internal power dissipation becomes too high for the heat sinking provided, the thermal shutdown circuit takes over preventing the IC from overheating. 37

Considerable effort was expanded to make the LM78XX series of regulators easy to use and minimize the number of external components. It is not necessary to bypass the output, although this does improve transient response. Input bypassing is needed only if the regulator is located far from the filter capacitor of the power supply. For output voltage other than 5V, 12V and 15V the LM117 series provides an output voltage range from 1.2V to 57V. 3.10.2 Features 1.Output current in excess of 1A 2.Internal thermal overload protection 3.No external components required 4.Output transistor safe area protection 5.Internal short circuit current limit 6.Available in the aluminum TO-3 package Voltage Range LM7805C 5V LM7812C 12V LM7815C 15V Connection diagram:

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Fig: 24 TO-220(T),TO-3(k) Selecting the Best Regulator For Your Application:

The best choice for a specific application can be determined by evaluating the requirements such as: Maximum Load Current Type of Input Voltage Source (Battery or AC) Output Voltage Precision (Tolerance) Quiescent (Idling) Current Special Features (Shutdown Pin, Error Flag, etc.) 3.8 PCB LAYOUT Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) are used to both mechanically support and electrically connect electronic components by either surface mount (SMT) or though hole assembly using conductive pathways, or traces, etched from copper sheets laminated onto a nonconductive substrate. Alternative names are: Printed wiring board's (PWB) Etched wiring board Switchboard 39

After populating the board with electronic components, a printed circuit assembly (PCBA) is formed. This PCBA subassembly will become an integral layer in a GGI manufactured User Interface Assembly.

Fig: 25 PCB Layout 3.9 RESISTORS Resistors determine the flow of current in an electrical circuit. Where there is high resistance in a circuit the flow of current is small, where the resistance is low the flow of current is large. Resistance, voltage and current are connected in an electrical circuit by Ohms Law. Resistors are used for regulating current and they resist the current flow and the extent to which they do this is measured in ohms (). Resistors are found in almost every electronic circuit. The most common type of resistor consists of a small ceramic (clay) tube covered partially by a conducting carbon film. The composition of the carbon determines how much current can pass through.

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Resistors are too small to have numbers printed on them and so they are marked with a number of coloured bands. Each colour stands for a number. Three colour bands show the resistors value in ohms and the fourth shows tolerance. Resistors can never be made to a precise value and the tolerance band (the fourth band) tells us, using a percentage, how close the resistor is to its coded value.

Resistor Fig: 26

RESISTOR COLOUR CODING The resistor color code is a long standing standard in both the electronics and electrical industries, indicating the value of resistance of a resistor. Resistance is measured in ohms and there is a foundation for it called Ohm's Law. (Want to know about Ohm's Law? If so, Each color band represents a number and the order of the color band will represent a number value. The first 2 color bands indicate a number. The 3rd color band indicates the multiplier or in other words the number of zeros. The fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor +/- 20%, 10% or 5%. In most cases, there are 4 color bands. However, certain precision resistors have 5 bands or have the values written on them, refining the tolerance value even more. There is no standard (TANS) however, for the 5th band. From one manufacturing company to another, the 5th band may indicate 2%, 1%, 1/2% or even closer, according to their own standards. Color bands are usually found on resistors that have a

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wattage value of 1/8 to 2 watts; though it is rare, there are some 5 watt resistors that are banded. There are also some capacitors that are color coded.

Colour Coding Fig: 27

COLOUR CODING TABLE

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Fig: 28 COLOUR CODING TABLE

3.10

TRANSISTORS A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals

and power. It is composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. 43

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its release in the early 1950s the transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Fig:29 Transistor The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base terminal (that is, flowing from the base to the emitter) can control or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage 44

drop develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Fig: 30 Symbol Of Transistor

3.11

CAPACITORS Capacitors are components that are used to store an electrical charge and are used in

timer circuits. A capacitor may be used with a resistor to produce a timer. Sometimes capacitors are used to smooth a current in a circuit as they can prevent false triggering of other components such as relays. When power is supplied to a circuit that includes a capacitor - the capacitor charges up. When power is turned off the capacitor discharges its electrical charge slowly.

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Fig: 31 Capacitor A capacitor is composed of two conductors separated by an insulating material called a DIELECTRIC. The dielectric can be paper, plastic film, ceramic, air or a vacuum. The plates can be aluminum discs, aluminum foil or a thin film of metal applied to opposite sides of a solid dielectric. The CONDUCTOR - DIELECTRIC - CONDUCTOR sandwich can be rolled into a cylinder or left flat

Fig:32 Types of capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are polarized which means they have a positive and negative lead and must be positioned in a circuit the right way round (the positive lead must go to the positive side of the circuit). They also have a much higher capacitance than non-electrolytic capacitors. 46

Non-electrolytic capacitors usually have a lower capacitance. They are not polarized (do not have a positive and negative lead) and can be placed anyway round in a circuit. They are normally used to smooth a current in a circuit.

Fig: 33 Symbols of Capacitor

CAPACITOR CODING: There is a three digit code printed on a ceramic capacitor specifying its value. The first two digits are the two significant figures and the third digit is a base 10 multiplier. The value is given in picofarads (pF). A letter suffix indicates the tolerance.

0.25 pF

20%

0.5 pF

+100 0%

5%

20 +50%

10%

20 + 80%

Fig: 34 coding in capacitor

Example: a label of "104K" indicates 10104 pF = 100,000 pF = 100 nF = 0.1 F 10% 47

Fig: 35 105k capacitor

3.12 IC SOCKET Socketing expensive ICs or holding the firmware during the debugging phase of a new design is not only advisable, for most applications mandatory. The Adapters.com sales staff has over 50 years combined experience working with IC packaging and there applications. In some cases we know the product better than the manufactures themselves. It is mainly used for IC safety.

IC Socket Fig: 36

3.13 RELAY
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Fig.37 Relays A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core, an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB. When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing. When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some 49

automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.[1] A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a lightemitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and controlled circuits.

Fig.38 Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.) Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays; a relay switches one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in one of three ways:
1.

Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NO contacts may also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the contacts close before the button or switch is fully engaged.

2.

Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact. NC contacts may also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, 50

which means that the contacts stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.
3.

Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered: 1. SPST Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity. 2. SPDT Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others. Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total. 3. DPST Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each). 4. DPDT Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals, including the coil. The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 12 terminals). EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO, and coil connections, respectively.

CHAPTER-4
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TOOLS USED
4.1 SOLDERING IRON A soldering iron is a hand tool most commonly used in soldering. It supplies heat to melt the solder so that it can flow into the joint between two workpieces. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically, by passing an electric current (supplied through an electrical cord or battery cables) through the resistive material of a heating element. Another heating method includes combustion of a suitable gas, which can either be delivered through a tank mounted on the iron (flameless), or through an external flame. Less common uses include pyrography (burning designs into wood) and plastic welding. Soldering irons are most often used for installation, repairs, and limited production work. High-volume production lines use other soldering methods.

Soldering Iron Fig: 37

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4.2

SOLDERING STAND

A soldering iron stand keeps the iron away from flammable materials, and often also comes with a cellulose sponge and flux pot for cleaning the tip. Some soldering irons for continuous and professional use come as part of a soldering station, which allows the exact temperature of the tip to be adjusted, kept constant, and sometimes displayed.

Soldering Stand Fig: 38 4.3 SOLDER WIRE Solder is a fusible metal alloy used to join together metal workpieces and having a melting point below that of the workpiece(s). Soft solder is what is most often thought of when solder or soldering are mentioned and it typically has a melting range of 90 to 450 C (190 to 840 F). It is commonly used in electronics and plumbing. Alloys that melt between 180 and 190 C (360 and 370 F) are the most commonly used. By definition, using alloys with melting point above 450 C (840 F) is called 'hard soldering', 'silver soldering' or brazing. Soft solder can contain lead and/or flux but in many applications lead free solder is used. Perhaps the most common and most familiar form of solder is as a wire or rod, though plumbers often use bars of solder 53

while jewelers often use solder in thin sheets which they cut into snippets. Solder can also come in a paste or as a preformed foil shaped to match the workpiece. The word solder comes from the Middle English word soudur, via Old French solduree and soulder, from the Latin solidare, meaning "to make solid". Eutectic alloys melt at a single temperature. Non-eutectic alloys have markedly different solidus and liquidus temperature, and within that range they exist as a paste of solid particles in a melt of the lower-melting phase. The pasty state causes some problems during handling; it can however be exploited as it allows molding of the solder during cooling, e.g. for ensuring watertight joint of pipes, resulting in a so called 'wiped joint'. With the reduction of the size of circuit board features, the size of interconnects shrinks as well. At such current densities the Sn63Pb37 solder balls form hillocks on the anode side and voids on the cathode side; the increased content of lead on the anode side suggests lead is the primary migrating species.

Fig: 39

Soldering wire

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CHAPTER-5 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB) 5.1 CLEANING

When burnt flux and oxidized material begin to accumulate on the tip, they can block heat transfer and contaminate joints, making soldering difficult or impossible. Therefore, the tips are periodically cleaned. Many soldering stations come with cellulose sponges which are dampened and used to wipe a hot iron's tip clean. A wire brush, preferably brass or wire wheel (mounted on a bench grinder), is sometimes carefully used to remove very severe oxidation, though this may risk damaging the tip's protective iron plating. A small amount of fresh solder is usually then applied to the clean tip in a process called tinning. The working surface of the tip is usually kept tinned (coated with wet solder) to minimize oxidation. Oxidation blocks heat transfer, corrodes the tip, and contaminates the joint.

5.2

TIPS
Some soldering irons have interchangeable tips, also known as bits that vary in size

and shape for different types of work. Pyramid tips with a triangular flat face and chisel tips with a wide flat face are useful for soldering sheet metal. Fine conical or tapered chisel tips are typically used for electronics work. Older and very cheap irons typically use a bare copper tip, which is shaped with a file or sandpaper. This dissolves gradually into the solder, suffering pitting and erosion of the shape. Copper tips are sometimes filed when worn down. Iron-plated copper tips have become increasingly popular since the 1980s. Because iron is not readily dissolved by molten solder, the plated tip is more durable than a bare copper one. This is especially important when working at the higher temperatures needed for modern lead-free solders. Solid iron and steel tips are seldom used because they store less heat, and rusting can break the heating element.

5.3

PCB PREPARATION
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1. CLEANING OF PCB- The plate of copper is generally washed so as to remove an oxide grease or dirt. 2. DESINGNING- Draw the layout of the circuit on the graph paper. The distance for the component is left by placing the component. 3. PAINTING- Once the layout circuit is drawn, we will paint the PCB. Draw lines on PCB with the help of brush. Lines should neither be too narrow nor be too wide. 4. ETCHING- For etching of the plates take a utensil and wash it properly. For washing PCB take water, just enough to complete immerse the board. Add 230 gm of ferric chloride carefully without splashing and place the PCB. Place the plate in utensil with the copper side up such that the copper side is completely immersed in solution. After sometime the copper side etches and the base material could not thus, the etching process is completed. 5. DRILLING - When the paint is dry, we should drill the plate. The holes should be exactly placed so that the component fix exactly in the holes without any bending of leads. For the drilling of holes, place it on the proper position. Always ensure that the copper lines passage near the holes. 6. WASHING - The paint of pattern is removed by rubbing it with rag to see the entire copper pattern. Now wash the PCB in water.

5.4 TESTING
5.4.1 BREADBOARD TESTING Each board needs to ensure that the required connection exists, that there are not short circuit and drill holes are properly placed. The testing usually consists of visual inspection and continuity testing, Complex board requires both.

5.4.2 VISUALIZATION TESTING All the components have been mounted we inspect that they have been mounted according to the layout and circuit diagram. Then soldering is done. The circuit is then checked for any soldering defects or short circuiting.

5.4.3 OVERHEATING TESTING

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The circuit is switched on and then kept on for several hours to check for burning of any component especially IC. This helps us to know the consistency of the circuit.

CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION

This project aimed at reception of ultrasonic signals which are continuously being transmitted when something interrupts. The project was completed successfully and it was helpful to us in various direct and indirect ways, like understanding of circuits as well as procedure followed in manufacturing a components. A good insight into inspection and Quality check of products helped us to be more familiar with the Electronics Industry. Conclusion of minor project ULTRASONIC RADAR helped a lot in implementing our theoretical knowledge to an practical exposure. FUTURE SCOPE:Although the project aimed only at making call through ultrasonic radar but its implementations and applications are vast. Ultrasonic Radar can be made of use in:1. Security Alarms 2. Anti-theft Cars 3. Missile Launching 4. Detection of Enemies 5. Air Traffic Control 6. Defence

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CHAPTER 8 REFERENCES

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Digital electronics-R.P.Jain. Electronics devices and circuits-Sanjeev Gupta. Digital electronics-Floyd. http://www. wikepedia.org/ultrasonic_radar http://www.circuitstoday.com/200m-fm-transmitter/ http://www.members.tripod.com/~transmitters/ http://www.circuitstoday.com/200m-fm-transmitter/ http://www.members.tripod.com/~transmitters/

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