ABSTRACT

Static VAR Compensation under FACTS uses TSC (Thyristor switched capacitors) based on shunt compensation duly controlled from a programmed microcontroller. Shunt capacitive compensation - This method is used improve the power factor. Whenever an inductive load is connected to the transmission line, power factor lags because of lagging load current. To compensate, a shunt capacitor is connected which draws current leading the source voltage. The net result is improvement in power factor. The time lag between the zero voltage pulse and zero current pulse duly generated by suitable operational amplifier circuits in comparator mode are fed to two interrupt pins of the microcontroller where the program takes over to actuate appropriate number of opto-isolators duly interfaced to back to back SCR at its output for bringing shunt capacitors into the load circuit to get the power factor till it reaches 0.95. The microcontroller used in the project is of 8051 family which is of 8 bit. The power supply consists of a step down transformer 230/12V, which steps down the voltage to 12V AC. This is converted to DC using a Bridge rectifier. The ripples are removed using a capacitive filter and it is then regulated to +5V using a voltage regulator 7805 which is required for the operation of the microcontroller and other components.

Power factor improvement

Alternating current circuits Unlike Direct Current Circuits, where only resistance restricts the current flow, in Alternating Current Circuits, there are other circuits aspects which determines the current flow; though these are similar to resistance, they do not consume power, but loads the system with reactive currents; like D.C. circuits where the current multiplied by voltage gives watts, here the same gives only VA. Like resistance, these are called Reactance. Reactance is caused by either inductance or by capacitance. The current drawn by inductance lags the voltage while the one by capacitance leads the voltage. Almost all industrial loads are inductive in nature and hence draw lagging reactive power , which unnecessarily load the system, performing no work. Since the capacitive currents is leading in nature, loading the system with capacitors wipes out them.

FIG 1: WAVEFORMS FOR INDUCTIVE LOAD

FIG 2: WAVEFORMS FOR CAPACITIVE LOAD

Need of power-factor improvement:

Whatever the power factor is, however, the generating authority must install machines capable of delivering a particular voltage and current even though, in a particular case, not all the voltage and current products is being put to good use. The generators must be able to withstand the rated voltage and current regardless of the power delivered. For example, if an alternator is rated to deliver 1000A at 11000 volts, the machine coils must be capable of carrying rated current. The apparent power of such a machine is 11 M V A and if the load power factor is unit this 11 MVA will be delivered and used as 11 MW of active power i.e. the alternator is being used to the best of its ability. If, however, the load power factor is say, 0.8 lagging, then only 8.8 MW are taken and provide revenue, even though the generator still has to be rated at 1000A at 11 kV. The lower the power factor, the worse the situation becomes from the supply authorities viewpoint. Accordingly, consumers are encouraged to improve their load power factor and in many cases are penalized if they do not. Improving the power factor means reducing the angle of lag between supply voltage and supply current.

Location of power-factor improvement capacitor banks:

Any installation including the following types of machinery or equipment is likely to have low power factor which can be corrected, with a consequent saving in charges, by way of reduced demand charges, lesser low power factor penalties:

1. Induction motors of all types (which from by far the greatest industrial load on a. c. mains). 2. Power thyristor installation (for D.C. motor control and electro-chemical processes). 3. Welding machines 4. Electric-arc and induction furnaces. 5. Choke coils and magnetic system. 6. Fluorescent lighting.

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load to the apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (frequently expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be greater than the real power. In an electric power system, a load with a low power factor draws more current than a load with a high power factor for the same amount of useful power transferred. The higher currents increase the energy lost in the distribution system, and require larger wires and other equipment. Because of the costs of larger equipment and wasted energy, electrical utilities will usually charge a higher cost to industrial or commercial customers where there is a low power factor.
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Linear loads with low power factor (such as induction motors) can be corrected with a passive network of capacitors or inductors. Non-linear loads, such as rectifiers, distort the current drawn from the system. In such cases, active or passive power factor correction may be used to counteract the distortion and raise the power factor. The devices for correction of the power factor may be at a central substation, spread out over a distribution system, or built into powerconsuming equipment.

Power factor in linear circuits

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase, changing polarity at the same instant in each cycle. All the power entering the loads is consumed. Where reactive loads are present, such as with capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference between the current and voltage waveforms.

Power factor correction of linear loads

It is often desirable to adjust the power factor of a system to near 1.0. This power factor correction (PFC) is achieved by switching in or out banks of inductors or capacitors. Power factor correction may be applied by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network. Correction equipment may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity supplier. A high power factor is generally desirable in a transmission system to reduce transmission losses and improve voltage regulation at the load. Power factor correction brings the power factor of an AC power circuit closer to 1 by supplying reactive power of opposite sign, adding capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect of motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. If a load had a capacitive value, inductors are connected to correct the power factor. In the electricity industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and capacitors are said to supply it. The reactive elements can create voltage fluctuations and harmonic noise when switched on or off. They will supply or sink reactive power regardless of whether there is a corresponding load operating nearby, increasing the system's no-load losses. In a worst case, reactive elements can interact with the system and with each other to create resonant conditions, resulting in
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system instability and severe overvoltage fluctuations. As such, reactive elements cannot simply be applied at will, and power factor correction is normally subject to engineering analysis. An automatic power factor correction unit is used to improve power factor. A power factor correction unit usually consists of a number of capacitors that are switched by means of contactors. These contactors are controlled by a regulator that measures power factor in an electrical network. To be able to measure power factor, the regulator uses a current transformer to measure the current in one phase. Depending on the load and power factor of the network, the power factor controller will switch the necessary blocks of capacitors in steps to make sure the power factor stays above a selected value (usually demanded by the energy supplier), say 0.9. Instead of using a set of switched capacitors, an unloaded synchronous motor can supply reactive power. The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a function of its field excitation. This is referred to as a synchronous condenser. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at a leading power factor and puts VARS onto the network as required to support a systems voltage or to maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The condensers installation and operation are identical to large electric motors. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted; it behaves like an electrically variable capacitor. Unlike capacitors, the amount of reactive power supplied is proportional to voltage, not the square of voltage; this improves voltage stability on large networks. Synchronous condensers are often used in connection with high voltage direct current transmission projects or in large industrial plants such as steel mills.

Non-linear loads
A non-linear load on a power system is typically a rectifier (such as used in a power supply), or some kind of arc discharge device such as a fluorescent lamp, electric welding machine, or arc furnace. Because current in these systems is interrupted by a switching action, the current contains frequency components that are multiples of the power system frequency. Distortion power factor is a measure of how much the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.

Non-sinusoidal components
Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some other form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental frequency) AC current. Filters consisting of linear capacitors and inductors can prevent harmonic currents from entering the supplying system. In linear circuits having only sinusoidal currents and voltages of one frequency, the power factor arises only from the difference in phase between the current and voltage. This is "displacement power factor". The concept can be generalized to a total, distortion, or true power factor where the apparent power includes all harmonic components. This is of importance in practical power systems which contain non-linear loads such as rectifiers, some forms of electric lighting, electric arc furnaces, welding equipment, switched-mode power supplies and other devices. A typical multimeter will give incorrect results when attempting to measure the AC current drawn by a non-sinusoidal load; the instruments sense the average value of a rectified waveform. The average response is then calibrated to the effective, RMS value. An RMS sensing multimeter must be used to measure the actual RMS currents and voltages (and therefore apparent power). To measure the real power or reactive power, a wattmeter designed to work properly with non-sinusoidal currents must be used.

Distortion power factor

The distortion power factor' describes how the harmonic distortion of a load current decreases the average power transferred to the load.

THDi is the total harmonic distortion of the load current. This definition assumes that the voltage stays undistorted (sinusoidal, without harmonics). This simplification is often a good approximation in practice. I1,rms is the fundamental component of the current and Irms is the total current - both are root mean square-values. The result when multiplied with the displacement power factor (DPF) is the overall, true power factor or just power factor (PF)
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FIG 3: PROJECT BLOCK DIAGRAM

HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
HARDWARE COMPONENTS: 1. TRANSFORMER (230 12 V AC) 2. VOLTAGE REGULATOR 3. RECTIFIER 4. FILTER 5. MICROCONTROLLER (AT89S52/AT89C51) 6. OPTO-ISOLATOR (MOC3063) 7. SCR 8. PUSH BUTTONS 9. LCD 10. LM339 11. CURRENT TRANSFORMER 12. INDUCTIVE LOAD 13. SHUNT CAPACITOR 14. LED 15. 1N4007 / 1N4148 16. RESISTOR 17. CAPACITOR

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 7805

Features Output Current up to 1A. Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V. Thermal Overload Protection. Short Circuit Protection. Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection.

Fig 4:block diagram of voltage regulator Description The LM78XX/LM78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulators are available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a Wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shutdown and safe operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can deliver over 1A output Current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
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regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.

FIG 5: INTERNAL BLOCK DIAGRAM OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Absolute Maximum Ratings

FIG 6 : RATINGS OF THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

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RECTIFIER
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), current that flows in only one direction, a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components. The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification. In positive half cycle only two diodes (1 set of parallel diodes) will conduct, in negative half cycle remaining two diodes will conduct and they will conduct only in forward bias only.

FIG 7: RECTIFIER

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FILTER
Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage. The simple capacitor filter is the most basic type of power supply filter. The use of this filter is very limited. It is sometimes used on extremely high-voltage, low-current power supplies for cathode-ray and similar electron tubes that require very little load current from the supply. This filter is also used in circuits where the power-supply ripple frequency is not critical and can be relatively high. Below figure can show how the capacitor charges and discharges.

FIG 8:FILTER

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MICROCONTROLLER AT89S52
The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels high-density non volatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non volatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. Features: Compatible with MCS-51 Products 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory Endurance: 10,000 Write/Erase Cycles 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz Three-level Program Memory Lock 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM 32 Programmable I/O Lines Three 16-bit Timer/Counters Eight Interrupt Sources
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 Full Duplex UART Serial Channel Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode Watchdog Timer Dual Data Pointer Power-off Flag Fast Programming Time

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Block Diagram of AT89S52:

FIG 9: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AT89S52

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Pin Configurations of AT89S52

FIG 10: PIN DIAGRAM OF AT89S52 Pin Description: VCC:

Supply voltage.

GND:
Ground.

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Port 0:
Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high-impedance inputs. Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low-order address/data bus during accesses to external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pull-ups. Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification. External pull-ups are required during program verification.

Port 1:
Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2 trigger input (P1.1/T2EX).

Port 2:
Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pullups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.

Port 3:
Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pull-ups. The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
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internal pull-ups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pull-ups.

RST:
Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the device. This pin drives high for 98 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG:
Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory.

PSEN:
Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.

EA/VPP:
External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.
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XTAL1:
Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2:
Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

Oscillator Characteristics:
XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 6.2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

FIG 11: Oscillator Connections

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FIG 12: External Clock Drive Configuration

MOC 3061/63 (OPTO TRIAC)

Opto-isolators, or Opto-couplers, are made up of a light emitting device, and a light sensitive device, all wrapped up in one package, but with no electrical connection between the two, just a beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED. The light sensitive device may be a photodiode, phototransistor, or more esoteric devices such as thyristors, triacs e.t.c. An optocoupler or sometimes refer to as optoisolator allows two circuits to exchange signals yet remain electrically isolated. This is usually accomplished by using light to relay the signal. The standard optocoupler circuits design uses a LED shining on a phototransistor-usually it is a NPN transistor and not PNP. The signal is applied to the LED, which then shines on the transistor in the IC.The light is proportional to the signal, so the signal is thus transferred to the phototransistor. Optocouplers may also comes in few module such as the SCR, photodiodes, TRIAC of other semiconductor switch as an output, and incandescent lamps, neon bulbs or other light source.

FIG13:OPTOCOUPLER
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The optocoupler usually found in switch mode power supply circuit in many electronic equipment. It is connected in between the primary and secondary section of power supplies. The optocoupler application or function in the circuit is to:

1. Monitor high voltage 2. Output voltage sampling for regulation 3. System control micro for power ON/OFF 4. Ground isolation

If the optocoupler IC breakdown, it will cause the equipment to have low power, blink, no power, erratic power and even power shut down once switch on the equipment. Many technicians and engineers do not know that they can actually test the optocoupler with their analog multimeter. Most of them thought that there is no way of testing an IC with an analog meter. This is the principle used in OptoTriacs and optoSCRs, which are readily available in Integrated circuit (I.C.) form, and do not need very complex circuitry to make them work. Simply provide a small pulse at the right time to the Light Emitting Diode in the package. The light produced by the LED activates the light sensitive properties of the Triac or Thyristor gate and the power is switched on. The isolation between the low power and high power circuits in these optically connected devices is typically several thousand volts.

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FIG 14:PIN DESCRIPTION OF OPTOCOUPLER

THYRISTOR (SCR)
A silicon-controlled rectifier (or semiconductor-controlled rectifier) is a four-layer solid state device that controls current. The name "silicon controlled rectifier" or SCR is General Electric's trade name for a type of thyristor. The SCR was developed by a team of power engineers led by Gordon Hall and commercialized by Frank W. "Bill" Gutzwiller in 1957.

FIG 15:THYRISTOR
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Application of SCRs SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high power, possibly coupled with high voltage, is demanded. Their operation makes them suitable for use in medium to highvoltage AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming, regulators and motor control.

PUSH BUTTONS

FIG 16:PUSH BUTTONS A push-button (also spelled pushbutton) or simply button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process. Buttons are typically made out of hard material, usually plastic or metal. The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily depressed or pushed. Buttons are most often biased switches, though even many un-biased buttons (due to their physical nature) require a spring to return to their un-pushed state. Different people use different terms for the "pushing" of the button, such as press, depress, mash, and punch.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

This is the first interfacing example for the Parallel Port. LCD Background: Frequently, an 8051 program must interact with the outside world using input and output devices that communicate directly with a human being. One of the most common devices attached to an 8051 is an LCD display. Some of the most common LCDs connected to the 8051
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are 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per line by 2 lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines, respectively. Fortunately, a very popular standard exists which allows us to communicate with the vast majority of LCDs regardless of their manufacturer. The standard is referred to as HD44780U, which refers to the controller chip which receives data from an external source (in this case, the 8051) and communicates directly with the LCD.

FIG 17: LCD 44780 LCD BACKGROUND

The 44780 standard requires 3 control lines as well as either 4 or 8 I/O lines for the data bus. The user may select whether the LCD is to operate with a 4-bit data bus or an 8-bit data bus. If a 4-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 7 data lines (3 control lines plus the 4 lines for the data bus). If an 8-bit data bus is used the LCD will require a total of 11 data lines (3 control lines plus the 8 lines for the data bus).

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FIG 18:LCD PIN CONFIGURATION The three control lines are referred to as EN, RS, and RW. The EN line is called "Enable." This control line is used to tell the LCD that you are sending it data. To send data to the LCD, your program should make sure this line is low (0) and then set the other two control lines and/or put data on the data bus. When the other lines are completely ready, bring EN high (1) and wait for the minimum amount of time required by the LCD datasheet (this varies from LCD to LCD), and end by bringing it low (0) again. The RS line is the "Register Select" line. When RS is low (0), the data is to be treated as a command or special instruction (such as clear screen, position cursor, etc.). When RS is high (1), the data being sent is text data which should be displayed on the screen. For example, to display the letter "T" on the screen you would set RS high. The RW line is the "Read/Write" control line. When RW is low (0), the information on the data bus is being written to the LCD. When RW is high (1), the program is effectively querying (or reading) the LCD. Only one instruction ("Get LCD status") is a read command. All others are write commands--so RW will almost always be low .Finally, the data bus consists of 4 or 8 lines

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(depending on the mode of operation selected by the user). In the case of an 8-bit data bus, the lines are referred to as DB0, DB1, DB2, DB3, DB4, DB5, DB6, and DB7.

QUAD VOLTAGE COMPARATOR LM339

DESCRIPTION

The LM339 consists of four independent precision voltage comparators, with an offset voltage specification as low as 20 max for each comparator, which were designed specifically to operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the magnitude of the power supply voltage.
FIG 19:QUAD VOLTAGE COMPARATOR

These comparators also have a unique characteristic in that the input common-mode voltage range includes ground, even though they are operated from a single power supply voltage. The LM339 series was designed to directly interface with TTL and CMOS. When operated from both plus and minus power supplies, the LM339 series will directly interface with MOS logic where their low power drain is a distinct advantage
over standard comparators.

FEATURES Wide single supply voltage range 2.0VDC TO 36VDC or dural supplies 1.0VDC to 18VDC FIG 20:LM339 PIN CONFIGURATION
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 Very low supply current drain (0.8) independent of supply voltage (1.0/comparator at 5.0VDC) Low input biasing current 25 Low input offset current 5 and offset voltage Input common-mode voltage range includes ground Differential input voltage range equal to the power supply voltage Low output 250 at 4 saturation voltage Output voltage compatible with TTL, DTL, ECL, MOS and CMOS logic system Moisture Sensitivity Level 3

APPLICATION A/D Converters Wide range VOC MOS clock generator High voltage logic gate

CURRENT TRANSFORMER

FIG 21: CURRENT TRANSFORMER

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In electrical engineering, a current transformer (CT) is used for measurement of electric currents. Current transformers, together with voltage transformers (VT) (potential transformers (PT)), are known as instrument transformers. When current in a circuit is too high to directly apply to measuring instruments, a current transformer produces a reduced current accurately proportional to the current in the circuit, which can be conveniently connected to measuring and recording instruments. A current transformer also isolates the measuring instruments from what may be very high voltage in the monitored circuit. Current transformers are commonly used in metering and protective relays in the electrical power industry.

INDUCTIVE LOAD

FIG 22:INDUCTIVE LOAD(CHOKE) A load that is predominantly inductive, so that the alternating load current lags behind the alternating voltage of the load. Also known as lagging load. Any devices that have coils of wire in there manufacture can be classed as inductive loads. E.g. motors, solenoids and contactor coils are a few. Example of resistive loads can be baseboard heaters, filament light bulbs, toasters and stove top elements.

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SHUNT CAPACITORS

FIG23:

SHUNT

CAPACITORS

Shunt capacitor banks are used to improve the quality of the electrical supply and the efficient operation of the power system. Studies show that a flat voltage profile on the system can significantly reduce line losses. Shunt capacitor banks are relatively inexpensive and can be easily installed anywhere on the network.

LED
LEDs are semiconductor devices. Like transistors, and other diodes, LEDs are made out of silicon. What makes an LED give off light are the small amounts of chemical impurities that are added to the silicon, such as gallium, arsenide, indium, and nitride.

When current passes through the LED, it emits photons as a byproduct. Normal light bulbs produce light by heating a metal filament until it is white hot. LEDs produce photons directly and not via heat, they are far more efficient than incandescent bulbs.

FIG 24

:LED

Fig 25: circuit symbol

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1N4007
Diodes are used to convert AC into DC these are used as half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier. Three points must he kept in mind while using any type of diode. 1. Maximum forward current capacity 2. Maximum reverse voltage capacity 3. Maximum forward voltage capacity

FIG 26:IN4007 DIODE RESISTOR:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in accordance with Ohm's law: V = IR

FIG 27: RESISTORS

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1N4148
The 1N4148 is a standard small signal silicon diode used in signal processing. Its name follows the JEDEC nomenclature. The 1N4148 is generally available in a DO-35 glass package and is very useful at high frequencies with a reverse recovery time of no more than 4ns. This permits rectification and detection of radio frequency signals very effectively, as long as their amplitude is above the forward conduction threshold of silicon (around 0.7V) or the diode is biased.

Fig 28:1N4148 diode

Specifications:

VRRM = 100V (Maximum Repetitive Reverse Voltage) IO = 200mA (Average Rectified Forward Current) IF = 300mA (DC Forward Current) IFSM = 1.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 sec), 4.0 A (Pulse Width = 1 uSec) (Non-Repetitive Peak Forward Surge Current) PD = 500 mW (power Dissipation) TRR < 4ns (reverse recovery time)

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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

33

FIG 29: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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DESCRIPTION
POWER SUPPLY The circuit uses standard power supply comprising of a step-down transformer from 230Vto 12V and 4 diodes forming a bridge rectifier that delivers pulsating dc which is then filtered by an electrolytic capacitor of about 470F to 1000F. The filtered dc being unregulated, IC LM7805 is used to get 5V DC constant at its pin no 3 irrespective of input DC varying from 7V to 15V. The input dc shall be varying in the event of input ac at 230volts section varies from 160V to 270V in the ratio of the transformer primary voltage V1 to secondary voltage V2 governed by the formula V1/V2=N1/N2. As N1/N2 i.e. no. of turns in the primary to the no. of turns in the secondary remains unchanged V2 is directly proportional to V1.Thus if the transformer delivers 12V at 220V input it will give 8.72V at 160V.Similarly at 270V it will give 14.72V.Thus the dc voltage at the input of the regulator changes from about 8V to 15V because of A.C voltage variation from 160V to 270V the regulator output will remain constant at 5V. The regulated 5V DC is further filtered by a small electrolytic capacitor of 10F for any noise so generated by the circuit. One LED is connected of this 5V point in series with a current limiting resistor of 330 to the ground i.e., negative voltage to indicate 5V power supply availability. The unregulated 12V point is used for other applications as and when required.

STANDARD CONNECTIONS TO 8051 SERIES MICRO CONTROLLER

ATMEL series of 8051 family of micro controllers need certain standard connections. The actual number of the Microcontroller could be 89C51 , 89C52, 89S51, 89S52, and as regards to 20 pin configuration a number of 89C2051. The 4 set of I/O ports are used based on the project requirement. Every microcontroller requires a timing reference for its internal program execution therefore an oscillator needs to be functional with a desired frequency to obtain the timing reference as t =1/f.
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A crystal ranging from 2 to 20 MHz is required to be used at its pin number 18 and 19 for the internal oscillator. It may be noted here the crystal is not to be understood as crystal oscillator It is just a crystal, while connected to the appropriate pin of the microcontroller it results in oscillator function inside the microcontroller. Typically 11.0592 MHz crystal is used in general for most of the circuits using 8051 series microcontroller. Two small value ceramic capacitors of 33pF each is used as a standard connection for the crystal as shown in the circuit diagram.

RESET
Pin no 9 is provided with an re-set arrangement by a combination of an electrolytic capacitor and a register forming RC time constant. At the time of switch on, the capacitor gets charged, and it behaves as a full short circuit from the positive to the pin number 9. After the capacitor gets fully charged the current stops flowing and pin number 9 goes low which is pulled down by a 10k resistor to the ground. This arrangement of reset at pin 9 going high initially and then to logic 0 i.e., low helps the program execution to start from the beginning. In absence of this the program execution could have taken place arbitrarily anywhere from the program cycle. A pushbutton switch is connected across the capacitor so that at any given time as desired it can be pressed such that it discharges the capacitor and while released the capacitor starts charging again and then pin number 9 goes to high and then back to low, to enable the program execution from the beginning. This operation of high to low of the reset pin takes place in fraction of a second as decided by the time constant R and C. For example: A 10F capacitor and a 10k resistor would render a 100ms time to pin number 9 from logic high to low, there after the pin number 9 remains low. External Access(EA): Pin no 31 of 40 pin 8051 microcontroller termed as EA is required to be connected to 5V for accessing the program form the on-chip program memory. If it is connected to ground then the controller accesses the program from external memory. However as we are using the internal memory it is always connected to +5V.

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COMPARATOR
Potential dividers are connected to the inverting and non inverting inputs of the op-amp to give some voltage at these terminals. Supply voltage is given to +Vss and Vss is connected to ground. The output of this comparator will be logic high (i.e., supply voltage) if the noninverting terminal input is greater than the inverting terminal input of the comparator. i.e., Non inverting input (+) > inverting input (-) = output is logic high

If the inverting terminal input is greater than the non-inverting terminal input then the output of the comparator will be logic low (i.e., gnd)

i.e., inverting input (-) > Non inverting input (+) = output is logic low

FIG 30: OP-AMP AS COMPARATOR SCR IN ANTI PARALLEL:

During the positive half cycle of main current, the current flows from phase to the load through SCR. During negative half cycle flows from load side to the phase during this time another SCR comes into picture. Two SCRS are connected back to back and are triggered from Opto-isolators. MOC3063 Opto-isolator is a LED-TRIAC combination. Two Opto-isolator input leds are connected in
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series while their output diac are used for triggering each SCR. Each 2uF capacitor such as C7 is connected in series with R28 and a pair of SCRs U& and U8 connected in anti parallel . A 100K resistor such as R20 is used across the 2uF capacitor to discharge it at switch off condition.R6 and C6 are used as a snubber network across the SCRs for inductive nature of load.

FIG 31: BACK TO BACK CONNECTION OF SCRS

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OPERATION EXPLANATION

CONNECTIONS:
The output of power supply which is 5v is connected to the 40th pin of microcontroller and gnd to the 20th pin or pin 20 of microcontroller. P0.1 and P0.2 of microcontroller is connected to pin 6 of U6 and U10 resp. P0.5 to P0.7 of microcontroller is connected to Pin 4, 5 and 6 of LCD display. P2.0 to P2.7 of microcontroller is connected to Pin 7 to 14 of data pins of LCD display. Port 3.2 of microcontroller is connected to output of the OP-Amp (A) LM339. Port 3.3 of microcontroller is connected to output of OP-Amp (B) LM339.

Description of ZVS: In order to generate ZVP (Zero crossing Voltage Pulses) first we need to step down the supply voltage to 12 V and then it is converted into pulsating D.C. Then with the help of potential divider the voltage of 3 V is taken, which is given to a comparator. The comparator generates the zero crossing pulses by comparing this pulsating D.C with a constant D.C voltage of 0.6 V which is taken across a diode. Similarly for ZVC (Zero crossing Current Pulses) the voltage drop proportional to the load current across a resistor is taken and is stepped up to generate ZVC same as above. The zero crossing pulses from a pulsating D.C are shown in the figure.

FIG32:ZEROVOLTAGE

SENSING
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CIRCUIT EXPLAINATION:
This circuit consists of DC power supply unit, zero voltage crossing detectors, Microcontroller, LCD display, opto-isolator, SCR and Capacitor. Let us see how it operates. The required DC power supply for Micro-controller and other peripherals is supplied by the DC power supply.

For the calculation of the power factor by the Micro-controller we need digitized voltage and current signals. The voltage signal from the mains is taken and it is converted into pulsating DC by bridge rectifier and is given to a comparator which generates the digital voltage signal. Similarly the current signal is converted into the voltage signal by taking the voltage drop of the load current across a resistor of 10 ohms. This A.C signal is again converted into the digital signal as done for the voltage signal. Then these digitized voltage and current signals are sent to the micro-controller. The micro-controller calculates the time difference between the zero crossing points of current and voltage, which is directly proportional to the power factor and it determines the range in which the power factor is. Micro-controller sends information regarding time difference between current and voltage and power factor to the LCD display to display them, Depending on the range it sends the signals to the opto-isolators that in turn switch ON back to back connected SCRs (power switches) to bring the capacitors in shunt across the load. Thus, the required numbers of capacitors are connected in parallel to the load as required. By this the power factor will be improved.

Power Factor Test Layout:

An arrangement with supply source 230v, one lamp, 2 numbers low value resistors of 10R/10W for measuring current ,a choke are all connected in series. Capacitors are required to be connected in parallel through SCR switches to improve power factor .While the by-pass switch is off, the choke acts as an inductor and same current will flow in both the 10R/10W resistors . A CT is used the primary side of which is connected to the common point of the
40

resistors . The other point of the CT goes to the one of the common point of a DPDT S1 switch. While the DPDT switch is moved to right then the CT connects across left 10R/10W and the voltage drop proportional to the current is sensed by it to develop increased voltage at its primary. This voltage is given to the current sensing circuit. While the DPDT switch is moved to left then the CT connects across right 10R/10W and the voltage drop proportional to the current is sensed by it to develop increased voltage at its primary. While no capacitors are switched the voltage drop across both 10R/10W are same. This voltage drop is proportional to lagging current. Thus the primary voltage from the CT provides lagging current reference to the current sensing circuit. The microcontroller based control circuit thus receives zero current reference and compares with the zero voltage reference for calculating the power factor based on their time difference. Microcontroller output develops logic high for appropriate no. of port pins to feed to opto-couplers to help switching SCRs for capacitors to come in parallel to the inductive load that is the choke. So depending on the time difference required no. of SCR switches are switched on ,there by switching additional capacitors till the power factor is near unity. Once the capacitors are switched on the right 10r/10w current becomes compensated while current flowing through left 10R/10W remains unchanged which is the lagging current. Thus depending on the switch S1 position one can sense the lagging current or the compensated current and the display provides accordingly the time delay between voltage ,current with power factor display. In case a linear load is required switch by-pass is closed so that it by-passes the choke L2 and the CT in this case reads unity power factor. The other common point of the DPDT switch is goes to the MC while its switching points are connected to +ve and ground so that appropriate logic is placed on the MC for right kind of display.

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FIG 33:SWITCHING BETWEEN COMPENSATED AND LAGGING PF

LAYOUT DIAGRAM

FIG 34: LAYOUT

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BILL OF MATERIALS
COMPONENT NAME Resistors
330R 10K 3.3K 4.7K 6.8K 22K 100K 1K 560R 100R/2W 100R/5W 10R/10W 10K PRESET 10K SIP RESISTOR

QUANTITY
3 2 1 4 1 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 1 1

Capacitors

470uF /1000uF (PREFERABLE) 10uF 33pF 2uF/400V (FAN CAPACITOR) 0.1uF/400V

1 2 2 2 2

Integrated Circuits
7805 7812 AT89S52 LM339 MOC3063

1 1 1 1 4

IC Bases

40-PIN BASE 16-PIN BASE 08-PIN BASE

1 1 4

DIODE
1N4007

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Miscellaneous

CRYSTAL 11.0592MHz LED-RED 2-PIN PUSH BUTTON BULB 100W BULB HOLDER CHOKE CURRENT TRANSFORMER (0-12V 500mA Transformer) SCR LCD 16X2 PCB CONNECTOR 2-PIN SLIDE SWITCHES SPDT

1 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 6 1

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SLIDE SWITCHES POWER CORD AC CONNECTOR TRANSFORMER MALE BURGE FEMALE BURGE FEMALE BURGE MALE BURGE

DPDT 2-PIN 12V, 1 AMPERE MUST 2-PIN 2-PIN 16-PIN 16-PIN

1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1(INCLUDED WITH LCD)

HEAT SINK SCREW NUT FOR HEAT SINK COPPER WIRE FOR LOAD ASSEMBLED PCB (WORKING) PLAIN PCB ZERO BOARD SOLDERING IRON CUTTER MULTIMETER SCREW DRIVER SOLDERING LED (50 gm) CONNECTING WIRE RIBBON WIRE FOR ZEROBOARD

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

CODING
SOURCE CODE

1. 2.

Click on the Keil Vision Icon on Desktop The following fig will appear

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3. 4.

Click on the Project menu from the title bar Then Click on New Project

5.

Save the Project by typing suitable project name with no extension in u r own folder sited in either C:\ or D:\

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6. 7. 8.

Then Click on Save button above. Select the component for u r project. i.e. Atmel Click on the + Symbol beside of Atmel

9.

Select AT89C51 as shown below

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10. 11.

Then Click on OK The Following fig will appear

12. 13. 14.

Then Click either YES or NOmostly NO. Now your project is ready to USE. Now double click on the Target1, you would get another option Source group 1 as shown in next page.

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15.

Click on the file option from menu bar and select new.

16.

The next screen will be as shown in next page, and just maximize it by double clicking on its blue boarder.

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17. 18.

Now start writing program in either in EMBEDDED C or ASM. For a program written in Assembly, then save it with extension . asm and for EMBEDDED C based program save it with extension .C

19.

Now right click on Source group 1 and click on Add files to Group Source.

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20.

Now you will get another window, on which by default EMBEDDED C files will appear.

21. 22. 23.

Now select as per your file extension given while saving the file Click only one time on option ADD. Now Press function key F7 to compile. Any error will appear if so happen.
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24. 25.

If the file contains no error, then press Control+F5 simultaneously. The new window is as follows

26. 27.

Then Click OK. Now click on the Peripherals from menu bar, and check your required port as shown in fig below.

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28.

Drag the port a side and click in the program file.

29. 30.

Now keep Pressing function key F11 slowly and observe. You are running your program successfully.

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RESULTS

By this static var compensator we can improve the power factor by supplying leading current in to the network using two 2.5uf capacitors. In our project we noticed that the supply power factor was varying in between 0.65-0.7,now by using our project we can improve the power factor automatically up to 0.95 to 1 by switching the suitable capacitors using microcontroller. In our project in IC LM339 at 6th pin 2.6 volts at 8th pin 2.7 volts Frequency at the crystal oscillator was found to be 11.0592M hz For 8051 series micro controller at pins 2-8,10,11,14,15,16,17,21,22,25,27,34,35-39 voltage was 4.9 volts. At 18th pin 2.2 volts at 19th pin 1.8 volts at 30th pin 1.6 volts at31st pin and at 40th pin 5volts.at rest of pins voltage was 0 volts In our project for switching each capacitor two thyristors are used which are connected in back to back connection, for triggering each thyristor one optocoupler was used. For switching one capacitor microcontroller will send signals to the opto couplers For one optocoupler voltage at 1st pin was 5volts voltage at 2nd pin was 3.7volts and voltages at pins of another optocopler will be at 1st pin 3.7volts and at 2nd pin it was it was 5volts. Finally the power factor across the load will be 0.95 -1.0 and the value of power factor before and after compensation will be shown by the LCD display

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CONCLUSION
The main advantage of SVCs over simple mechanically-switched compensation schemes is their near-instantaneous response to changes in the system voltage. For this reason they are often operated at close to their zero-point in order to maximize the reactive power correction they can rapidly provide when required. They are, in general, cheaper, higher-capacity, faster and more reliable than dynamic compensation schemes such as synchronous condensers. However, static VAR compensators are more expensive than mechanically switched capacitors, so many system operators use a combination of the two technologies (sometimes in the same installation), using the static VAR compensator to provide support for fast changes and the mechanically switched capacitors to provide steady-state VARs. Finally I concluded that the design circuit shows the overall effect of the whole system Due to use of FACTS devices installed locally. Control strategies can be developed by Designing the pattern and timing of the control input signal of the dynamic FACTS model, As well as where the FACTS devices should be located in the transmission system

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
TEXT BOOKS REFERED:
1. The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded systems by Muhammad Ali Mazidi and Janice Gillispie Mazidi, Pearson Education. 2. ATMEL 89S52 Data Sheets. 3.understanding facts by hingorani narian G., Gyugyi Laszlo IEEE press 4.HVDC transmission by S Kamakshaiah and V Kamaraju

WEBSITES
www.atmel.com www.beyondlogic.org www.wikipedia.org www.howstuffworks.com www.alldatasheets.com

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