You are on page 1of 16

1

Applications of Constructivism in Online Learning Communities Kim Hefty Angie Kruzich Peer Reviewer EdTech 504 Theoretical Foundations of Education Technology Dr. K. Diane Hall Boise State University May 5, 2013

Education is everybodys business the individual, the organization, and the nation state (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008, p.13)

Abstract Using a social-constructivist approach, educators must respond to recent advancement of technology following the invention of the Internet, using online learning along with the promotion of online learning communities to accommodate modern students. In order to best meet the ever changing needs of a modern, technologically savvy student educators must analyze emerging theories such as transactional distance theory. Keywords: constructivism, social constructivism, technology, educational technology, online learning, learning communities, Transactional Distance Theory (TDT)

Introduction: The history of educational technology includes all inventions in the progression of tools used to promote learning. Though seemingly insignificant by todays standards, the introduction of the pencil to classrooms caused groundbreaking changes in education. Today, educators are faced with the task of responding to another major shift in technology, the rise of online learning. In the past 10 years there has been a significant increase in the use of the Internet as both a technology and an educational tool. Since the invention of the Internet, web-literacy has continued to grow among the general population allowing for tremendous progress in educational technology. As the definition of education expands to include online learning, educators must expand their pedagogy to accommodate this shift. However, it is important that educators maintain a social support structure for students despite the transition from a physical classroom setting to a virtual setting. The constructivist approach to education accommodates both the necessity of social interaction in learning and individualist nature of modern learning. In response to the recent shift in technology and educational pedagogical trends, educators should use Social Constructivism as a guide to expanding student-learning possibilities while also encouraging the use of online learning communities to foster collaboration in order to meet the modern students full spectrum of needs. Constructivism and Social Constructivism Constructivism and social constructivism are both learning theories, regularly applied to education. There is a great degree of overlap between the two theories, in both their application and impact on classrooms and students. In order to better implement constructivism and social constructivism, educators must understand both the similarities and differences. In constructivist theory, knowledge is considered to be uniquely constructed by the individual as opposed to acquired from an outside source. In order for the individual to construct knowledge, the individual must interact with both their learning environment and with other learners within their environment. The individual must then filter through all of the information they acquire in order to construct new knowledge.

Constructivism is not a single or unified theory and is based on the works of Piaget, Bruner, and Goodman (Ertmer & Newby, 1993 p.62). Constructivism was developed from the fields of cognitive science. The constructivist pedagogy is strongly influenced by the ideas of John Dewey and William James. The socio-historical work of Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and Ernst von Glasersfeld has also had a significant impact on constructivism (Yilmaz, 2008 p.165). Although not all of these people collaborated, their ideas have been combined to develop a modern sense of constructivism. Constructivist theory focuses on the utilization of the scaffolding approach to learning. In constructivism there is an emphasis on the importance of active involvement of learners in constructing knowledge for themselves. The learner, or student, has a significant stake in their own learning. Instructors teach basic skills and gradually build up to (scaffold) more complex problems. Knowledge is not passively received from the world but is developed and created by learners trying to make sense of their experiences (Yilmaz, 2008 p.162). Students must be active participants in their own education in order to truly learn. Social constructivism allows for a more active and engaged instructor. Teachers, and parents, are the tools that bring constructivism to life. In social constructivism, knowledge is not purely objective but is socially constructed and the teachers major role is that of facilitator. In social constructivism, a teacher clarifies instead of informs, guides instead of directs, and supports a students effort rather than insist on their own methodology (Jonassen & Lund, 2000). Constructivism encourages a student to discover or explore within a given framework or structure; in social constructivism the teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Learning happens when students make personal connections to what they are studying and share this knowledge with others. In order to apply the pedagogy of constructivism, one must explore the key constructivist principles. According to Williamson, constructivism draws upon a number of philosophical and psychological antecedents rather than being a sharply delineated construct formulated by a specific theorist. There is no set definition for what constitutes constructivism (Williamson, 2010 p. 7). Appleton & King claim that there are five axioms to constructivism. The axioms

are: reality and its elements, causality, unique contexts resulting in absence of generalization, the relationship between the researcher and the phenomena under study and the impact of values on the inquiry process. They attribute these axioms to the work done by Guba & Lincoln in 1982 and 1985 (Appleton & King, 2002). In other words, constructivism promotes learning through experience and interaction. The more experiences and interactions a student encounters, the more, in theory, they will learn. These postulates provide a foundation to build pedagogical models. Assuming the axioms put forth by Appleton & King are accurate we can start to construct a working model of constructivism that can be applied to a classroom. If the axioms are the foundation, then the structure for a constructivist learning environment and social constructivism instruction can be built by Foxs key principles. Fox summarize that through constructivism learning is an active process where knowledge is constructed, rather than innate[ly] or passively absorbed this knowledge is invented not discovered. Fox continues that all knowledge is personal and idiosyncratic [and] is socially constructed learning is essentially a process of making sense of the world [and] effective learning requires meaningful, open-ended, challenging problems for the learner to solve (Fox, 2001 p.24). The students must be engaged and the teacher must act as a facilitator, a mentor and a guide. The tasks for students must have a purpose that the students can identify with. The problems to solve must provoke the students to expand their way of thinking and explore new ways of thinking. Each ideology from Fox is equally important and must be integrated for a successful educational experience. Students must be actively engaged and invested in their own education. Multiple students could have the same teacher, the same class, the same materials but the knowledge each student constructs may be vastly different, based on their personal pre-experiences and their unique interpretations of their social experience within the class. By providing students with the opportunity to explore and examine material in a truly open-ended fashion, no two students could possibly construct the same knowledge. The knowledge gained from a constructivist classroom will not end with the class, but will grow as the student gains more knowledge from the world around them.

The emerging world of online learning creates an interesting challenge for constructivists. The best synthesis of social constructivism principles applied to online learning can be summarized by Schweizer, H., Whipp, J., & Hayslett, C. (2003). Schweizer, Whipp, and Hayslett identified four key principles for creating online instruction based on social constructivist theory. First, the instructor must create a complex environment[s] and authentic tasks. To create a truly authentic task, the outcome should not be predetermined. The results must be allowed to naturally occur. Second, the instructor needs to insure social negotiation of meaning. Individuals must be able to test their cognitive constructions against one another and to gain new understandings from one another. This can occur as they reflect upon the variances among their individual conceptions. Third, and most importantly, teachers need to facilitate intentional learning communities. Students must be encouraged and supported to work together as a community to achieve shared and individual learning objectives. Fourth, instructors and designers of online education must provide assistance for learners at varying zones of proximal development (Schweizer et all, 2003 pp.145-146). The zone of proximal development "is the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, this is the range of tasks and capabilities that an individual can accomplish with assistance, but are unable, at this time, to perform independently. Schweizer, Whipp, and Hayslett also identified the unique circumstances of the online learner: distance and isolation. In order to create an optimal learning environment for the online learner, course designers and instructors must develop ways to overcome these issues. Providing assistance and creating multiple and varied opportunities for interaction is a critical first step. Within constructivism there are more specific theories that lend themselves to the application of constructivism in education. Social constructivism is a branch of constructivist theory that asserts that students learn from their interactions with others as well as their individual reflection on those interactions. Social constructivism incorporates the aspects of Piagets theory that people learn through the integration of experience and belief and Vygotskys theory that the personal pursuit of knowledge is influenced by the context of the social situation in which they occur (Matthews 2003). John Dewey was a major force for progressive education and social

constructivism (Matthews, 2003 p. 54). John Dewey insisted, that philosophy and science are always embedded in the contexts of cultural practice a world of action and interaction (Hickman, 2009). By marrying the ideas and mindsets of these contributors we create a current understanding of constructionist theory. According to Kala Yilmaz, [constructivism theory] is characterized by plurality and multiple perspectives (Yilmaz, 2008 p. 163). Social constructivism can be incorporated within all types of education, especially online education. Educational Technology, Online learning and Social Constructivism Constructivism and social constructivism can be implemented through technology. In the modern classroom, technology has become both a requirement and an important instructional tool. Educational technologies are the tools used to enhance understanding and comprehension of a subject matter. Online learning is one of the latest educational technological advancements. Elaine Allen and Jeff Seaman published a report in 2007 about the growth of online learning in the journal, Online Nation: Five Years of Growth in Online learning. According to this report, online learning is growing at a faster rate than that of traditional higher education. In 2006, twenty percent of all higher education students, nearly 3.5 million students, participated in at least one online course, causing a ten percent increase over the previous year. During this time, online learning grew at a rate of 9.7 percent compared to 1.5 percent growth for traditional higher education during the same time period. In response to the recent increase of online learning, educators must evaluate and develop strategies to optimize and facilitate the changing educational landscape. According to William Williamson, online instruction is a rapidly changing field of teaching. Advancing instructional technology and an evolving body of knowledge on the pedagogy of teaching online are challenging instructors to continuously adapt new innovations to improve their online courses (Williamson, 2010 p. 1). A constructivist approach to these shifts in educational trends can provide a critical foundation for approaching online learning. In constructivism, the goal of an educator is to encourage the students individual learning process rather than control it (Jonassen & Lund, 2000). Because of the already individualistic nature of Internet use and online learning, Constructivism and online learning are especially compatible.

Constructivist principles, specifically social constructivist principles can be applied to online learning by promoting the individual through supporting their motivation to create knowledge. Considering constructivist principles, online learning is especially focused on the individual and would therefore prove to be especially internally motivating for the student. According to Swan, Higher education has traditionally emphasized constructivist approaches to learning, in the sense of individual students [must take] responsibility for making sense of their educational experiences (Swan, 2002 p.3). As Fox asserted, learning is an active process where knowledge is created and invented not absorbed or discovered. The individual learner must be even more internally motivated when learning online. The learner centered tenants of constructivism suggest that learners who are intrinsically motivated should perform well in a constructivist environment (Williamson, 2010 p. 7). Technology can be the bridge that connects constructivism principles and the modern online student. Educational technology is the study or practice of the use of technology to facilitate learning. Educational technology can refer to the use of various techniques to reach students such as "application of senses, memory, and cognition" (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). These techniques may be administered through a variety of mediums. Educators study the theory behind educational technology in order to "ethic[ally]" apply these teaching techniques and achieve effective results in the classroom (Garrison & Anderson, 2003). The constructivist principle that all knowledge is personal and idiosyncratic can be achieved with an online course structure. Modern online curriculums have the ability to individualize instruction and respond to diversity of learning cultures and motivations. Student-centered learning environments are critical for constructivism and technology. They allow for the implication and implementation of technology. In an article by Hannafin and Land they assert that "Student-centered learning environments represent significant potential for optimizing the capabilities of both technology and learners" (Hannafin, Land 1997 p.172). To completely represent or define education technology educators need to address and analyze their approaches to education. In a traditional classroom where the teacher lectures, the ability to fully utilize technology is limited, often to what the students do on their own outside of class. But in a student-centered learning environment, especially an online environment, the opportunities to

utilize technology are optimized, if not maximized.

Learning Communities and Social Constructivism Learning communities are the corner stone of social constructivism. In a recent article, Schweizer, H., Whipp, J., & Hayslett, C. identified the usage of Intentional learning communities as a key principle for creating successful online instruction based on social constructivist theory (145-146). Online learning communities allow for online learning technologies to meet the standards of these constructivist principles. Students participating in an online learning experience are provided access to a space where they are given authentic tasks or assignments to complete based on specific course material and are able to engage in social negotiation of meaning by communicating with other students through chat rooms or forum response as a part of an intentional learning community (145-146). One critical component of constructivism is the social component and the concept of the learning community. Dewey (1959) stated that the educational process has two sides one psychological and one sociological; and that neither can be subordinated to the other nor neglected without evil results following (p. 75). A learning community can be created within the virtual world to benefit the individuals learning process by combining web-based technology in order to distribute assignments, share learning materials, and provide a route for students to communicate with each other. The key principle of social constructivism that can determine success is the learning community. Learning communities are the result of student social interaction and collaboration. Interest in creating a community to help facilitate and support learning has been a long-term interest for many educators seeking ways to enhance the learning experience for their students (Jonassen & Land, 2012 p.268). By providing students with a way to respond to each other, the individual students ability to create knowledge will improve as well. Social presence is a critical aspect of any community, especially an online community (p.273). Connections between members are the building blocks for the formation and growth of a learning community (p. 273). This presence is directly affected by social context, online communication, and interactivity (p.273).

For education, the teacher whether online or in person plays a critical role in facilitating or creating opportunities for interaction. Community-building also helps reduce or prevent feelings of isolation and alienation that often contribute to distance education student attrition. According to Swan, constructivist approaches and community are necessary for creating and confirming meaning and are essential for achieving effective critical thinking. Therefore constructivist approaches and community must be necessary parts of higher education (Swan, 2002 p.4). Traditional students learn in a naturally formed social setting by communicating with each other. They can share their thoughts, and pick up on both verbal and nonverbal cues from one another. To compensate for the lack of physical proximity, teachers and facilitators in an online environment must redefine and revise the communication opportunities and skills. A high degree of interaction between student and teacher is critical to the success of instruction (Desai et al., 1998). In a traditional classroom, communication opportunities occur naturally. In an online environment, the instructor must act as a facilitator to promote active participation and communication. Technology requires the teacher to remain active in communicating to students in order to maintain attention and motivation (Desai et al., 1998) necessary for learning to occur. Given the transition from physical classroom meeting spaces to virtual collaborative space, it is imperative that educators employ social technological tools that promote communication such as texting, chat rooms, e-mail, and discussion areas to provide for a Social Presence (Desai et al, 1998). A critical aspect to social interaction in an online learning environment is providing opportunities for collaboration, such as group projects. Technology requires a distinct interaction with learners and high technology devices that provide a strong interaction between the learner, learner/instructor, and the content as well as other learners in the distance education environment (Desai et al., 1998). Educators need to develop curriculum and content based on Social Constructivism where a culture is fostered by the collaboration of groups to construct knowledge. (Desai et al., 1998)

10

Transactional Distance Theory Modern technology is rapidly changing education. There are many emerging theories that are helping to define and develop the sociological and psychological shifts in education. In the 1970s, scholars began to define distance education (Moore, 1991). In the early 1980s, Transactional Distance Theory (TDT) was created (Moore, 1991). Distance education refers to more than just geographical distance. Distance refers to the disconnection or separation of understandings and perceptions that can be caused in part by the geographic distance. This distance must be overcome by teachers, learners and educational organizations if effective learning is to occur. This distance is often referred to as, transactional distance. TDT provides a tool that helps recognize the several distinctive issues that separate distance education from conventional education; helps us distinguish good practice from bad; and highlights the piecemeal and unplanned fashion in which many providing institutions operate (GokoolRamdoo, 2008 p.11). TDT addresses the variables that exist between teachers and students in a virtual classroom: the two sets of variables are labeled dialogue and structure (Moore, 1991 p.4). Dialogue describes the interaction between the teacher and learner when one gives instruction and the other responds (Moore, p.4). The second set of variables that determine transactional distance are elements in the course design; they are the ways in which the teaching program is structured so that it can be delivered through the various methods, such as online. The issues of dialogue and design are not unique to distance education. These are issues for all educators, in almost every setting. Utilizing and maximizing technology to create better connections can benefit all learners.

Conclusion What determines the success of distance teaching is the extent to which the institution and the individual instructor are able to provide the appropriate opportunity for, and quality of, dialogue between teacher and learner, as well as appropriately structured learning materials (Moore, 1991 p. 5)

11

By adapting and interacting multiple pedagogical models and technologies, educators can facilitate and optimize learning in the modern era. When used properly, technology can offer a multitude of options for higher-level thinking, creative problem solving and meaningful learning. Online education is one of the fastest areas of growth in the world of education. Educational models and theory need to adapt to the new advances in technology, specifically of the Internet and World Wide Web. Social constructivist theories of learning incorporate teaching strategies that require learners to collaborate, communicate, explore, and reflect and should be applied to all online educational programs. Constructivist approaches and community are necessary for creating and confirming meaning and are essential for achieving effective critical thinking (Swan). The roles of both the teacher and of a student are also changing. Teachers need to construct environments that provoke and challenge students. Students must actively seek out interactions and reinforcement. In order to accommodate the modern student and utilize new technologies, educators must utilize social constructivist theory of learning to promote the success of the individual through the utilization of online learning communities. Educators must constantly be exploring emerging theories, such as Transactional Distance Theory, to challenge both themselves and their students. Resources: Allen, K. (2005). Online learning: Constructivism and conversation as an approach to learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 42(3), 247-256. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/full/10.1080/01587910500167985 Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2007). Online Nation. Five Years of Growth in Online learning. Needham, Mass.: Sloan Consortium. Retrieved from http://www.bsuc.cn:8013/bk/a18/zt1/1zy/guowai/online_nation.pdf Appleton, J. V., & King, L. (2002). Journeying from the philosophical contemplation of constructivism to the methodological pragmatics of health services research. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 40(6), 641-648.

12

Aragon, S. R. (2003). Creating social presence in online environments. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2003(100), 57-68. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/10.1002/ace.119/abstract Biggs, J. (1996). Enhancing teaching through constructive alignment. Higher education, 32(3), 347-364. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/pdfplus/3448076.pdf?acceptTC=true Cross, K. P. (1998). Why learning communities? Why now? About campus, 3(3), 4-11. Retrieved from http://www.nhcuc.org/pdfs/CrossLC.pdf Dewey, J. (1959). My pedagogic creed. Progressive Education Publishers. Retrieved from http://edu224spring2011.pbworks.com/f/Dewey+-+My+Pedagogic+Creed+%281929%29.pdf Desai, M. S., Hart, J., & Richards, T. C. (2008). E-Learning: Paradigm Shift in Education. Education, 129(2), 327-334. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/ehost/detail?sid=a61af2d9-1f55-487e-9fd7d287af595b85%40sessionmgr15&vid=1&hid=23&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d %3d#db=tfh&AN=35732425 Ertmer, P.A., & Newby, T.J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 50-72. Retrieved from http://www.ifets.info/journals/3_2/tam.html Fox, R. (2001). Constructivism examined. Oxford review of education, 27(1), 23-35. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/pdfplus/1050991.pdf?acceptTC=true Gagnon, G. W., & Collay, M. (2005). Constructivist learning design: Key questions for teaching to standards. Corwin Press. Retrieved from Boise State Library

13

Gokool-Ramdoo, S. (2008). Beyond the Theoretical Impasse: Extending the Applications of Transactional Distance Theory. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(3), 1-17. Gorsky, P., & Caspi, A. (2005). A critical analysis of transactional distance theory. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6(1), 1-11. D. Randy Garrison and Terry Anderson (2003). E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Framework for Research and Practice. New York, NY: Routledge. Gold, S. (2001). A constructivist approach to online training for online teachers. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(1), 35-57. Retrieved from https://admission.kettering.edu/sites/default/files/resource-filedownload/ConstructivistApproach.pdf Gulati, S. (2008). Compulsory participation in online discussions: is this constructivism or normalisation of learning?. Innovations in education and teaching international, 45(2), 183192.Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/abs/10.1080/14703290801950427 Hannafin, M., Land, S.M. (1997) The Foundations and Assumptions of Technology-Enhanced Student-Centered Learning Environments, 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. Retrieved from Boise State Library http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/65/art %253A10.1023%252FA%253A1002997414652.pdf? auth66=1361161836_5b151fbc086ad72c0f13a768aee54498&ext=.pdf Hickman, L., & Reich, K. (Eds.). (2009). John Dewey between pragmatism and constructivism. Fordham University Press. Retrieved from http://books.google.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/

14

Hill, J.R. (2012). Learning communities: Theoretical foundations for making connections. In D. Jonassen, & S. Land (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of learning environments (2nd ed., pp. 268285). New York, NY: Routledge Huang, H. M. (2002). Toward constructivism for adult learners in online learning environments. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1), 27-37. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/10.1111/1467-8535.00236/pdf Hrastinski, S. (2009). A theory of online learning as online participation. Computers & Education, 52(1), 78-82. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/science/article/pii/S0360131508000997 Jonassen, D.H., & Land , S.M. (2000). Theotetical foundations of learning environments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Stanovich, K. (1994). Constructivism in reading education. Journal of Special Education, 28(3), 259. Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(2), 193-212. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/stable/10.2307/40214287 Matthews, W. J. (2003). Constructivism in the Classroom: Epistemology, History, and Empirical Evidence. Teacher Education Quarterly, 30(3), 51-64. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/EJ852364.pdf Moore, M. G. (1991). Distance education theory. The American Journal of Distance Education, 5(3), 1-6.

Nance, R. (2009). THE IMPORTANCE OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION. Retrieved from http://www.fwquestclub.com/welcome_files/papers/childhood_education.pdf

15

Schweizer, H., Whipp, J., & Hayslett, C. (2003). Quality control in online courses: Using a social constructivist framework. Computers in the Schools, 19(3-4), 143-158. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/pdf/10.1300/J025v19v03_12 Swan, K. (2002). Building learning communities in online courses: The importance of interaction. Education, Communication & Information, 2(1), 23-49. Retrieved from http://www.tandfonline.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/doi/abs/10.1080/1463631022000005016 Vonderwell, S., & Zachariah, S. (2005). Factors that Influence Participation in Online Learning. Journal of research on technology in Education, 38(2), 213-230. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov.libproxy.boisestate.edu/PDFS/EJ728902.pdf Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society. Williamson, W. D. (2010). Assessing Constructivist Elements in the Online Learning Environment. ProQuest LLC. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/docview/305210019 Yilmaz, K. (2008). Constructivism: Its Theoretical Underpinnings, Variations, and Implications for Classroom Instruction. Educational Horizons, 86(3), 161-172. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov.libproxy.boisestate.edu/PDFS/EJ798521.pdf

16

You might also like