CELLS Anton van Leeuwenhoek got microscopy started (17th century) Light microscopes visible light passes through

h specimen, and then through a series of glass lenses - vary in magnificantion and resolving power 40x,100x,400x ocular -> objective - resolving power measure of image clarity (min distance two points can be separatd by and still be viewed as 2) - when magnification exceeds resolving power of lenses and illumination source = blurry - resolution is limited by the shortest wavelength of the illumination source - can be used to magnify to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen - minimum resolution is 2 micrometers, the size of a small bacterium after that, limits to resolution make further magnification useless - since can only resolve objects roughly um in size or bigger, another illumination source is needed with a shorter wavelength (resolution is inversely related to wavelength used) - allow examination of live cells Beneath specimen is a series of lenses that form the condenser (which focuses as much light as possible on the specimen) Electron microscopes - used for intracellular structures - focus a beam of e- teither through the specimen or onto its surface - the resolution of a modern EM could reach .1 nanometer, but practical limit is closer to 2 nm Transmission electron microscopes (TEM) - used to study the internal ultrastructure of cells - aims an electron beam through a thin section of the specimen - image is focused and magnified by electromagnets - to enhance contrast, thin sections are stained with atoms of heavy metals - reveal organelles Scanning electron microscopes (SEM) - used to study surface structures - sample surface is covered with a thin film of gold - beam excites e- on the surface - secondary e- are collected and focused on a screen - has great depth of field-> image seems 3D - can reveal minute surface strucutres (on dead cells), introduce artifacts Microscopes = major tool in cytology (the study of cell structures)

Cytology + biochemistry (study of molecules and chemical processes in metabolism) = modern cell biology Cell Fractionation isolate major organelles of cells so individual functions can be studied - ultracentrifuge, machine that spins 130,000 revolutions/min and apply forces more than 1 million times gravity - begins with homogenization, gently disrupting the cell homogenate is spun in a centrifuge to separate heavier pieces into pellet while lighter particles remain in supernatant supernatant is poured off into another tube repeat - extract samples of specific components, functions can be isolated eukaryotic DNA (chromosomes) in the nucleus cytoplasm, fluid = cytosol - much bigger - extensive, elaborate internal membranes, which partition the cell into compartments (provide different local environments that facilitate specific metabolic functions) also participate in metabolism (enzymes) prokaryotic DNA is concentrated in nucleoid (no membrane) cytoplasm cells surface area determines max rate of exchange, allowing O, nutrients, and wastes into or out of the cell the volume determines minimum required rate small objects have greater ratio of surface area to volume (larger organisms have more cells, not larger cells) Phospholipid bilayer -lipids and proteins incorporated into it (what kind? Depends on the function of the organelle it encloses) Inner side of nuclear envelope = nuclear lamina = intermediate filaments that maintains shape of nucleus Inside nucleus, DNA and associated proteins are organized into fibrous material, chromatin Prior to division, the DNA in the nucleus condenses into chroomsome shape each has characteristic number of chromosomes - region of densely stained fibers and granules adjoining chromatin, the nucleolus where rRNA is synthesized and assembled with proteins from the cytoplasm to form ribosomal subunits pass through nuclear pores to cytoplasm where they combine to form ribosomes - nuclueus directs protein synthesis by synthesizing mRNA based on DNA info -

mRNA is taken to cytoplsasm where it combines with ribosomes to translate its genetic msg into primary structure of a specific polypeptide RIBOSOMES: rRNA and protein composed to 2 subunits that combien to carry out protein synthesis cell types that synthesize large quantities of proteins have large numbers of ribosomes and prominent nucleoli free ribosomes in cytosol synthesize proteins that function within the cytosol bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the ER, synthesize proteins that are inserted into membranes, or intended for export from the cell ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM ER membranous tubules, internal fluid filled spaces, cisternae - continuous with the nuclear envelope, space within the ER is continuous with the space b/w the 2 memrbanes of the nuclear envelope SMOOTH ER no ribosomes, synthesizes lipids: oils, phospholipids, steroids Catalyzes key step in mobilization of glucose from stored glycogen in the liver Help detoxify drugs and poisons 1. Muscle cells store calcium in cisternae of a specialized form of smooth ER, the sarcoplasmic reticulum 2. When a nerve impulse stimulates a muscle cell, Ca+ moe from the SR into the cytosol of the muscle cell 3. Specialized enzymes pump Ca+ back ROUGH ER ribosomes attached -abundant in cells that secrete proteins -as a polypeptide is synthesized by the ribosome, it is threaded into the cisternal space through a pore formed by a protein in the ER membrane The secretory proteins are packaged in transport vesicles that carry them to their next stage - enzymes synthesize phospholipids from precursors in the cytosol Membrane bound proteins are synthesized directly into membrane GOLGI APPARATUS -flattened membranous sacs cisternae membrane of each separates its internal space from the cytosol - one side of the Golgi, the cis side, receives material by fusing with vesciles coming from the ER, while on the other side, the trans side, buds off vesicles that travel to other sites While travelling from the cis to the trans side of the Golgi, products from the ER are modified to their final state -things like glycoproteins for example, get their sugars attached here, and then undergo further modifications - during processing, material moves from cisterna to cisterna, each of which contains its own set of enzymes Can also manufacture its own macromolecules, including pectin, and other polysaccharides -tags, sorts, and packages materials into transport vesicles