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Geology
Giant debris avalanches from the Colima Volcanic Complex, Mexico: Implications for long-runout landslides (>100 km) and hazard assessment
Gary R. Stoopes and Michael F. Sheridan Geology 1992;20;299-302 doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<0299:GDAFTC>2.3.CO;2

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Giant debris avalanches from the Colima Volcanic Complex, Mexico: Implications for long-runout landslides (>100 km) and hazard assessment
Gary R. Stoopes Department of Geology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-1404 Department of Geology, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260 Michael F. Sheridan

ABSTRACT At least two giant volcanic debris-avalanche deposits are associated with the Colima Volcanic Complex located in the western part of the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. One avalanche originated from Volcn de Colima (3820 m), probably 4300 yr ago. A much larger avalanche originated from Nevado de Colima (4240 m) 18 500 yr ago; it traveled more than 120 km from its source and covered an area of at least 2200 km 2 , almost twice the area of any previously described avalanche deposit. This older debris avalanche is the second largest (by volume) known, has the longest travel distance yet reported, and has one of the lowest height/length ratios (0.04). The avalanche material was probably hot during emplacement and, after initial slope failure, may have behaved similarly to a pyroclastic flow. Such large longrunout landslides from volcanic or nonvolcanic constructs present a serious geologic hazard that must be considered in risk assessment. INTRODUCTION It is well recognized that debris avalanches (landslides) are a common phenomenon from many volcanoes (Siebert, 1984). These events can be catastrophic and may greatly alter a volcano's morphology and perhaps change its subsequent evolution. Large volcanic (or nonvolcanic) constructs that may produce giant debris avalanches are of particular importance because they present the most danger to citizens living within the sphere of a volcano's influence. These factors led us to investigate the distribution, age, and mode of emplacement of two debris-avalanche deposits from the Colima Volcanic Complex, Mexico. One debris avalanche is very large and traveled more than 120 km from its source. This is the longest reported travel distance for a volcanic debris avalanche and adds additional stimulus to an already lively debate concerning the mechanism of movement of dry rock avalanches (Hsu, 1975; Davies, 1981; Melosh, 1987; Campbell, 1989; McEwen, 1989). This new information also provides important factors for risk assessment and hazard evaluation for many volcanoes and other large constructs and emphasizes the need to study this phenomenon in greater detail. BACKGROUND Volcn de Colima and Nevado de Colima Volcn de Colima (3820 m) and Nevado de Colima (4240 m) are andesitic composite cones located near the western edge of the TransMexican volcanic belt at the southern end of the Colima graben, which is a southern extension of the Colima rift (Luhr et al 1985) (Fig. 1). The main centers of volcanic activity have migrated southward from Volcn Cantaro through Nevado de Colima to the currently active Volcn de Colima. Nevado de Colima, located in the state of Jalisco, has been a center of volcanism for about

600000 yr (Robin et al., 1987), but is currently dormant. The youngest dated activity from Nevado de Colima was - 8100 yr ago (Robin et al., 1990). This age was obtained from charcoal in a paleosol overlying a pyroclastic flow, which in turn directly overlies a debris-avalanche deposit from this volcano. Thus, this is a minimum age for volcanic activity at this cone. Volcn de Colima, a much smaller cone, is built on the southern slope of Nevado de Colima. Robin et al. (1987) suggested that this volcano may be 50000 yr old, but no precise age for its first eruption is available. Volcn de Colima has been historically active, with documented eruptions dating from A.D. 1560 to the present (Medina-Martinez, 1983). Small, blocky andesite flows have erupted from the summit in 1961-1962, 1975-1976, and 1981-1982 (Luhr and Carmichael, 1990) and more recently in March-April 1991 (Rodriguez-Elizarraras et al., 1991; Komorowski et al., 1991). Previous Work The debris avalanche originating from Nevado de Colima was first identified by Robin et al. (1987) as a large "Mount St. Helens-type event" that created an east-facing avalanche caldera. According to Robin et al. (1987), this debris avalanche first moved southeast and then turned southward along the Tuxpan-El Naranjo river drainage but extended no farther south than the town of San Marcos (Fig. 2). Robin et al. (1987) suggested a date of "some tens of thousands of years" for this event. The large debris-avalanche deposit from Volcn de Colima produced a 4-km-wide avalanche caldera open to the southwest. As mapped by Luhr and Prestegaard (1988), this debrisavalanche deposit has a distribution south of the cone and extended into the Armera, upper Rio Salado, and Tuxpan-El Naranjo river drainages. Luhr and Prestegaard (1988) proposed that this avalanche reached a distance of at least 65 km from its source and estimated its area to be 1600 km 2 and its volume to be 8-16 km 3 . Initially, Stoopes and Sheridan (1989) identified a large debris-avalanche deposit that reached to the present ocean shore as originating from Volcn de Colima. However, subsequent field work, dating of carbonized wood, and other considerations, presented below, now lead us to conclude that the much larger cone of Nevado de Colima is the source for this giant
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Figure 1. Location map for western part of Trans-Mexican volcanic belt and associated plate boundaries. Open triangles are andesitic cones; patterned area is Lake Chapala. Volcanoes of Colima Volcanic Complex are labeled. VCVolcn Cantara, NdCNevado de Colima, VdCVolcn de Colima. General fault pattern of Colima rift also shown. Figure modified from Luhr and Prestegaard (1988).

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debris-avalanche deposit (Stoopes and Sheridan, 1990a, 1990b). The Volcn de Colima debris-avalanche deposit is Holocene but the radiometric age is in question. Luhr and Prestegaard (1988) obtained an age of 4280 110 yr B.P., and Robin et al. (1987) determined an age of 9370 400 yr B.P. These ages are from charcoal samples from separate exposures located near the western base of Volcn de Colima (Fig. 2).

EVIDENCE FOR TWO OVERLAPPING DEBRISAVALANCHE DEPOSITS Starting with data from previous workers, we mapped the areal extent of debris-avalanche deposits around both volcanoes (Fig. 2). The mapped deposits exhibit features characteristic of volcanic debris avalanches: hummocky topography, closed depressions, debris-avalanche blocks, and jigsaw cracks within blocks as out-

lined by Glicken (1986, 1991) and Siebert (1984). The area covered by all debris-avalanche deposits is - 3 4 0 0 km 2 . The evidence for at least two distinct, overlapping debris-avalanche deposits is found in numerous road cuts along a new highway from the city of Colima north toward Ciudad Guzman and from exposures in barrancas throughout the overlap area. Figure 3 shows representative sections where two debris-avalanche deposits are exposed. The upper (younger) deposit throughout the overlap area is generally 1-4 m thick, composed mostly (up to 80%) of an unsorted, unstratified mix of angular brecciated andesite clasts with small (0.5-1 m) included debris-avalanche blocks of the same lithology. This upper deposit thins and ends to the east and south, thickens considerably (10-30 m) to the west, and can be continually traced toward Volcn de Colima until covered by more recent products from this volcano. The lower (older) deposit is much thicker (10-15 m) and is composed of the same type of andesitic matrix material as the upper deposit (-50%) but with many more and larger (decametres) included debris-avalanche blocks. In many localities, a distinctive reddish-brown to brown clay-rich soil horizon separates these two deposits. In some barrancas, pyroclastic products and debrisflow deposits separate the units. The lower deposit can be traced north of San Marcos toward Nevado de Colima where it is overlain by lava flows and other volcanic products and, at one location, directly overlain by a 2-m-thick tephra fall. To the south and east, this avalanche deposit is exposed at the surface and can be traced to the river drainages and downstream to the Pacific Ocean. A radiocarbon age of 18520 260 yr B.P. (University of Arizona, Tucson, lab no. 5304) was obtained for a large (50-cm diameter) carbonized tree trunk embedded in the lower avalanche deposit, found 1 km southeast of Cuauhtemoc (Fig. 2). This age is much older (by at least 9000 yr) than either age ascribed to the Volcn de Colima debris avalanche by Luhr and Prestegaard (1988) or Robin et al. (1987). In addition to stratigraphic and age evidence for two partially overlapping avalanche deposits, many surface boulders on the older deposit are quite dark in appearance, in contrast to surface boulders on the younger deposit. Luhr and Prestegaard (1988) first mentioned the darker boulders and noted their location in the southern part (mainly the Rio Tuxpan-El Narranjo drainage) of the deposit. Although dismissing the possibility that the dark boulders were evidence of two separate debris-avalanche deposits, they stated that their interpretation was not conclusive. Our interpretation is that the darker color of the clasts is due to longer exposure to weathering processes, similar to the development of a weathering varnish. The darkening of surface boulders ends at ground level; overGEOLOGY, April 1992

Figure 2. Map showing distribution of volcanic debris-avalanche deposits from Volcan de Colima (VdC) and Nevado de Colima (NdC). Dashed linesrivers, solid linesroads. Partially inferred avalanche calderas marked for each cone. Solid square marks approximate sample location for age determination of Luhr and Prestegaard (1988). Solid oval marks same for age determination of Robin et al. (1987). Solid triangle marks sample location for age assigned to Nevado de Colima avalanche deposit. 300

Downloaded from on December 2012 ever, we geology.gsapubs.org interpret this debris-avalanche deposit 12, lation 100000), which is built on this deposit. turned boulders are not dark on their unexposed surfaces, a common characteristic of varnished as an extension of the avalanche first identified The Volcn de Colima debris-avalanche deposit 2 material. The suggested age, 18500 yr, of the by Robin et al. (1987) which originated from covers a maximum area of 1200 km and has an 3 older avalanche is much older than either age Nevado de Colima. This debris-avalanche de- estimated volume of 6-12 km , based on an suggested for the Volcn de Colima avalanche, posit, as we have mapped it, covers an area of average thickness of 5-10 m. 2 and the areal distribution of these boulders fits 2200 km and has an estimated minimum vol3 well with the mapped extent of the Nevado de ume of 22-33 km , based on an average DISCUSSION thickness of 10-15 m. Colima avalanche deposit shown in Figure 2. The fall-height to runout-length ratio (H/L) is Large boulders with cracks that closely reAs shown in Figure 2, the Nevado de Colima an index used to compare avalanche deposits semble breadcrust texture are also present in the avalanche initially moved southeast from its and other flow deposits (e.g., lahars, pyroclastic older debris-avalanche deposit and may be source, filling and overflowing canyons of the flows) and to estimate a "coefficient of friction" juvenile erupted material. Although scarce, they Rio Tuxpan-El Naranjo and Rio Salado drain- (F = H/L) for each deposit (Hs, 1975; Siebert, have been found in five different localities. ages, and then moved down these two drainages 1984). The average F value for known volcanic These probably juvenile blocks have been noted toward the Pacific Ocean. The separate lobes of debris avalanches is 0.11 (Siebert, 1984). The only in the older avalanche, and many are also this debris avalanche converged near the pueb- Volcn de Colima avalanche has an F value of dark. lo of Las Conchas, 90 km from its source, and 0.09, but the F value for the Nevado de Colima In addition to the two volcanic debris- diverged a short distance farther. One lobe sur- avalanche is only 0.04. The low F value of the avalanche deposits on the east side of the vol- mounted an 80 m topographic barrier and Colima avalanche is consistent with other largecano, two debris-avalanche deposits occur in the moved southwest through a gap in the surround- volume deposits, but the 0.04 value for the Nedeep barranca at El Remote near the Rio Arme- ing hills toward the present site of San Miguel; vado avalanche is one of the lowest ever ra (A. L. Martin, 1991, personal commun.). the other lobe continued down the main river reported and in fact is similar to values reported The upper one probably corresponds to the drainage. The two avalanche lobes then con- for some large pyroclastic flows (Sheridan, 1979). 4300-yr-old avalanche, and the lower one is an verged again to the south near Cerro de Ortega and flowed toward the Pacific Ocean along a 20 older avalanche deposit. The Nevado de Colima debris avalanche The lithologies of both deposits are very sim- km swath. Sea level 18500 yr ago was at least flowed up various opposing slopes as it proilar as all clasts are two-pyroxene andesites. 100 m below its present height (Pinter and gressed southward in the Rio El Naranjo drainWhole-rock analyses of surface boulders and in- Gardner, 1989), so the full extent of this large age. Velocities for this avalanche can therefore cluded clasts from both deposits revealed the avalanche is not known. Even at this great dis- be estimated using the relation v = (2gh)0-5, monotonous nature of their chemical composi- tance the deposit is an unsorted, unstratified where h = run-up height (Chester, 1979) and g = tions. These deposits cannot be differentiated on mixture of angular blocks in a pulverized rock gravitational acceleration. This equation asthe basis of petrography or whole-rock analysis matrix. Debris-avalanche blocks are very rare at sumes no basal or internal friction; thus, v is a (exclusive of rare earth elements) of included distal locations in this deposit. This is a typical minimum. Figure 4 shows calculated velocities clasts or by comparisons to analyses of probable characteristic of debris-avalanche deposits (Sie- plotted against distance from source. At ~90 km bert, 1984) as was noted for the Mount St. from its source, the avalanche was moving at an source rocks (Stoopes, 1991). Helens (Glicken, 1986, 1991) and the Mount estimated velocity of 44 m/s (about 100 mi/h). Shasta avalanche deposits (Crandell, 1989). Closer to the source, at about 42 km distance, DISTRIBUTION AND AGE Numerous hummocks, many over 20 m high, the estimated velocity is 78 m/s. For compariOF DEPOSITS dot the landscape near the town of Cerro de son, the estimated maximum velocity of the Nevado de Colima Deposit Ortega. Hummocks and andesitic boulder Mount St. Helens debris avalanche was 70 m/s On the basis of the above evidence, we show mounds are also evident only 3 km from the (Voight et al., 1983). two partially overlapping debris-avalanche depresent ocean shore, west of the town. posits in Figure 2. One originated from Nevado The breadcrust blocks found in the Nevado de Colima and one from Volcn de Colima. de Colima avalanche deposit may be juvenile Luhr and Prestegaard (1988) identified a debris- Volcan de Colima Deposit material from a magma body that erupted simulavalanche deposit in the Tuxpan-El Naranjo This avalanche traveled 43 km south of the taneously with the collapse of this volcano. The river drainage and traced it to Paso de Potreril- old cone (Fig. 2), entering the Armeria river log used for dating the avalanche was carbonlos (Fig. 2), 65 km from Volcn de Colima, drainage southwest of the volcano but not reach- ized by the deposit, testifying to the high which they concluded was the probable source ing the Pacific Ocean. It did not enter the Tuxof this deposit. We traced this same deposit pan-El Naranjo drainage as proposed by Luhr south, through the El Naranjo and the Rio Sa- and Prestegaard (1988), but it did reach localado river drainages, to the Pacific Ocean. How- tions ~ 10 km south of the city of Colima (popuVdC avalanche deposit Paleosol overlain by pyroclastic products NdC avalanche deposit Debris flows and other fluvial deposits

VdC avalanche deposit Paleosol NdC avalanche deposit Cretaceous sedimentary bedrock
0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Distance (km) from Nevado de Colima Figure 4. Graph showing velocities of Nevado de Colima avalanche plotted against distance from source. Calculations based on runup equation. Arrow points to calculated velocity near village of San Miguel.

Figure 3. Representative sections of avalanche deposits in Barranca Rosario in town of San Marcos, 16 km east of Volcan de Colima (A), and ~5 km southeast of city of Colima in Rio Salado drainage (B). Bedrock is inferred here; it is exposed in outcrop beneath Nevado avalanche ~ 5 km downstream, but Volcan de Colima avalanche deposit is absent. Abbreviations as in Figure 2. 300 GEOLOGY, April 1992

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temperature of the avalanche. A thick tephra-fall deposit directly overlies this avalanche deposit closer to its source and suggests the possibility of volcanic activity associated with this avalanche. A magma body in the top part of Nevado de Colima could have contributed substantial energy to the movement and disaggregation of the avalanche and may be one reason why it traveled such a great distance. Hot gases and fluids may have helped either mobilize part of the avalanche or buffer interparticle collisions, reducing friction and energy dissipation within the moving mass and extending its travel length (Voight et al., 1983). The low F value of this avalanche and the high velocities a great distance from its source may attest to this process. The debris avalanche from Volcn de Colima is very large, but its area and volume are less than reported by Luhr and Prestegaard (1988). The Volcn de Colima avalanche spread out from its source like a fan because no large, confining drainages or topography obstructions restricted flow. CONCLUSIONS The Nevado de Colima avalanche deposit is one of the largest known. The Mount Shasta, California, avalanche deposit, with an estimated volume of 45 km 3 (Crandell, 1989) is the largest known. Active magmatic and hydrothermal systems may have influenced the collapse of Nevado de Colima and may have been contributing factors to the long runout length of the resulting avalanche. Thus, some long-runout avalanches may act similarly to dense lithic pyroclastic flows. An additional factor for long runout was the confinement of this avalanche to river drainages for much of its travel distance. Hummocks from this deposit may be evident in the submarine morphology and detectable by seismic profiling or on detailed bathymetric maps. The debris avalanche from Volcn de Colima is much smaller and traveled less distance than the avalanche from Nevado de Colima. A repeat avalanche event from this cone would be catastrophic to the population near this volcano (Luhr and Carmichael, 1990). The possibility of more than one avalanche deposit from Volcn de Colima cannot be dismissed, and more mapping is required to resolve this question. Earthquakes can initiate debris avalanches (Keefer, 1984; Endo et al., 1989), and the association of the Colima Volcanic Complex with an active rift along a subduction margin may be a factor in the number of debris avalanches originating from these cones. It is apparent that debris avalanches can travel great distances and that water is not an essential ingredient to long runout (McEwen, 1989). No consensus has been reached on the mechanism of movement of this phenomenon, but this work illustrates the need for more research on grain302

flow theory and flow dynamics of large mass movements. Given the proper set of conditionsa largevolume cone, steep proximal topography, a great fall height (>3000-4000 m), and an accompanying eruptionprimary avalanche material can travel 120 km or more from its source. Secondary lahars derived from avalanche material could add substantially to the travel distance. Current hazard assessment techniques regarding volcanic debris avalanches must take these factors into account if accurate risk assessment and hazard zonation maps are to be developed.
REFERENCES CITED Campbell, C.S., 1989, Self-lubrication for long runout landslides: Journal of Geology, v. 97, p. 653-665. Chester, W., 1979, Mechanics: London, Allen and Unwin, 432 p. Crandell, D.R., 1989, Gigantic debris avalanche of Pleistocene age from ancestral Mount Shasta Volcano, California, and debris-avalanche hazard zonation: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1861, 32 p. Davies, T.R.H., 1981, Spreading of rock avalanche debris by mechanical fluidization: Rock Mechanics, v. 15, p. 9-24. Endo, K., Sumita, M., Machida, M., and Furuichi, M., 1989, The 1984 collapse and debris avalanche deposit of Ontake Volcano, central Japan, in Latter, J.H., ed Volcanic hazards: Assessment and monitoring, Berlin, Springer-Verlag, p. 210-229. Glicken, H., 1986, Rockslide-debris avalanche of May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens volcano, Washington [Ph.D. thesis]: Santa Barbara, University of California, 303 p. 1991, Rockslide-debris avalanche of May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens volcano, Washington: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1488, 304 p. Hsii, K.J., 1975, Catastrophic debris streams (Sturzstroms) generated by rockfalls: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 86, p. 129-140. Keefer, D.K., 1984, Landslides caused by earthquakes: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 95, p. 406-421. Komorowski, J.C., Siebe, C., Rodriguez-Elizarraras, S., Espindola, J.M., and Saucedo, R., 1991, Pyroclastic and effusive activity of April 16-17,1991 at Volcn de Colima, Mexico: Field characteristics, sedimentology, chemistry, and petrology of the products: Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 23, no. 5, p. 451-452. Luhr, J.F., and Carmichael, I.S.E., 1990, Petrological monitoring of cyclical eruptive activity at Volcn Colima, Mexico: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 42, p. 235-260. Luhr, J.F., and Prestegaard, K.L., 1988, Caldera formation at Volcn Colima, Mexico, by a large Hoiocene volcanic debris avalanche: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 35, p. 335-348. Luhr, J.F., Nelson, S.A., Allan, J.F., and Carmichael, I.S.E., 1985, Active rifting in southwestern Mexico: Manifestations of an incipient eastward spreading-ridge jump: Geology, v. 13, p. 54-57. McEwen, A.S., 1989, Mobility of large rock avalanches: Evidence from Valles Marineris, Mare: Geology, v. 17, p. 1111-1114. Medina-Martinez, F., 1983, Analysis of the eruptive history of the Volcn de Colima, Mexico (1560-1980): Geofsica Internacional, v. 22-2, p. 157-178.

Melosh, H.J., 1987, The mechanics of large rock avalanches, in Costa, J.E., and Wieczorek, G.F., eds., Debris flows/avalanches: Process, recognition, and mitigation: Geological Society of America Reviews in Engineering Geology, v. VII, p. 41-49. Pinter, N and Gardner, T.W., 1989, Construction of a polynomial model of glacio-eustatic fluctuation: Estimating paleo-sea levels continuously through time: Geology, v. 17, p. 295-298. Robin, C., Mossand, P., Camus, G., Cantagrel, J.M., Gourgaud, A., and Vincent, P., 1987, Eruptive history of the Colima Volcanic Complex (Mexico): Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 31, p. 99-113. Robin, C., Komorowski, J., Boudal, C., and Mossand, P., 1990, Mixed-magma pyroclastic surge deposits associated with debris avalanche deposits at Colima volcanoes, Mexico: Bulletin of Volcanology, v. 52, p. 391-403. Rodriguez-Elizarraras, S., Siebe, C., Komorowski, J.C., Espindola, J.M., and Saucedo, R., 1991, Field observations of pristine block- and ash-flow deposits emplaced April 16-17, 1991 at Volcn de Colima, Mexico: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 48, p. 399-412. Sheridan, M.F., 1979, Emplacement of pyroclastic flows: A review, in Chapin, C.E., and Elston, W.E., eds., Ash-flow tuffs: Geological Society of America Special Paper 180, p. 125-136. Siebert, L., 1984, Large volcanic debris avalanches: Characteristics of source areas, deposits, and associated eruptions: Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, v. 22, p. 163-197. Stoopes, G.R., 1991, Studies of two giant debrisavalanche deposits from the Colima Volcanic Complex, Mexico [M.S. thesis]: Tempe, Arizona State University, 132 p. Stoopes, G.R., and Sheridan, M.F., 1989, Giant Hoiocene debris avalanche from Volcn Colima, Mexico, in Continental magmatism: New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Bulletin 131, p. 258. 1990a, Hazards related to giant volcanic debris avalanches from Volcn de Colima and Nevado de Colima, Mexico, in Colima Volcano second national reunion, first international reunion on volcanology: Colima, Mexico, Universidad de Colima, p. 15-16. 1990b, Large debris avalanches from Volcn de Colima and Nevado de Colima, Mexico, and related hazards, in Symposium on the tectonics, geophysics, and volcanism of Mexico: New Orleans, Louisiana, University of New Orleans, p. 32-34. Voight, B., Janda, R.J., Glicken, H., and Douglass, P.M., 1983, Nature and mechanics of the Mount St. Helens rockslide-avalanche of 18 May, 1980: Geotechnique, v. 33, p. 243-273. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Partial funding for field work was provided by National Science Foundation grant INT-8902171. We thank Norman Banks, U.S. Geological Survey, Cascades Volcano Observatory, for financial support for field work provided through OFDA/USGS Volcano Early Warning and Disaster Assistant Program; Austin Long, University of Arizona, Tucson, for the carbon-14 date; Steve Anderson, Al Levine, Judy Lopas Stoopes, and Mike Malin for reviews and comments on earlier versions of this paper; Thomas Pierson for a thorough and thoughtful review; and especially Claus Siebe and Jean Christophe-Komorowski. Manuscript received October 7, 1991 Revised manuscript received December 11, 1991 Manuscript accepted December 23, 1991 GEOLOGY, April 1992

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