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Vocal pedagogy

Vocal pedagogy
The anatomy of the Vocal folds

Laryngoscopic view of the vocal folds.

Abduction and adduction Latin Gray's Nerve plica vocalis subject #236 1079
[1]

N. laryngeus recurrens and N. laryngeus superior

Precursor Sixth pharyngeal arch MeSH Vocal+Cords

[2]

Vocal pedagogy is the study of the art and science of voice instruction. It is used in the teaching of singing and assists in defining what singing is, how singing works, and how proper singing technique is accomplished. Vocal pedagogy covers a broad range of aspects of singing, ranging from the physiological process of vocal production to the artistic aspects of interpretation of songs from different genres or historical eras. Typical areas of study include:[3] Human anatomy and physiology as it relates to the physical process of singing. Breathing and air support for singing Posture for singing Phonation Vocal resonation or voice projection Diction, vowels and articulation Vocal registration Sostenuto and legato for singing Other singing elements, such as range extension, tone quality, vibrato, coloratura Vocal health and voice disorders related to singing Vocal styles, such as learning to sing opera, belt, or Art song Phonetics Voice classification

Vocal pedagogy All of these different concepts are a part of developing proper vocal technique. Not all vocal teachers have the same opinions within every topic of study which causes variations in pedagogical approaches and vocal technique.

History
Within Western culture, the study of vocal pedagogy began in Ancient Greece. Scholars such as Alypius and Pythagoras studied and made observations on the art of singing. It is unclear, however, whether the Greeks ever developed a systematic approach to teaching singing as little writing on the subject survives today.[4] The first surviving record of a systematized approach to teaching singing was developed in the medieval monasteries of the Roman Catholic Church sometime near the beginning of the 13th century. As with other fields of study, the monasteries were the center of musical intellectual life during the medieval period and many men within the monasteries devoted their time to the study of music and the art of singing. Highly influential in the development of a vocal pedagogical system were monks Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia Pythagoras, the man in the center with the book, who were the first to develop a concept of vocal registers. These men teaching music, in The School of Athens by identified three registers: chest voice, throat voice , and head voice Raphael (pectoris , guttoris, and capitis). Their concept of head voice, however, is much more similar to the modern pedagogists understanding of the falsetto register. Other concepts discussed in the monastic system included vocal resonance, voice classification, breath support, diction, and tone quality to name a few. The ideas developed within the monastic system highly influenced the development of vocal pedagogy over the next several centuries including the Bel Canto style of singing. [4] With the onset of the Renaissance in the 15th century, the study of singing began to move outside of the church. The courts of rich partons, such as the Dukes of Burgundy who supported the Burgundian School and the Franco-Flemish School, became secular centers of study for singing and all other areas of musical study. The vocal pedagogical methods taught in these schools, however, were based on the concepts developed within the monastic system. Many of the teachers within these schools had their initial musical training from singing in church choirs as children. The church also remained at the forefront of musical composition at this time and remained highly influential in shaping musical tastes and practices both in and outside the church. It was the Catholic Church that first popularized the use of castrato singers in the 16th century, which ultimately led to the popularity of castrato voices in Baroque and Classical operas.[5] It was not until the development of opera in the 17th century that vocal pedagogy began to break away from some of the established thinking of the monastic writers and develop deeper understandings of the physical process of singing and its relation to key concepts like vocal registration and vocal resonation. It was also during this time, that noted voice teachers began to emerge. Giulio Caccini is an example of an important early Italian voice teacher.[4] In the late 17th century, the bel canto method of singing began to develop in Italy. This style of singing had a huge impact on the development of opera and the development of vocal pedagogy during the Classical and Romantic periods. It was during this time, that teachers and composers first began to identify singers by and write roles for more specific voice types. However, it wasn't until the 19th century that more clearly defined voice classification systems like the German Fach system emerged. Within these systems, more descriptive terms were used in classifying voices such as coloratura soprano and lyric soprano.[5]

Vocal pedagogy

3 Voice teachers in the 19th century continued to train singers for careers in opera. Manuel Patricio Rodrguez Garca is often considered one of the most important voice teachers of the 19th century, and is credited with the development of the laryngoscope and the beginning of modern voice pedagogy.

Examining the vocal mechanism with a laryngoscope, late 19th century

The field of voice pedagogy became more fully developed in the middle of the 20th century. A few American voice teachers began to study the science, anatomy, and physiology of singing, especially Ralph Appelman at Indiana University, Oren Brown at the Washington University School of Medicine and later the Juilliard School, and William Vennard at the University of Southern California. This shift in approach to the study of singing led to the rejection of many of the assertions of the bel canto singing method, most particularly in the areas of vocal registration and vocal resonation.[6] As a result, there are currently two predominating schools of thought among voice teachers today, those who maintain the historical positions of the bel canto method and those who choose to embrace more contemporary understandings based in current knowledge of human anatomy and physiology. There are also those teachers who borrow ideas from both perspectives, creating a hybrid of the two.[7] [8] Appelman and Vennard were also part of a group of voice instructors who developed courses of study for beginning voice teachers, adding these scientific ideas to the standard exercises and empirical ways to improve vocal technique, and by 1980 the subject of voice pedagogy was beginning to be included in many college music degree programs for singers and vocal music educators.[6]

More recent works by authors such as Richard Miller and Johan Sundberg have increased the general knowledge of voice teachers, and scientific and practical aspects of voice pedagogy continue to be studied and discussed by professionals. In addition, the creation of organisations such as the National Association of Teachers of Singing (now an international organization of Vocal Instructors) has enabled voice teachers to establish more of a consensus about their work, and has expanded the understanding of what singing teachers do.[3] [9]

Mathilde Marchesi was both an important singer and teacher of singing at the turn of the 20th century.

Vocal pedagogy

Topics of study
Pedagogical philosophy
There are basically three major approaches to vocal pedagogy, all related to how the mechanistic and psychological controls are employed within the act of singing. Some voice instructors advocate an extreme mechanistic approach that believes that singing is largely a matter of getting the right physical parts in the right places at the right time, and that correcting vocal faults is accomplished by calling direct attention to the parts which are not working well. On the other extreme, is the school of thought that believes that attention should never be directed to any part of the vocal mechanism--that singing is a matter of producing the right mental images of the desired tone, and that correcting vocal faults is achieved by learning to think the right thoughts and by releasing the emotions through interpretation of the music. Most voice teachers, however, believe that the truth lies somewhere in between the two extremes and adopt a composite of those two approaches.[10]

The nature of vocal sounds

Physiology of vocal sound production There are four physical processes involved in producing vocal sound: respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These processes occur in the following sequence: 1. Breath is taken 2. Sound is initiated in the larynx 3. The vocal resonators receive the sound and influence it 4. The articulators shape the sound into recognizable units Although these four processes are to be considered separately, in actual practice they merge into one coordinated function. With an effective singer or speaker, one should rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the resulting unified function. Many vocal problems result from a lack of coordination within this process.[8]

Vocal pedagogy Respiration In its most basic sense, respiration is the process of moving air in and out of the body--inhalation and exhalation. Breathing for singing and speaking is a more controlled process than is the ordinary breathing used for sustaining life. The controls applied to exhalation are particularly important in good vocal technique.[8] Phonation Phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn modified by the resonance of the vocal tract.[11] [12] It takes place in the A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords. larynx when the vocal folds are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them in such a way that vibration ensues causing an audible source of acoustic energy, i.e., sound, which can then be modified by the articulatory actions of the rest of the vocal apparatus. The vocal folds are brought together primarily by the action of the interarytenoid muscles, which pull the arytenoid cartilages together.[3] Resonation Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[3] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[10] Research has shown that the larynx, the pharynx and the oral cavity are the main resonators of vocal sound, with the nasal cavity only coming into play in nasal consonants, or nasal vowels, such as those found in French. This main resonating space, from above the vocal folds to the lips is known as the vocal tract. Many voice users experience sensations in the sinuses that may be misconstrued as resonance. However, these sensations are caused by sympathetic vibrations, and are a result, rather than a cause, of efficient vocal resonance.[9]

Vocal pedagogy Articulation Articulation is the process by which the joint product of the vibrator and the resonators is shaped into recognizable speech sounds through the muscular adjustments and movements of the speech organs. These adjustments and movements of the articulators result in verbal communication and thus form the essential difference between the human voice and other musical instruments. Singing without understandable words limits the voice to nonverbal communication.[10] In relation to the physical process of singing, vocal instructors tend to focus more on active articulation as opposed to passive articulation. There are five basic active articulators: the lip ("labial consonants"), the flexible front of the tongue ("coronal consonants"), the middle/back of the tongue ("dorsal consonants"), the root of the tongue together with the epiglottis ("radical consonants"), and the larynx ("laryngeal consonants"). These articulators can act independently of each other, and two or more may work together in what is called coarticulation.

Unlike active articulation, passive articulation is a continuum without many clear-cut boundaries. The places linguolabial and interdental, interdental and dental, dental and alveolar, alveolar and palatal, palatal and velar, velar and uvular merge into one another, and a consonant may be pronounced somewhere between the named places.

Places of articulation (passive & active): 1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Post-alveolar, 6. Pre-palatal, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Pharyngeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Epiglottal, 13. Radical, 14. Postero-dorsal, 15. Antero-dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. Apical, 18. Sub-apical

In addition, when the front of the tongue is used, it may be the upper surface or blade of the tongue that makes contact ("laminal consonants"), the tip of the tongue ("apical consonants"), or the under surface ("sub-apical consonants"). These articulations also merge into one another without clear boundaries. Interpretation Interpretation is sometimes listed by voice teachers as a fifth physical process even though strictly speaking it is not a physical process. The reason for this is that interpretation does influence the kind of sound a singer makes which is ultimately achieved through a physical action the singer is doing. Although teachers may acquaint their students with musical styles and performance practices and suggest certain interpretive effects, most voice teachers agree that interpretation can not be taught. Students who lack a natural creative imagination and aesthetic sensibility can not learn it from someone else. Failure to interpret well is not a vocal fault even though it may affect vocal sound significantly.[3]

Vocal pedagogy Classification of vocal sounds Vocal sounds are divided into two basic categories-vowels and consonants-with a wide variety of sub-classifications. Voice Teachers and serious voice students spend a great deal of time studying how the voice forms vowels and consonants, and studying the problems that certain consonants or vowels may cause while singing. The International Phonetic Alphabet is used frequently by voice teachers and their students.[10] Problems in describing vocal sounds Describing vocal sound is an inexact science largely because the human voice is a self-contained instrument. Since the vocal instrument is internal, the singer's ability to monitor the sound produced is complicated by the vibrations carried to the ear through the Eustachean (auditory) tube and the bony structures of the head and neck. In other words, most singers hear something different in their ears/head than what a person listening to them hears. As a result, voice teachers often focus less on how it "sounds" and more on how it "feels". Vibratory sensations resulting from the closely-related processes of phonation and resonation, and kinesthetic ones arising from muscle tension, movement, body position, and weight serve as a guide to the singer on correct vocal production. Another problem in describing vocal sound lies in the vocal vocabulary itself. There are many schools of thought within vocal pedagogy and different schools have adopted different terms, sometimes from other artistic disciplines. This has led to the use of a plethora of descriptive terms applied to the voice which are not always understood to mean the same thing. Some terms sometimes used to describe a quality of a voice's sound are: warm, white, dark, light, round, reedy, spread, focused, covered, swallowed, forward, ringing, hooty, bleaty, plummy, mellow, pear-shaped, and so forth.[8]

Posture
The singing process functions best when certain physical conditions of the body exist. The ability to move air in and out of the body freely and to obtain the needed quantity of air can be seriously affected by the posture of the various parts of the breathing mechanism. A sunken chest position will limit the capacity of the lungs, and a tense abdominal wall will inhibit the downward travel of the diaphragm. Good posture allows the breathing mechanism to fulfill its basic function efficiently without any undue expenditure of energy. Good posture also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension in the body. Voice Instructors have also noted that when singers assume good posture it often provides them with a greater sense of self assurance and poise while performing. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers with good posture. Habitual good posture also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and stress on the body.[7]

Breathing and breath support

In the words of Robert C. White, who paraphrased a "Credo" for singing (no blasphemy intended): In the Beginning there was Breath, and Singing was with Breath, and Singing was Breath, and Singing was Breath. And all singing was made by the Breath, and without Breath was not any Singing made that was made. (White 1988, p. 26) All singing begins with breath. All vocal sounds are created by vibrations in the larynx caused by air from the lungs. Breathing in everyday life is a subconscious bodily function which occurs naturally, however the singer must have control of the intake and exhalation of breath to achieve maximum results from their voice. Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing-out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing there are four stages of breathing: 1. a breathing-in period (inhalation) 2. a setting up controls period (suspension) 3. a controlled exhalation period (phonation)

Vocal pedagogy 4. a recovery period These stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes. Many singers abandon conscious controls before their reflexes are fully conditioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.[13]

Voice classification
In European classical music and opera, voices are treated like musical instruments. Composers who write vocal music must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and vocal properties of singers. Voice classification is the process by which human singing voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration.[14] The science behind voice classification developed within European classical music and has been slow in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use within classical music including: the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.[5] However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories. Women are typically divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering children's voices, an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.[3] It should be noted that within choral music, singers voices are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB). As a result, the typical choral situation affords many opportunities for misclassification to occur.[3] Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[15] Within contemporary forms of music (sometimes referred to as Contemporary Commercial Music), singers are classified by the style of music they sing, such as jazz, pop, blues, soul, country, folk, and rock styles. There is currently no authoritative voice classification system within non-classical music.[16] Attempts have been made to adopt classical voice type terms to other forms of singing but such attempts have been met with controversy. The development of voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would be using classical vocal technique within a specified range using unamplified (no microphones) vocal production. Since contemporary musicians use different vocal techniques, microphones, and are not forced to fit into a specific vocal role, applying such terms as soprano, tenor, baritone, etc. can be misleading or even inaccurate.[8] Dangers of quick identification Many voice teachers warn of the dangers of quick identification. Premature concern with classification can result in misclassification, with all its attendant dangers. Vennard says: "I never feel any urgency about classifying a beginning student. So many premature diagnoses have been proved wrong, and it can be harmful to the student and embarrassing to the teacher to keep striving for an ill-chosen goal. It is best to begin in the middle part of the voice and work upward and downward until the voice classifies itself."[7] Most voice teachers believe that it is essential to establish good vocal habits within a limited and comfortable range before attempting to classify the voice. When techniques of posture, breathing, phonation, resonation, and articulation have become established in this comfortable area, the true quality of the voice will emerge and the upper and lower limits of the range can be explored safely. Only then can a tentative classification be arrived at, and it may

Vocal pedagogy be adjusted as the voice continues to develop.[10] Many acclaimed voice instructors suggest that teachers begin by assuming that a voice is of a medium classification until it proves otherwise. The reason for this is that the majority of individuals possess medium voices and therefore this approach is less likely to misclassify or damage the voice.[3]

Vocal registration
Vocal registers Highest Whistle Falsetto Modal Vocal fry Lowest Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[17] The term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following[3] : A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers. A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice. A phonatory process A certain vocal timbre A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks. A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.

In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system. Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many teachers of singing.[3] Some voice teachers, however, organize registers differently. There are over a dozen different constructs of vocal registers in use within the field. The confusion which exists concerning what a register is, and how many registers there are, is due in part to what takes place in the modal register when a person sings from the lowest pitches of that register to the highest pitches. The frequency of vibration of the vocal folds is determined by their length, tension, and mass. As pitch rises, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their thickness decreases. In other words, all three of these factors are in a state of flux in the transition from the lowest to the highest tones.[17] If a singer holds any of these factors constant and interferes with their progressive state of change, his laryngeal function tends to become static and eventually breaks occur with obvious changes of tone quality. These breaks are often identified as register boundaries or as transition areas between registers. The distinct change or break between registers is called a passaggio or a ponticello.[18] Vocal instructors teach that with study a singer can move effortlessly from one register to the other with ease and consistent tone. Registers can even overlap while singing. Teachers who like to use this theory of "blending registers" usually help students through the "passage" from one register to another by hiding their "lift" (where the voice changes).

Vocal pedagogy However, many voice instructors disagree with this distinction of boundaries blaming such breaks on vocal problems which have been created by a static laryngeal adjustment that does not permit the necessary changes to take place. This difference of opinion has effected the different views on vocal registration.[3]

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Coordination
Singing is an integrated and coordinated act and it is difficult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and processes without relating them to the others. For example, phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected with respiration; the articulators affect resonance; the resonators affect the vocal folds; the vocal folds affect breath control; and so forth. Vocal problems are often a result of a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which causes voice teachers to frequently focus in, intensively, on one area of the process with their student until that issue is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation, resonation, articulation, or respiration. Once the voice student has become aware of the physical processes that make up the act of singing and of how those processes function, the student begins the task of trying to coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers, will become more concerned with one area of the technique than another. The various processes may progress at different rates, with a resulting imbalance or lack of coordination. The areas of vocal technique which seem to depend most strongly on the student's ability to coordinate various functions are.[3] 1. Extending the vocal range to its maximum potential 2. Developing consistent vocal production with a consistent tone quality 3. Developing flexibility and agility 4. Achieving a balanced vibrato

Developing the singing voice Singing is not a natural process but is a skill that requires highly developed muscle reflexes. Singing does not require much muscle strength but it does require a high degree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their voices further through the careful and systematic practice of both songs and vocal exercises. Voice teachers instruct their students to exercise their voices in an intelligent manner. Singers should be thinking constantly about the kind of sound they are making and the kind of sensations they are feeling while they are singing.[8] Exercising the singing voice There are several purposes for vocal exercises, including[3] : 1. Warming up the voice 2. Extending the vocal range 3. "Lining up" the voice horizontally and vertically 4. Acquiring vocal techniques such as legato, staccato, control of dynamics, rapid figurations, learning to comfortably sing wide intervals, and correcting vocal faults.

Extending the vocal range An important goal of vocal development is to learn to sing to the natural limits of one's vocal range without any obvious or distracting changes of quality or technique. Voice instructors teach that a singer can only achieve this goal when all of the physical processes involved in singing (such as laryngeal action, breath support, resonance adjustment, and articulatory movement) are effectively working together. Most voice teachers believe that the first step in coordinating these processes is by establishing good vocal habits in the most comfortable tessitura of the voice first before slowly expanding the range beyond that.[7] There are three factors which significantly affect the ability to sing higher or lower:

Vocal pedagogy 1. The Energy Factor- In this usage the word energy has several connotations. It refers to the total response of the body to the making of sound. It refers to a dynamic relationship between the breathing-in muscles and the breathing-out muscles known as the breath support mechanism. It also refers to the amount of breath pressure delivered to the vocal folds and their resistance that pressure, and it refers to the dynamic level of the sound. 2. The Space Factor- Space refers to the amount of space created by the moving of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher they sing. The internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by the relaxing of the throat. Voice teachers often describe this as feeling like the "beginning of a yawn". 3. The Depth Factor- In this usage the word depth has two connotations. It refers to the actual physical sensations of depth in the body and vocal mechanism and it refers to mental concepts of depth as related to tone quality. McKinney says, "These three factors can be expressed in three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower, you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less."[3]

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General music studies

Some voice teachers will spend time working with their students on general music knowledge and skills, particularly music theory, music history, and musical styles and practices as it relates to the vocal literature being studied. If required they may also spend time helping their students become better sight readers, often adopting Solfege which assigns certain syllables to the notes of the scale.

Performance skills and practices

Since singing is a performing art, voice teachers spend some of their time preparing their students for performance. This includes teaching their students etiquette of behavior on stage such as bowing, addressing problems like stage fright or nervous tics, and the use of equipment such as microphones. Some students may also be preparing for careers in the fields of opera or musical theater where acting skills are required. Many voice instructors will spend time on acting techniques and audience communication with students in these fields of interest. Students of opera also spend a great deal of time with their voice teachers learning foreign language pronunciations.

External links
Historical vocal pedagogy [19] National Association of Teachers of Singing [20]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] http:/ / education. yahoo. com/ reference/ gray/ subjects/ subject?id=236#p1079 http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2011/ MB_cgi?mode=& term=Vocal+ Cords McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN978-1565939400. The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians. Edited by Stanley Sadie, Volume 6. Edmund to Fryklund. ISBN 1-56159-174-2, Copyright Macmillan 1980. [5] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-08-0208-614-3. [6] Gurnee, Robert T. (1986). In Memoriam: William D. Vennard. The NATS Bulletin. [7] Vennard, William (1967). Singing: the mechanism and the technic. Carl Fischer. ISBN978-0825800559. [8] Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Pedagogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0253203786. [9] Miller, Richard (1986). The Structure of Singing. Schirmer Books. ISBN002872660X. [10] Greene Margaret, Mathieson Lesley (2001). The voice and its disorders (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN1861561961. [11] Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298 (1):94-101. PM 18225701 [12] Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall (currently published by NCVS.org), ISBN 978-0137178933. [13] Sundberg, Johan (January/February 1993). "Breathing Behavior During Singing". The NATS Journal 49: 29, 4951. [14] Shewan, Robert (January/February 1979). "Voice classification: An examination of methodology". The NATS Bulletin 35: 1727.

Vocal pedagogy
[15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] Smith, Brenda (2005). Choral pedagogy. Plural Publishing. ISBN1597560436. Peckham Anne (2005). Vocal workouts for the contemporary singer. Berklee Press. pp.117. ISBN0876390475. Large, John (February/March 1972). "Towards an integrated physiologic-acoustic theory of vocal registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035. The OXFORD DICTIONARY OF OPERA. JOHN WARRACK AND EWAN WEST, ISBN 0-19-869164-5 http:/ / carbon. cudenver. edu/ ~jcoe/ vocalped_timeline. htm http:/ / www. nats. org

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Sources
Thurman, Leon; Welch, ed., Graham (2000). Bodymind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised ed.). Collegeville, Minnesota: The VoiceCare Network et al.. ISBN0874141230.

Singing
Singing is the act of producing musical sounds with the voice, and augments regular speech by the use of both tonality and rhythm. One who sings is called a singer or vocalist. Singers perform music known as songs that can be sung either with or without accompaniment by musical instruments. Singing is often done in a group of other musicians, such as in a choir of singers with different voice ranges, or in an ensemble with instrumentalists, such as a rock group or baroque ensemble. As in many respects human song is a form of sustained speech, nearly anyone able to speak can also sing. Singing can be formal or informal, arranged or improvised. It may be done for pleasure, comfort, ritual, education, or profit. Excellence in singing requires time, dedication, instruction, and regular practice.[1] Professional singers usually build their careers around one specific musical genre, such as classical or rock. They typically take voice training provided by voice teachers or vocal coaches throughout their career.
Harry Belafonte 1954

Singing

13

The human voice

In its physical aspect, singing has a well-defined technique that depends on the use of the lungs, which act as an air supply, or bellows; on the larynx, which acts as a reed or vibrator; on the chest and head cavities, which have the function of an amplifier, as the tube in a wind instrument; and on the tongue, which together with the palate, teeth, and lips articulate and impose consonants and vowels on the amplified sound. Though these four mechanisms function independently, they are nevertheless coordinated in the establishment of a vocal technique and are made to interact upon one another.[2] During A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords. passive breathing, air is inhaled with the diaphragm while exhalation occurs without any effort. Exhalation may be aided by the abdominal, internal intercostal and lower pelvic muscles. Inhalation is aided by use of external intercostals, scalenes and sternocleidomastoid muscles. The pitch is altered with the vocal cords. With the lips closed, this is called humming. The sound of each individual's singing voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body. Humans have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of the chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect the sound produced by an individual. Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.[3] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant; which has been shown to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the ear's frequency range.[4] [5]

Vocal registration
Vocal registers Highest Whistle Falsetto Modal Vocal fry Lowest

Singing Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[6] The term "register" can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:[7] A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers. A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice. A phonatory process (phonation is the process of producing vocal sound by the vibration of the vocal folds that is in turn modified by the resonance of the vocal tract) A certain vocal timbre or vocal "colour" A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks. In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system. Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.[7]

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Vocal resonation
Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[7] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[8]

Chest voice and head voice

Chest voice and head voice are terms used within vocal music. The use of these terms varies widely within vocal pedagogical circles and there is currently no one consistent opinion among vocal music professionals in regards to these terms. Chest voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal register; a vocal resonance area; or a specific vocal timbre.[7] Head voice can be used in relation to a particular part of the vocal range or type of vocal register or a vocal resonance area.[7]

Singing History and development The first recorded mention of the terms chest voice and head voice was around the 13th century, when it was distinguished from the "throat voice" (pectoris, guttoris, capitis at this time it is likely that head voice referred to the falsetto register) by the writers Johannes de Garlandia and Jerome of Moravia.[9] The terms were later adopted within bel canto, the Italian opera singing method, where chest voice was identified as the lowest and head voice the highest of three vocal registers: the chest, passagio and head registers.[10] This approach is still taught by some vocal pedagogists today. Another current popular approach that is based on the bel canto model is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are divided into "chest register", "head register", and "falsetto register" and woman's voices into "chest register", "middle register", and "head register". Such pedagogists teach that the head register is a vocal technique used in singing to describe the resonance felt in the singer's head.[11] However as knowledge of human physiology has increased over the past two hundred years, so has the understanding of the physical process of singing and vocal production. As a result, many vocal pedagogists, such as Ralph Appelman at Indiana University and William Vennard at the University of Southern California, have redefined or even abandoned the use of the terms chest voice and head voice.[10] In particular, the use of the terms chest register and head register have become controversial since vocal registration is more commonly seen today as a product of laryngeal function that is unrelated to the physiology of the chest, lungs, and head. For this reason, many vocal pedagogists argue that it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head. They argue that the vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to vocal resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the terms chest voice and head voice over the term register. This view believes that the problems which people identify as register problems are really problems of resonance adjustment. This view is also in alignment with the views of other academic fields that study vocal registration including: speech pathology, phonetics, and linguistics. Although both methods are still in use, current vocal pedagogical practice tends to adopt the newer more scientific view. Also, some vocal pedagogists take ideas from both viewpoints.[7] The contemporary use of the term chest voice often refers to a specific kind of vocal coloration or vocal timbre. In classical singing, its use is limited entirely to the lower part of the modal register or normal voice. Within other forms of singing, chest voice is often applied throughout the modal register. Chest timbre can add a wonderful array of sounds to a singer's vocal interpretive palette.[12] However, the use of overly strong chest voice in the higher registers in an attempt to hit higher notes in the chest can lead to forcing. Forcing can lead consequently to vocal deterioration.[13]

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Classifying singing voices

In European classical music and opera, voices are treated like musical instruments. Composers who write vocal music must have an understanding of the skills, talents, and vocal properties of singers. Voice classification is the process by which human singing voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration.[14] The science behind voice classification developed within European classical music has been slow in adapting to more modern forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use within classical music including: the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.[10] However, most classical music systems acknowledge seven different major voice categories. Women are typically divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering voices of pre-pubescent children an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal

Singing qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.[7] It should be noted that within choral music, singers' voices are divided solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB, or soprano, alto, tenor, and bass). As a result, the typical choral situation affords many opportunities for misclassification to occur.[7] Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[15] Within contemporary forms of music (sometimes referred to as Contemporary Commercial Music), singers are classified by the style of music they sing, such as jazz, pop, blues, soul, country, folk, and rock styles. There is currently no authoritative voice classification system within non-classical music. Attempts have been made to adopt classical voice type terms to other forms of singing but such attempts have been met with controversy.[16] The development of voice categorizations were made with the understanding that the singer would be using classical vocal technique within a specified range using unamplified (no microphones) vocal production. Since contemporary musicians use different vocal techniques, microphones, and are not forced to fit into a specific vocal role, applying such terms as soprano, tenor, baritone, etc. can be misleading or even inaccurate.[17]

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Vocal pedagogy
Vocal pedagogy is the study of the teaching of singing. The art and science of vocal pedagogy has a long history that began in Ancient Greece and continues to develop and change today. Professions that practice the art and science of vocal pedagogy include vocal coaches, choral directors, vocal music educators, opera directors, and other teachers of singing. Vocal pedagogy concepts are a part of developing proper vocal technique. Typical areas of study include the following:[18] [19] Human anatomy and physiology as it relates to the physical process of singing Vocal health and voice disorders related to singing Breathing and air support for singing Phonation Vocal resonation or Voice projection Vocal registration: a particular series of tones, produced in Ercole de' Roberti: Concert, c. 1490 the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality, which originate in laryngeal function, because each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds. Voice classification Vocal styles: for Classical singers, this includes styles ranging from Lieder to opera; for pop singers, styles can include "belted out" a blues ballads; for jazz singers, styles can include Swing ballads and scatting. Techniques used in styles such as sostenuto and legato, range extension, tone quality, vibrato, and coloratura

Singing

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Vocal technique
Singing when done with proper vocal technique is an integrated and coordinated act that effectively coordinates the physical processes of singing. There are four physical processes involved in producing vocal sound: respiration, phonation, resonation, and articulation. These processes occur in the following sequence: 1. 2. 3. 4. Breath is taken Sound is initiated in the larynx The vocal resonators receive the sound and influence it The articulators shape the sound into recognizable units

Although these four processes are often considered separately when studied, in actual practice they merge into one coordinated function. With an effective singer or speaker, one should rarely be reminded of the process involved as their mind and body are so coordinated that one only perceives the resulting unified function. Many vocal problems result from a lack of coordination within this process.[17] Since singing is a coordinated act, it is difficult to discuss any of the individual technical areas and processes without relating them to the others. For example, phonation only comes into perspective when it is connected with respiration; the articulators affect resonance; the resonators affect the vocal folds; the vocal folds affect breath control; and so forth. Vocal problems are often a result of a breakdown in one part of this coordinated process which causes voice teachers to frequently focus in intensively on one area of the process with their student until that issue is resolved. However, some areas of the art of singing are so much the result of coordinated functions that it is hard to discuss them under a traditional heading like phonation, resonation, articulation, or respiration. Once the voice student has become aware of the physical processes that make up the act of singing and of how those processes function, the student begins the task of trying to coordinate them. Inevitably, students and teachers will become more concerned with one area of the technique than another. The various processes may progress at different rates, with a resulting imbalance or lack of coordination. The areas of vocal technique which seem to depend most strongly on the student's ability to coordinate various functions are:[7] 1. 2. 3. 4. Extending the vocal range to its maximum potential Developing consistent vocal production with a consistent tone quality Developing flexibility and agility Achieving a balanced vibrato

Developing the singing voice Singing is a skill that requires highly developed muscle reflexes. Singing does not require much muscle strength but it does require a high degree of muscle coordination. Individuals can develop their voices further through the careful and systematic practice of both songs and vocal exercises. Vocal pedagogists instruct their students to exercise their voices in an intelligent manner. Singers should be thinking constantly about the kind of sound they are making and the kind of sensations they are feeling while they are singing.[17] Vocal exercises have several purposes, including[7] warming up the voice; extending the vocal range; "lining up" the voice horizontally and vertically; and acquiring vocal techniques such as legato, staccato, control of dynamics, rapid figurations, learning to sing wide intervals comfortably, singing trills, singing melismas and correcting vocal faults. Extending vocal range An important goal of vocal development is to learn to sing to the natural limits of one's vocal range without any obvious or distracting changes of quality or technique. Vocal pedagogists teach that a singer can only achieve this goal when all of the physical processes involved in singing (such as laryngeal action, breath support, resonance adjustment, and articulatory movement) are effectively working together. Most vocal pedagogists believe in coordinating these processes by (1) establishing good vocal habits in the most comfortable tessitura of the voice, and then (2) slowly expanding the range.[3]

Singing There are three factors that significantly affect the ability to sing higher or lower: 1. The energy factor "energy" has several connotations. It refers to the total response of the body to the making of sound; to a dynamic relationship between the breathing-in muscles and the breathing-out muscles known as the breath support mechanism; to the amount of breath pressure delivered to the vocal folds and their resistance to that pressure; and to the dynamic level of the sound. 2. The space factor "space" refers to the size of the inside of the mouth and the position of the palate and larynx. Generally speaking, a singer's mouth should be opened wider the higher he or she sings. The internal space or position of the soft palate and larynx can be widened by relaxing the throat. Vocal pedagogists describe this as feeling like the "beginning of a yawn". 3. The depth factor "depth" has two connotations. It refers to the actual physical sensations of depth in the body and vocal mechanism, and to mental concepts of depth that are related to tone quality. McKinney says, "These three factors can be expressed in three basic rules: (1) As you sing higher, you must use more energy; as you sing lower, you must use less. (2) As you sing higher, you must use more space; as you sing lower, you must use less. (3) As you sing higher, you must use more depth; as you sing lower, you must use less."[7] Posture The singing process functions best when certain physical conditions of the body exist. The ability to move air in and out of the body freely and to obtain the needed quantity of air can be seriously affected by the posture of the various parts of the breathing mechanism. A sunken chest position will limit the capacity of the lungs, and a tense abdominal wall will inhibit the downward travel of the diaphragm. Good posture allows the breathing mechanism to fulfill its basic function efficiently without any undue expenditure of energy. Good posture also makes it easier to initiate phonation and to tune the resonators as proper alignment prevents unnecessary tension in the body. Vocal pedagogists have also noted that when singers assume good posture it often provides them with a greater sense of self assurance and poise while performing. Audiences also tend to respond better to singers with good posture. Habitual good posture also ultimately improves the overall health of the body by enabling better blood circulation and preventing fatigue and stress on the body.[3] There are eight components of the ideal singing posture: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Feet slightly apart Legs straight but knees unlocked Hips facing straight forward Spine aligned Abdomen flat Chest comfortably forward Shoulders down and back Head facing straight forward

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Breathing and breath support Natural breathing has three stages: a breathing-in period, a breathing out period, and a resting or recovery period; these stages are not usually consciously controlled. Within singing there are four stages of breathing: a breathing-in period (inhalation); a setting up controls period (suspension);a controlled exhalation period (phonation); and a recovery period. These stages must be under conscious control by the singer until they become conditioned reflexes. Many singers abandon conscious controls before their reflexes are fully conditioned which ultimately leads to chronic vocal problems.[20]

Singing Vibrato Vibrato is used by singers (and many instrumentalists; for instance, string instruments that are played with a bow can produce vibrato tones) in which a sustained note wavers very quickly and consistently between a higher and a lower pitch, giving the note a slight quaver. Vibrato is the pulse or wave in a sustained tone. Vibrato occurs naturally, and is the result of proper breath support and a relaxed vocal apparatus.[21] Some singers use vibrato as a means of expression. Many successful artists have built a career on deep, rich vibrato.

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Vocal music
Vocal music is music performed by one or more singers, with or without instrumental accompaniment, in which singing provides the main focus of the piece. Vocal music is probably the oldest form of music, since it does not require any instrument besides the human voice. All musical cultures have some form of vocal music and there are many long standing singing traditions throughout the world's cultures. Music which employs singing but does not feature it prominently is generally considered as instrumental music. For example, some blues rock songs may have a simple call-and-response chorus, but the emphasis in the song is on the instrumental melodies and improvisation. Vocal music typically features sung words called lyrics, although there are notable examples of vocal music that are performed using non-linguistic syllables or noises, sometimes as musical onomatopoeia. A short piece of vocal music with lyrics is broadly termed a song.

Genres of vocal music

Vocal music is written in many different forms and styles which are often labeled within a particular genre of music. These genres include: Art music, Popular music, Traditional music, regional and national music, and fusions of those genres. Within these larger genres are many sub-genres. For example, popular music would encompass blues, jazz, country music, easy listening, hip hop, rock music, and several other genres. There may also be a sub-genre within a sub-genre such as vocalese and scat singing in jazz. Popular and traditional music In many modern pop musical groups, a lead singer performs the Rock singer Ian Gillan performing live with Deep primary vocals or melody of a song, as opposed to a backing Purple in 2006. singer who sings backup vocals or the harmony of a song. Backing vocalists sing some, but usually not all, parts of the song often singing only in a song's refrain or humming in the background. An exception is five-part gospel a cappella music, where the lead is the highest of the five voices and sings a descant, and not the melody. Some artists may sing both the lead and backing vocals on audio recordings by overlapping recorded vocal tracks. Popular music includes a range of vocal styles. Hip-hop uses rapping, the rhythmic delivery of rhymes in a rhythmic speech over a beat or without accompaniment. Some types of rapping consist mostly or entirely of speech and chanting, like the Jamaican "toasting". In some types of rapping, the performers may interpolate short sung or half-sung passages. Blues singing is based on the use of the blue notesnotes sung at a slightly lower pitch than that of the major scale for expressive purposes. In heavy metal and hardcore punk subgenres, vocal styles can include techniques such as screams, shouts, and unusual sounds such as the "death growl".

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One difference between live performances in the popular and Classical genres is that whereas Classical performers often sing without amplification in small- to mid-size halls, in popular music, a microphone and PA system (amplifier and speakers) are used in almost all performance venues, even a small coffee house. The use of the microphone has had several impacts on popular music. For one, it facilitated the development of intimate, expressive singing styles such as "crooning" which would not have enough projection and volume if done without a microphone. As well, pop singers who use microphones Rapper Busta Rhymes performs in Las Vegas. can do a range of other vocal styles that would not project without amplification, such as making whispering sounds, humming, and mixing half-sung and sung tones. As well, some performers use the microphone's response patterns to create effects, such as bringing the mic very close to the mouth to get an enhanced bass response, or, in the case of hip-hop beatboxers, doing plosive "p" and "b" sounds into the mic to create percussive effects. While some bands use backup singers who only sing when they are onstage, it is common for backup singers in popular music to have other roles. In many rock and metal bands, the musicians doing backup vocals also play instruments, such as rhythm guitar, electric bass, or drums. In Latin or Afro-Cuban groups, backup singers may play percussion instruments or shakers while singing. In some pop and hip-hop groups and in musical theater, the backup singers may be required to perform elaborately choreographed dance routines while they sing through headset microphones.

Careers in singing
The salaries and working conditions for vocalists vary a great deal. While jobs in other music fields such as music education tend to be based on full-time, salaried positions, singing jobs tend to be based on contracts for individual shows or performances, or for a sequence of shows (e.g., a two-week series of performances of an opera or musical theater show). Since income from singing jobs can be unsteady, singers often supplement their performing income with other singing-related jobs, such as vocal coaching, voice lessons, or as working as a choral director in a church. Due to the large number of aspiring vocalists, it can be very competitive to get jobs in singing. Church choir soloists can make from $30 to $500 per performance (all figures in US dollars). Performers in a community choral group can earn from $200$3,000 yearly; members of a professional concert choral group can make $80 and up per performance. Singers who perform on radio or TV shows can make $75 and up per show on a local station and $125 and up per national network show (e.g., CBS or NBC). Jazz or pop singers who perform with dance bands or nightclub show groups can make $225 and up per week. Professional opera chorus singers can make from $350$750 Maria Callas during her final tour in Amsterdam in 1973. per week. Opera soloists, for which the number of job openings is very limited, can make from $350 to $20,000 per performance for the most elite

Singing performers. Classical concert soloists, for which the number of job openings is very limited, have approximate earnings of $350 per performance and up.[22] Aspiring singers and vocalists must have musical talent and skill, an excellent voice, the ability to work with people, and a sense of showmanship and drama. Additionally, singers need to have the ambition and drive to continually study and improve,[22] because the process of studying singing does not end after an initial diploma or degree is finished-even decades after finishing their initial training, professional singers continue to seek out vocal coaching to hone their skills, extend their range, and learn new styles. As well, aspiring singers need to gain specialized skills in the vocal techniques used to interpret songs, learn about the vocal literature from their chosen style of music, and gain skills in choral music techniques, sight singing and memorizing songs, and basic skills at the piano, to aid in learning new songs and in ear training or vocal exercises. In Classical singing and in some other genres, a knowledge of foreign languages such as French, Italian, German, or other languages, is needed. Prior to college or university training, aspiring singers should learn to read music, study basic piano, and gain experience with singing, both in choirs and in solo settings. College or university degrees are "not always required but the equivalent training is usually necessary".[22] Post-secondary training in singing is available for both Classical and non-Classical singers. In the Classical stream, singing can be studied at conservatories and university music programs; credentials that are available range from diplomas and Bachelor's degrees to Master's degrees and the Doctor of Musical Arts. In popular and jazz styles, college and university degrees are also available, though there are fewer programs. Once aspiring vocalists have completed their professional training, they must then take steps to market themselves to buyers of vocal talent, by doing auditions in front of an opera director, choirmaster, or conductor. Depending on the style of vocal music that a person has trained in, the "talent buyers" that they seek out may be record company A&R representatives, opera or musical theater directors, choir directors, nightclub managers, or concert promoters. In addition preparing a resume or CV listing their training and performance experience, singers typically prepare a promotional kit that includes professionally taken photographs (head shots); a CD or DVD with excerpts of vocal performances; and copies of reviews from music critics or journalists. Some singers hire an agent or manager to help them to seek out engagements and other performance opportunities; the agent or manager is often paid by receiving a percentage of the fees that the singer gets from performing onstage.

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Health benefits
Scientific studies suggest that singing can have positive effects on people's health. A preliminary study based on self-reported data from a survey of students participating in choral singing found perceived benefits including increased lung capacity, improved mood, stress reduction, as well as perceived social and spiritual benefits.[23] However, one much older study of lung capacity compared those with professional vocal training to those without, and failed to back up the claims of increased lung capacity.[24] Singing may positively influence the immune system through the reduction of stress. One study found that both singing and listening to choral music reduces the level of stress hormones and increases immune function.[25] A multinational collaboration to study the connection between singing and health was established in 2009, called Advancing Interdisciplinary Research in Singing (AIRS).[26]

Singing in non-human species

Scholars agree that singing is strongly present in many non-human species.[27] [28] Wide dispersal of singing behavior among very different animal species (like birds, gibbons, whales, and humans) strongly suggests that singing appeared independently in different species. Currently there are about 5400 species of animals that can sing. At least some singing species demonstrate the ability to learn their songs, to improvise and even to compose new melodies.[29] In some animal species singing is a group activity (see, for example, singing in gibbon families.[30] )

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Singing in different natural environments

Joseph Jordania suggested that singing behavior is very unevenly distributed among animal species, living in different environments (on the ground, in the water, in trees).[31] Most of the singing species live on the trees (like many bird species, or gibbons), some live in the water (whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions), and there are no animal species who live on the ground and sing[32] except for humans. This uneven distribution of singing can be crucial for our understanding of the origins of the singing behavior in animals and humans. Jordania explains this fact as the result of the pressure from natural selection. Singing is a very costly behavior, not only because of the energy to produce sounds, but primarily for the security reasons, as all the possible predators can easily learn the whereabouts of a singing animal. Singing species that live on the trees are in a much more favourable situation, as trees allow different species to live according to their body weight. So different animals with different body weight live on different "levels" of the tree branches. For example, a 50 kilo leopard can see and hear the sounds produced by a 15 kilo monkey, but as a lighter monkey can live much higher on the tree branches, it is out of reach of a heavier leopard. Therefore tree living (or arboreal) species feel quite secure to sing or to communicate with a wide range of vocal signals. On the other hand, all the ground living (or terrestrial) animal species, despite the huge weight differences between them (ranging from rabbits to lions and elephants) live on the same "ground level", and maintaining silence is crucially important for them. Even most of the birds, the most ardent singers, stop singing and producing other sounds when they sit on the ground.[33] Therefore, predator threat might be a primary reason why tree living species are generally much noisier than ground living species.[34]

See also: art music

A cappella Aria Bel canto Chanson Choral music Fach Group singing Human voice Opera Overtone singing Recitative Sprechgesang Throat singing Voice pedagogy Voice projection Voice type Yodeling Winsingad

Chiaroscuro (music)

Singersongwriter

See also: popular music

Beat boxing Belt (music) Death growl Humming Lead vocalist Rapping Screaming (music) Vocoder

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References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Falkner, Keith, ed (1983). Voice. Yehudi Menuhin music guides. London: MacDonald Young. pp.26. ISBN035609099X. OCLC10418423. "Singing" (http:/ / www. britannica. com/ EBchecked/ topic/ 545880/ singing). Britannica Online Encyclopedia. . Vennard, William (1967). Singing: the mechanism and the technic. New York: Carl Fischer. ISBN978-0825800559. OCLC248006248. Hunter, Eric J; Titze, Ingo R (2004). "Overlap of hearing and voicing ranges in singing." (http:/ / web. ku. edu/ ~cmed/ 923/ Hunter1. pdf) (PDF). J Singing 61 (4): 387392. . [5] Hunter, Eric J; vec, Jan G; Titze, Ingo R (December 2006). "Comparison of the produced and perceived voice range profiles in untrained and trained classical singers". J Voice 20 (4): 513526. doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2005.08.009. PMID16325373. [6] Large, John W (February/March 1972). "Towards an integrated physiologic-acoustic theory of vocal registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035. ISSN0884-8106. OCLC16072337. [7] McKinney, James C (1994). The diagnosis and correction of vocal faults. Nashville, Tennessee: Genovex Music Group. pp.213. ISBN1565939409. OCLC30786430. [8] Greene, Margaret; Mathieson, Lesley (2001). The voice and its disorders (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN1861561961. OCLC47831173. [9] Grove, George; Sadie, Stanley, eds (1980). The new Grove dictionary of music & musicians. 6. Macmillan. ISBN1561591742. OCLC191123244. [10] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A history of vocal pedagogy. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0802086143. OCLC53795639. [11] Clippinger, David Alva (1917). The head voice and other problems: Practical talks on singing. Oliver Ditson. p.12. Singing (http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ etext/ 19493) at Project Gutenberg [12] Miller, Richard (2004). Solutions for singers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.286. ISBN0195160053. OCLC51258100. [13] Warrack, John Hamilton; West, Ewan (1992). The Oxford dictionary of opera. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN0198691645. OCLC25409395. [14] Shewan, Robert (January/February 1979). "Voice classification: An examination of methodology". The NATS Bulletin 35 (3): 1727. ISSN0884-8106. OCLC16072337. [15] Smith, Brenda; Sataloff, Robert Thayer (2005). Choral pedagogy. San Diego, California: Plural Publishing. ISBN1597560436. OCLC64198260. [16] Peckham, Anne (2005). Vocal workouts for the contemporary singer. Boston: Berklee Press. pp.117. ISBN0876390475. OCLC60826564. [17] Appelman, Dudley Ralph (1986). The science of vocal pedagogy: theory and application. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp.434. ISBN0253351103. OCLC13083085. [18] Titze Ingo R (2008). "The human instrument". Scientific American 298 (1): 94101. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0108-94. PMID18225701. [19] Titze Ingo R (1994). Principles of voice production (http:/ / ncvs. org/ bookshop/ index. html). Prentice Hall. pp.354. ISBN013717893X. . [20] Sundberg Johan (January/February 1993). "Breathing behavior during singing". The NATS Journal 49: 29, 4951. ISSN0884-8106. OCLC16072337. [21] Phyllis Fulford; Michael Miller (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Singing. Penguin Books. p.64. [22] Music Educators' National Committee "Careers in Music" (2001), MENC.org (http:/ / www. menc. org) [23] Clift, SM; Hancox, G (2001). "The perceived benefits of singing". The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health 121 (4): 248256. doi:10.1177/146642400112100409. PMID11811096. [24] Heller, Stanley S; Hicks, William R; Root, Walter S (1960). "Lung volumes of singers". J Appl Physiol 15 (1): 4042. PMID14400875. [25] Kreutz, Gunter; Bongard, Stephan; Rohrmann, Sonja; Hodapp, Volker; Grebe, Dorothee (December 2004). "Effects of choir singing or listening on secretory immunoglobulin A, cortisol, and emotional state". Journal of Behavioral Medicine 27 (6): 623635. doi:10.1007/s10865-004-0006-9. PMID15669447. [26] Mick, Hayley (19 June 2009). "Doctor's prescription: 2 arias + a chorus" (http:/ / www. theglobeandmail. com/ life/ health/ doctors-prescription-2-arias-a-chorus/ article1186101/ ). The Globe and Mail. . [27] Marler, Peter (1970). Birdsong and speech development: Could there be parallels? American Scientist 58:669-73 [28] Wallin, Nils, Bjorn Merker, Steven Brown. (Editors) (2000). The origins of music. Cambridge, MA: MIT [29] Payne, Katherine (2000). The progressively changing songs of humpback whales: a window on the creative process in a wild animal. In The Origins of Music. Edited by N. L. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown, pp. 135-150. Cambridge, MA:MIT [30] Geissmann, Thomas. 2000. Gibbon songs and human music from an evolutionary perspective. In The origins of Music. Edited by N. Wallin, B. Merker and S. Brown, pp. 103-124. Cambridge, MA:MIT [31] Joseph Jordania (2006). Who Asked the First Question? The Origins of Human Choral Singing, Intelligence, Language and Speech. Tbilisi: Logos. ISBN99940-31-81-3. [32] Jordania, Joseph (2009). Times to fight and times to relax: Singing and humming at the beginning of Human evolutionary history. Kadmos 1, 2009: 272-277 [33] Catchpole, Clive K., and Peter J. B. Slater (1995). Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variations. Cambridge University Press. [34] Jordania, 2009:272-273

Singing

24

External links
A Brief History of Singing (http://www.lawrence.edu/fast/koopmajo/brief.html)

Vocal register
Vocal registers Highest Whistle Falsetto Modal Vocal fry Lowest A vocal register is a particular series of tones in the human voice that are produced by one particular vibratory pattern of the vocal folds and therefore possess a common quality.[1] [2] [3] Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds. [1] [4] [3] In speech pathology, the vocal register has three components: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Although this view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists, others define vocal registration more loosely than in the sciences, using the term to denote various theories of how the human voice changes, both subjectively and objectively, as it moves through its pitch range.[2] There are many divergent theories on vocal registers within vocal pedagogy, making the term somewhat confusing and at times controversial within the field of singing . Vocal pedagogists may use the term vocal register to refer to any of the following [2] : A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers. A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice. A phonatory process A certain vocal timbre A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.

The number of vocal registers

Vocal registers arise from different vibratory patterns produced by the A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords. vocal cords. Research by speech pathologists and some vocal pedagogists has revealed that the vocal cords are capable of producing at least four distinct vibratory forms, although not all persons can produce all of them. The first of these vibratory forms is known as natural or normal voice[5] ; another name for it is modal voice, a term currently widely used in both speech pathology and vocal pedagogy

Vocal register publications. In this usage, modal refers to the natural disposition or manner of action of the vocal cords. The other three vibratory forms are known as vocal fry, falsetto, and whistle. Each of these four registers has its own vibratory pattern, its own pitch area (although there is some overlapping), and its own characteristic sound. Arranged by the pitch areas covered, vocal fry is the lowest register, modal voice is next, then falsetto, and finally the whistle register.[5] [4] While speech pathologists and scholars of phonetics consistently divide the voice into these four registers, vocal pedagogists are divided on this issue. Indiscriminate use of the word register has led to much confusion and controversy about the number of registers in the human voice within vocal pedagogical circles. This controversy does not exist within speech pathology and the other sciences as vocal registers are viewed from a purely physiological standpoint that is concerned with laryngeal function. Various writers concerned with the art of singing state that there are from anywhere from one to seven registers present. The diversity of opinion in this area is quite wide and there is no one consensus or point of view.[5] One prevailing practice within vocal pedagogy is to divide both men and women's voices into three registers. Men's voices are designated "chest," "head," and "falsetto" and woman's voices are "chest," "middle," and "head." This way of classifying registers, however, is not universally accepted. Many vocal pedagogists partially blame this confusion on the incorrect use of the terms "chest register" and "head register". These professionals argue that since all registers originate in laryngeal function, it is meaningless to speak of registers being produced in the chest or head. The vibratory sensations which are felt in these areas are resonance phenomena and should be described in terms related to resonance, not to registers. These vocal pedagogists prefer the terms "chest voice" and "head voice" over the term register. Many of the problems which people identify as register problems are really problems of resonance adjustment. This helps to explain the multiplicity of registers which some vocal pedagogists advocate. For the purposes of this article, resonance problems are relegated to their own area since their usage here is controversial and without an overall supporting consensus.[2] For more information on resonance see Vocal resonation. The confusion which exists concerning what a register is, and how many registers there are, is due in part to what takes place in the modal register when a person sings from the lowest pitches of that register to the highest pitches. The frequency of vibration of the vocal folds is determined by their length, tension, and mass. As pitch rises, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their thickness decreases. In other words, all three of these factors are in a state of flux in the transition from the lowest to the highest tones.[1] If a singer holds any of these factors constant and interferes with their progressive state of change, his laryngeal function tends to become static and eventually breaks occur, with obvious changes of tone quality. These breaks are often identified as register boundaries or as transition areas between registers. The distinct change or break between registers is called a passaggio or a ponticello.[6] Vocal pedagogists teach that with study a singer can move effortlessly from one register to the other with ease and consistent tone. Registers can even overlap while singing. Teachers who like to use this theory of "blending registers" usually help students through the "passage" from one register to another by hiding their "lift" (where the voice changes). However, many pedagogists disagree with this distinction of boundaries blaming such breaks on vocal problems which have been created by a static laryngeal adjustment that does not permit the necessary changes to take place. This difference of opinion has affected the different views on vocal registration.[2]

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Vocal fry register

The vocal fry register is the lowest vocal register and is produced through a loose glottal closure which will permit air to bubble through with a popping or rattling sound of a very low frequency. The chief use of vocal fry in singing is to obtain pitches of very low frequency which are not available in modal voice. This register may be used therapeutically to improve the lower part of the modal register. This register is not used that often in singing, but male quartet pieces, male Russian choral pieces, and certain styles of folk music for both men and women have been known to do so.[2]

Vocal register

26

Modal voice register

The modal voice is the usual register for speaking and singing, and the vast majority of both are done in this register. As pitch rises in this register, the vocal folds are lengthened, tension increases, and their edges become thinner. A well-trained singer or speaker can phonate two octaves or more in the modal register with consistent production, beauty of tone, dynamic variety, and vocal freedom. This is possible only if the singer or speaker avoids static laryngeal adjustments and allows the progression from the bottom to the top of the register to be a carefully graduated continuum of readjustments.[5]

Falsetto register
The falsetto register lies above the modal voice register and overlaps the modal register by approximately one octave. The characteristic sound of falsetto is inherently breathy and flute-like with few overtones present. Both men and women can phonate in the falsetto register[1] . The essential difference between the modal and falsetto registers lies in the amount and type of vocal cord involvement. The falsetto voice is produced by the vibration of the ligamentous edges of the vocal cords, in whole or in part, and the main body of the fold is more or less relaxed. In contrast, the modal voice involves the whole vocal cord with the glottis opening at the bottom first and then at the top. The falsetto voice is also more limited in dynamic variation and tone quality than the modal voice.[5]

Whistle register
The whistle register is the highest register of the human voice. The whistle register is so called because the timbre of the notes that are produced from this register are similar to that of a whistle or the upper notes of a flute, whereas the modal register tends to have a warmer, less shrill timbre. Women of all voice types can use the whistle register. With proper vocal training, it is possible for most women to develop this part of the voice, but some women are unable to do so. Children can also phonate in the whistle register and men can as well in very rare instances.[2]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Large, John (February/March 1972). "Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035. McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN978-1565939400. Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Pedagogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0253203786. Johnson, Alex; Barbara Jacobson, Carol Frattali, Robert Miller, Michael Benninger, J Brown, Carl Coelho, Kathleen Youse, Glendon Gardner, Lee Ann Golper, Jacqueline Hinckley, Michael Karnell, Susan Langmore, Jeri Logemann (2006). Medical Speech-Language Pathology. Thieme. ISBN978-1588903204. [5] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition edition. ISBN13: 978-1861561961. [6] The OXFORD DICTIONARY OF OPERA. JOHN WARRACK AND EWAN WEST, ISBN 0-19-869164-5

Further reading
Van den Berg, J.W. (December 1963). "Vocal Ligaments versus Registers". The NATS Bulletin 19: 18.

Human voice

27

Human voice
The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal folds, a body part, for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Its frequency ranges from about 60 to 7000Hz. The human voice is specifically that part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the primary sound source. Generally speaking, the mechanism for generating the human voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds within the larynx, and the articulators. The lung (the pump) must The spectrogram of the human voice reveals its rich harmonic content. produce adequate airflow and air pressure to vibrate vocal folds (this air pressure is the fuel of the voice). The vocal folds (vocal cords) are a vibrating valve that chops up the airflow from the lungs into audible pulses that form the laryngeal sound source. The muscles of the larynx adjust the length and tension of the vocal folds to fine tune pitch and tone. The articulators (the parts of the vocal tract above the larynx consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound emanating from the larynx and to some degree can interact with the laryngeal airflow to strengthen it or weaken it as a sound source. The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound.[1] [2] [3] The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, or happiness.[4] [5] Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music.[6]

Voice types and the folds (cords) themselves

Adult men and women have different sizes of vocal fold; reflecting the male-female differences in larynx size. Adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds (which would be measured vertically in the opposite diagram), are between 17mm and 25mm in length.[7] The female vocal folds are between 12.5mm and 17.5mm in length. As seen in the illustration, the folds are located just above the vertebrate trachea (the windpipe, which travels from the lungs). Food and drink do not pass through the cords but instead pass

A labeled anatomical diagram of the vocal folds or cords.

Human voice through the esophagus, an unlinked tube. Both tubes are separated by the epiglottis, a "flap" that covers the opening of the trachea while swallowing. The folds in both sexes are within the larynx. They are attached at the back (side nearest the spinal cord) to the arytenoids cartilages, and at the front (side under the chin) to the thyroid cartilage. They have no outer edge as they blend into the side of the breathing tube (the illustration is out of date and does not show this well) while their inner edges or "margins" are free to vibrate (the hole). They have a three layer construction of an epithelium, vocal ligament, then muscle (vocalis muscle), which can shorten and bulge the folds. They are flat triangular bands and are pearly white in color. Above both sides of the vocal cord is the vestibular fold or false vocal cord, which has a small sac between its two folds (not illustrated). The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched voices. Additionally, genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men and women's singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are bass, baritone, tenor and countertenor (ranging from E2 to even F6), and among women, contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano (ranging from F3 to C6). There are additional categories for operatic voices, see voice type. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower-sounding timbre. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.

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Voice modulation in spoken language

Human spoken language makes use of ability of almost all persons in a given society to dynamically modulate certain parameters of the laryngeal voice source in a consistent manner. The most important communicative, or phonetic, parameters are the voice pitch (determined by the vibratory frequency of the vocal folds) and the degree of separation of the vocal folds, referred to as vocal fold adduction (coming together) or abduction (separating).[8] The ability to vary the ab/adduction of the vocal folds quickly has a strong genetic component, since vocal fold adduction has a life-preserving function in keeping food from passing into the lungs, in addition to the covering action of the epiglottis. Consequently, the muscles that control this action are among the fastest in the body.[8] Children can learn to use this action consistently during speech at an early age, as they learn to speak the difference between utterances such as "apa" (having an abductory-adductory gesture for the p) as "aba" (having no abductory-adductory gesture).[8] Surprisingly enough, they can learn to do this well before the age of two by listening only to the voices of adults around them who have voices much different from their own, and even though the laryngeal movements causing these phonetic differentiations are deep in the throat and not visible to them. If an abductory movement or adductory movement is strong enough, the vibrations of the vocal folds will stop (or not start). If the gesture is abductory and is part of a speech sound, the sound will be called Voiceless. However, voiceless speech sounds are sometimes better identified as containing an abductory gesture, even if the gesture was not strong enough to stop the vocal folds from vibrating. This anomalous feature of voiceless speech sounds is better understood if it is realized that it is the change in the spectral qualities of the voice as abduction proceeds that is the primary acoustic attribute that the listener attends to when identifying a voiceless speech sound, and not simply the presence or absence of voice (periodic energy).[9] An adductory gesture is also identified by the change in voice spectral energy it produces. Thus, a speech sound having an adductory gesture may be referred to as a "glottal stop" even if the vocal fold vibrations do not entirely stop.[9] for an example illustrating this, obtained by using the inverse filtering [10] of oral airflow.] Other aspects of the voice, such as variations in the regularity of vibration, are also used for communication, and are important for the trained voice user to master, but are more rarely used in the formal phonetic code of a spoken language.

Human voice

29

Physiology and vocal timbre

The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body, especially the vocal tract, and the manner in which the speech sounds are habitually formed and articulated. (It is this latter aspect of the sound of the voice that can be mimicked by skilled performers.) Humans have vocal folds that can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect somewhat the sound produced by an individual. Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx, which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.[11] The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant [12], which has been shown to be a resonance added to the normal resonances of the vocal tract above the frequency range of most instruments and so enables the singer's voice to carry better over musical accompaniment.[13] [14]

Vocal registration
Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal functioning. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular Vocal range range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.[15] the term register can be somewhat confusing as it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:[16] A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers. A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice. A phonatory process. A certain vocal timbre. A region of the voice that is defined or delimited by vocal breaks. A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.

In linguistics, a register language is a language that combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system. Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound. Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function: the vocal fry register, the modal register, and the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.[16]

Vocal resonation
Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air. Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation; although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.[16] There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the

Human voice highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.[17]

30

Influences of the human voice

The twelve-tone musical scale, upon which some of the music in the world is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.[18]

Voice disorders
There are many disorders that affect the human voice; these include speech impediments, and growths and lesions on the vocal folds. Talking for improperly long periods of time causes vocal loading, which is stress inflicted on the speech organs. When vocal injury is done, often an ENT specialist may be able to help, but the best treatment is the prevention of injuries through good vocal production.[19] Voice therapy is generally delivered by a speech-language pathologist.

Vocal Cord Nodules and Polyps

Vocal nodules are caused over time by repeated abuse of the vocal cords which results in soft, swollen spots on each vocal cord. These spots develop into harder, callous-like growths called nodules. The longer the abuse occurs the larger and stiffer the nodules will become. Most polyps are larger than nodules and may be called by other names, such as polypoid degeneration or Reinke's edema. Polyps are caused by a single occurrence and may require surgical removal. Irritation after the removal may then lead to nodules if additional irritation persists. Speech-language therapy teaches the patient how to eliminate the irritations permanently through habit changes and vocal hygiene. Hoarseness or breathiness that lasts for more than two weeks is a common symptom of an underlying voice disorder such as nodes or polyps and should be investigated medically.[20]

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] Stevens, K.N.(2000), Acoustic Phonetics, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-69250-3, 978-0-262-69250-2 Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall (currently published by NCVS.org), ISBN 978-0-13-717893-3. Titze, I. R. (2006).The Myoelatic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City:National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006. Smith, BL; Brown, BL; Strong, WJ; Rencher, AC (1975). "Effects of speech rate on personality perception.". Language and speech 18 (2): 14552. PMID1195957. [5] Williams, CE; Stevens, KN (1972). "Emotions and speech: some acoustical correlates.". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 52 (4): 123850. doi:10.1121/1.1913238. PMID4638039. [6] Titze, IR; Mapes, S; Story, B (1994). "Acoustics of the tenor high voice.". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 95 (2): 113342. doi:10.1121/1.408461. PMID8132903. [7] Thurman, Leon & Welch, ed., Graham (2000), Body mind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised ed.), Collegeville, Minnesota: The Voice Care Network et al., ISBN 0-87414-123-0 [8] Rothenberg, M. The Breath-Stream Dynamics of Simple-Released Plosive Production, Vol. 6, Bibliotheca Phonetica, Karger, Basel, 1968. (http:/ / www. rothenberg. org/ Breath-Stream/ BSD_contents. htm) [9] Rothenberg, M. The glottal volume velocity waveform during loose and tight voiced glottal adjustments, Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, 22-28 August 1971 ed. by A. Rigault and R. Charbonneau, published in 1972 by Mouton, The Hague Paris. (http:/ / www. rothenberg. org/ Glottal/ glottal. pdf) [10] http:/ / www. rothenberg. org/ ifonlaptop/ ifonlaptop. pdf [11] Vennard, William (1967). singing: The Mechanism and the Technic. Carl Fischer. ISBN13: 978-0825800559. [12] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ music/ singfor. html [13] Sundberg, Johan, The Acoustics of the Singing Voice, Scientific American Mar 77, p82 [14] E. J. Hunter, J. G. Svec, and I. R. Titze. Comparison of the Produced and Perceived Voice Range Profiles in Untrained and Trained Classical Singers. J.Voice 2005.

Human voice
[15] Large, John (February/March 1972). "Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035. [16] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN13: 978-1565939400. [17] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition edition. ISBN13: 978-1861561961. [18] Musical roots may lie in human voice 06 August 2003 New Scientist (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn4031) [19] Fine Tuning Your Voice (http:/ / stayhealthymn. com/ article. php?articleID=122) [20] Evaluating Hoarseness: Keeping Your Patient's Voice Healthy (http:/ / www. aafp. org/ afp/ 980600ap/ rosen. html)

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Further reading
Howard, D.M., and Murphy, D.T.M. (2009). (http://www.pluralpublishing.com/publication_vsaar.htm) Voice science acoustics and recording, San Diego: Plural Press. Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298 (1):94101. (http://www.scientificamerican.com/ article.cfm?id=the-human-instrument) Thurman, Leon & Welch, ed., Graham (2000), Bodymind & voice: Foundations of voice education (revised ed.), Collegeville, Minnesota: The VoiceCare Network et al., ISBN 0-87414-123-0

External links
Free Voice analyzer and Biometrics displaying software from [[University College London (http://www.phon. ucl.ac.uk/resource/sfs/wasp.htm)]] The Head Voice and Other Problems (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19493), 1917, by D. A. Clippinger, from Project Gutenberg The Voice Foundation's official website (http://www.voicefoundation.org/) The Anatomy of Singing (http://www.singwise.com/cgi-bin/main.pl?section=articles& doc=AnatomyOfVoice) David Harper, vocal coach: A passion for the voice that never wanes Opera~Opera article (http://www. opera-opera.com.au/archive/davidharper.htm) Irish Voice festival official website (http://www.spiritofvoice.com/) How the voice works-- The Voice Works Like a Car (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zXGGRiQbCo) Voice acoustics: an introduction (http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/voice.html) from the University of New South Wales

Voice type

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Voice type
A voice type is a particular kind of human singing voice perceived as having certain identifying qualities or characteristics. Voice classification is the process by which human voices are evaluated and are thereby designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal registration.[1] The science behind voice classification developed within European classical music and is not generally applicable to other forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use including: the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others. No system is universally applied or accepted.[2] This article focuses on voice classification within classical music. For other contemporary styles of singing see: Voice classification in non-classical music. Voice classification is a tool for singers, composers, venues, and listeners to categorize vocal properties, and to associate possible roles with potential voices. There have been times when voice classification systems have been used too rigidly, i.e. a house assigning a singer to a specific type, and only casting him or her in roles they consider belonging to this category.[3] A singer will ultimately choose a repertoire that suits their instrument. Some singers such as Enrico Caruso, Rosa Ponselle, Joan Sutherland, Maria Callas, Ewa Podles, or Plcido Domingo have voices which allow them to sing roles from a wide variety of types; some singers such as Shirley Verrett or Grace Bumbry change type, and even voice part over their careers; and some singers such as Leonie Rysanek have voices which lower with age, causing them to cycle through types over their careers. Some roles as well are hard to classify, having very unusual vocal requirements; Mozart wrote many of his roles for specific singers who often had remarkable voices, and some of Verdis early works make extreme demands on his singers.[4] A note on vocal range vs. tessitura: Choral singers are classified into voice parts based on range; solo singers are classified into voice types based in part on tessitura where the voice feels most comfortable for the majority of the time.[5] (For more information and roles and singers, see the individual voice type pages.)

Number of voice types

There are a plethora of different voice types used by vocal pedagogists today in a variety of voice classification systems. Most of these types, however, are sub-types that fall under seven different major voice categories that are for the most part acknowledged across all of the major voice classification systems. Women are typically divided into three groups: soprano, mezzo-soprano, and contralto. Men are usually divided into four groups: countertenor, tenor, baritone, and bass. When considering the pre-pubescent male voice an eighth term, treble, can be applied. Within each of these major categories there are several sub-categories that identify specific vocal qualities like coloratura facility and vocal weight to differentiate between voices.[6]

Female voices
The range specifications given below are based on the American scientific pitch notation.

Soprano
Soprano range: The soprano is the highest female voice. The typical soprano voice lies between middle C (C4) and "high C"(C6). The low extreme for sopranos is roughly B3 or A3 (just below middle C).[6] Most soprano roles do not extend above "high C" although there are several standard soprano roles that call for D6 or D-flat6. At the highest extreme, some coloratura soprano roles may reach from F6 to A6 (the F to A above "high C").[7]

Voice type Soprano tessitura: The tessitura of the soprano voice lies higher than all the other female voices. In particular, the coloratura soprano has the highest tessitura of all the soprano sub-types.[3] Soprano sub-types: As with all voice categories, sopranos are often divided into different sub-categories based on range, vocal color or timbre, the weight of voice, and dexterity of the voice. These sub-categories include: Coloratura soprano, Soubrette, Lyric soprano, Spinto, and Dramatic soprano.[3] Intermediate voice types Two types of soprano especially dear to the French are the Dugazon and the Falcon, which are intermediate voice types between the soprano and the mezzo soprano: a Dugazon is a darker-colored soubrette, a Falcon a darker-colored soprano drammatico.[8]

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Mezzo-soprano
The mezzo-soprano is the middle-range voice type for females and is the most common female voice.[6] Mezzo-soprano range: The mezzo-soprano voice lies between the soprano voice and contralto voice, over-lapping both of them. The typical range of this voice is between A3 (the A below middle C) to A5 (the A two octaves above A3). In the lower and upper extremes, some mezzo-sopranos may extend down to the G below middle C (G3) and as high as "high C" (C6).[6] Mezzo-soprano tessitura: Although this voice overlaps both the contralto and soprano voices, the tessitura of the mezzo-soprano is lower than that of the soprano and higher than that of the contralto. Mezzo-soprano sub-types: Mezzo-sopranos are often broken down into three categories: Lyric mezzo-soprano, Coloratura mezzo-soprano and Dramatic mezzo-soprano.[3] Alto Contralto and alto are not the same term. Technically, "alto" is not a voice type but a designated vocal line in choral music based on vocal range. The range of the alto part in choral music is usually more similar to that of a mezzo-soprano than a contralto. However, in many compositions the alto line is split into two parts. The lower part, Alto 2, is usually more suitable to a contralto voice than a mezzo-soprano voice.[3] .

Contralto
Contralto range: The contralto voice is the lowest female voice. A true operatic contralto is extremely rare, so much so that often roles intended for contraltos are performed by mezzo-sopranos. The typical contralto range lies between the F below middle C (F3) to the second F (F5) above middle C. In the lower and upper extremes, some contralto voices can sing from the E below middle C (E3) to the second b-flat above (b-flat5), which is only one whole step short of the "Soprano C".[6] Contralto tessitura: The contralto voice has the lowest tessitura of the female voices. In current operatic practice, female singers with very low vocal tessituras are often included among mezzo-sopranos. Contralto sub-types: Contraltos are often broken down into two categories: Lyric contralto and Dramatic contralto.[3]

Male voices
Countertenor
The term countertenor refers to the highest male voice. Many countertenor singers perform roles originally written for castrati in baroque operas. Except for a few very rare voices (such as the American male soprano Michael Maniaci, or singers with a disorder such as Kallmann syndrome), singers called countertenors generally sing in the falsetto register, sometimes using their modal register for the lowest notes. Historically, there is much evidence that

Voice type "countertenor", in England at least, also designated a very high tenor voice, the equivalent of the French haute-contre, and something similar to the "leggiero tenor" or tenor altino. It should be remembered that, until about 1830, all male voices used some falsetto-type voice production in their upper range. Countertenor ranges (approximate) : Countertenor: from about G3 to E5 or F5 Sopranist: extend the upper range to usually only C6, but some as high as E6 or F6 Haute-contre: from about D3 or E3 to about D5 Countertenor sub-types: There are several sub-types of countertenors including Sopranist or male soprano, Haute-contre, and modern castrato. The last actual castrato singer, Alessandro Moreschi, died in 1922.[3]

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Tenor
Tenor range: The tenor is the highest male voice within the modal register. The typical tenor voice lies between the C one octave below middle C (C3) to the C one octave above "Middle C" (C5). The low extreme for tenors is roughly B-flat 2 (the second b-flat below middle C). At the highest extreme, some tenors can sing up to the second F above "Middle C" (F5).[6] Tenor tessitura: The tessitura of the tenor voice lies above the baritone voice and below the countertenor voice. The Leggiero tenor has the highest tessitura of all the tenor sub-types.[3] Tenor sub-types: Tenors are often divided into different sub-categories based on range, vocal color or timbre, the weight of the voice, and dexterity of the voice. These sub-categories include: Leggiero tenor or Tenore di grazia, Lyric tenor, Spinto tenor, Dramatic tenor, and Heldentenor. [3] Famous tenors include Juan Diego Flrez, and Alfredo Kraus.

Baritone
The Baritone is the most common type of male voice.[6] Baritone range: The vocal range of the baritone lies between the bass and tenor ranges, overlapping both of them. The typical baritone range is from the second F below middle C (F2) to the F above middle C (F4), which is exactly two octaves. In the lower and upper extremes, a baritone's range can be extended at either end.[6] Baritone tessitura: Although this voice overlaps both the tenor and bass voices, the tessitura of the baritone is lower than that of the tenor and higher than that of the bass.[3] Baritone sub-types: Baritones are often divided into different sub-categories based on range, vocal color or timbre, the weight of the voice, and dexterity of the voice. These sub-categories include: Lyric baritone, Bel Canto (coloratura) baritone, kavalierbariton, Dramatic baritone, Verdi baritone, baryton-noble, and [3] Bariton/Baryton-Martin.

Bass
Bass range: The bass is the lowest male voice. The bass voice has the lowest tessitura of all the voices. The typical bass range lies between the second E below "middle C" (E2) to the E above middle C (E4). In the lower and upper extremes of the bass voice, some basses can sing from the C two octaves below middle C (C2) to the G above middle C (G4).[3] Bass sub-types: Basses are often divided into different sub-categories based on range, vocal color or timbre, the weight of the voice, and dexterity of the voice. These sub-categories include: Basso Profondo, Basso Buffo, Bel Canto Bass, Basso Cantante, Dramatic Bass, and Bass-baritone.[3]

Voice type

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Children's voices
The voice from childhood to adulthood
The human voice is in a constant state of change and development just as the whole body is in a state of constant change. A human voice will alter as a person gets older moving from immaturity to maturity to a peak period of prime singing and then ultimately into a declining period. The vocal range and timbre of children's voices does not have the variety that adults' voices have. Both boys and girls prior to puberty have an equivalent vocal range and timbre. The reason for this is that both groups have a similar laryngeal size and height and a similar vocal cord structure. With the onset of puberty, both men and women's voices alter as the vocal ligaments become more defined and the laryngeal cartilages harden. The laryngeal structure of both voices change but more so in men. The height of the male larynx becomes much longer than in women. The size and development of adult lungs also changes what the voice is physically capable of doing. From the onset of puberty to approximately age 22, the human voice is in an in-between phase where it is not quite a child's voice nor an adult one yet. This is not to suggest that the voice stops changing at that age. Different singers will reach adult development earlier or later than others, and as stated above there are continual changes throughout adulthood as well.[9]

Treble
The term treble can refer to either a young female or young male singer with an unchanged voice in the soprano range. Initially, the term was associated with boy sopranos but as the inclusion of girls into children's choirs became acceptable in the twentieth century the term has expanded to refer to all pre-pubescent voices. The lumping of children's voices into one category is also practical as both boys and girls share a similar range and timbre.[9] Treble range: Most trebles have an approximate range from the A below "middle C" (A3) to the F one and a half octaves above "middle C" (F5). Some trebles, however, can extend their voices higher in the modal register to "high C" (C6). This ability may be comparatively rare, but the Anglican church repertory, which many trained trebles sing, frequently demands G5 and even A5. [10] Many trebles are also able to reach higher notes by use of the whistle register but this practice is rarely called for in performance.[6]

Classifying singers
Voice classification is important for vocal pedagogists and singers as a guiding tool for the development of the voice. Misclassification can damage the vocal cords, shorten a singing career and lead to the loss of both vocal beauty and free vocal production. Some of these dangers are not immediate ones; the human voice is quite resilient, especially in early adulthood, and the damage may not make its appearance for months or even years. Unfortunately, this lack of apparent immediate harm can cause singers to develop bad habits that will over time cause irreparable damage to the voice.[6] Singing outside the natural vocal range imposes a serious strain upon the voice. Clinical evidence indicates that singing at a pitch level that is either too high or too low creates vocal pathology.[11] Noted vocal pedagogist Margaret Greene says, "The need for choosing the correct natural range of the voice is of great importance in singing since the outer ends of the singing range need very careful production and should not be overworked, even in trained voices."[12] Singing at either extreme of the range may be damaging, but the possibility of damage seems to be much more prevalent in too high a classification. A number of medical authorities have indicated that singing at too high a pitch level may contribute to certain vocal disorders. Medical evidence indicates that singing at too high of a pitch level may lead to the development of vocal nodules. Increasing tension on the vocal cords is one of the means of raising pitch. Singing above an individual's best tessitura keeps the vocal cords under a great deal of unnecessary tension for long periods of time, and the possibility of vocal abuse is greatly increased. Singing at too low a pitch level is not as likely to be damaging unless a singer tries to force the voice down.[4]

Voice type In general vocal pedagogists consider four main qualities of a human voice when attempting to classify it: vocal range, tessitura, timbre, and vocal transition points. However, teachers may also consider physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing and other factors.

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Dangers of quick identification

Many vocal pedagogists warn of the dangers of quick identification. Premature concern with classification can result in misclassification, with all its attendant dangers. William Vennard says: "I never feel any urgency about classifying a beginning student. So many premature diagnoses have been proved wrong, and it can be harmful to the student and embarrassing to the teacher to keep striving for an ill-chosen goal. It is best to begin in the middle part of the voice and work upward and downward until the voice classifies itself". [13] Most vocal pedagogists believe that it is essential to establish good vocal habits within a limited and comfortable range before attempting to classify the voice. When techniques of posture, breathing, [phonation], resonation, and articulation have become established in this comfortable area, the true quality of the voice will emerge and the upper and lower limits of the range can be explored safely. Only then can a tentative classification be arrived at, and it may be adjusted as the voice continues to develop.[12] Many vocal pedagogists suggest that teachers begin by assuming that a voice is of a medium classification until it proves otherwise. The reason for this is that the majority of individuals possess medium voices and therefore this approach is less likely to misclassify or damage the voice.[6]

Choral music classification

Unlike other classification systems, choral music divides voices solely on the basis of vocal range. Choral music most commonly divides vocal parts into high and low voices within each sex (SATB). As a result, the typical choral situation affords many opportunities for misclassification to occur.[6] Since most people have medium voices, they must be assigned to a part that is either too high or too low for them; the mezzo-soprano must sing soprano or alto and the baritone must sing tenor or bass. Either option can present problems for the singer, but for most singers there are fewer dangers in singing too low than in singing too high.[5]

References
[1] Shewan, Robert (January/February 1979). "Voice Classification: An Examination of Methodology". The NATS Bulletin 35: 1727. [2] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-0802086143. [3] Boldrey, Richard (1994). Guide to Operatic Roles and Arias. Caldwell Publishing Company. ISBN978-1877761645. [4] Appelman, D. Ralph (1986). The Science of Vocal Pedagogy: Theory and Application. Indiana University Press. ISBN978-0253203786. [5] Smith, Brenda (2005). Choral Pedagogy. Plural Publishing, Inc. ISBN978-1597560436. [6] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN978-1565939400. [7] Coffin, Berton (1960). Coloratura, Lyric and Dramatic Soprano, Vol. 1. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.. ISBN978-0810801882. [8] Voice Classification (http:/ / pioneer2. aaps. k12. mi. us/ choir/ voiceclass. html#Soprano) [9] PowerPoint Presentation (http:/ / www. vocalprocess. co. uk/ resources/ Developing_Voice_presentation. pdf) [10] PowerPoint Presentation; for higher notes see, for example, the treble solo at the beginning of Stanford's Magnificat in G, David Willcocks' descant to Mendelssohn's tune for the carol Hark, the Herald Angels Sing, and the even higher treble solo in the Nunc Dimittis from Tippett's Evening Canticles written for St John's College, Cambridge) (http:/ / www. vocalprocess. co. uk/ resources/ Developing_Voice_presentation. pdf) [11] Cooper, Morton (1973). Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation. Charles C. Thomas. ASINB000JC1U76. [12] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition edition. ISBN978-1861561961.

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Further reading
Cooper, Morton (1973). Modern Techniques of Vocal Rehabilitation. Charles C. Thomas. ASINB000JC1U76. Large, John (February/March 1972). "Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035.

External links
Collection of public domain scores (Indiana U) (http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/variations/scores/scores.html) Smaller collection of public domain scores (Harvard) (http://hcl.harvard.edu/libraries/loebmusic/collections/ digital.html) Collection of librettos and translations (http://www.opera-guide.ch/opern_komponisten.php?uilang=en& first-letter=A) Collection of librettos (Karadar) (http://www.karadar.it/Operas/) Collection of librettos (Stanford) (http://opera.stanford.edu/operas.html) Verdi librettos (http://www.giuseppeverdi.it/page.asp?IDCategoria=162&IDSezione=581) German/English Wagner librettos (http://www.rwagner.net/e-frame.html) Aria database (http://www.aria-database.com/)

Coloratura
Coloratura has several meanings. The word is originally from Italian, literally meaning "coloring", and derives from the Latin word colorare ("to color").[1] When used in English, the term specifically refers to elaborate melody, particularly in vocal music and especially in operatic singing of the 18th and 19th centuries, with runs, trills, wide leaps, or similar virtuoso-like material.[1] [2] It is also now widely used to refer to passages of such music, operatic roles in which such music plays a prominent part, and singers of these roles.[3] (See also bel canto.)

Historical usage
The term "coloratura" was first defined in several early non-Italian music dictionaries: Michael Praetorius's Syntagma musicum (1618); Sbastien de Brossard's Dictionaire de musique (1703); and Johann Gottfried Walther's Musicalisches Lexicon (1732). In these early texts "the term is dealt with briefly and always with reference to Italian usage."[4] Christoph Bernhard (16281692) defined "coloratura" in two ways:[4]

Farinelli, a soprano castrato famous for singing baroque coloratura roles (Corrado Giaquinto, ca. 1755).

cadenza: "runs which are not so exactly bound to the bar, but which often extend two, three or more bars further [and] should be made only at chief closes" (Von der Singe-Kunst, oder Maniera, ca. 1649) diminution: "when an interval is altered through several shorter notes, so that, instead of one long note, a number of shorter ones rush to the next note through all kinds of progressions by step or leap" (Tractatus compositionis, ca. 1657) The term was never used in the most famous Italian texts on singing: Giulio Caccini's Le Nuove musiche (1601/2); Pier Francesco Tosi's, Opinioni de' cantori antichi e moderni (1723); Giovanni Battista Mancini's Pensieri, e

Coloratura riflessioni pratiche sopra il canto figurato (1774); Manuel Garca's Mmoire sur la voix humaine (1841), and Trait complet de lart du chant (184047); nor was it used by the English authors Charles Burney (17261814) and Henry Fothergill Chorley (18081872), both of whom wrote at length about Italian singing of a period when ornamentation was essential.[4]

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Modern usage
The term "coloratura" is most commonly applied to the elaborate and florid figuration or ornamentation in classical (late 18th century) and romantic (19th century, specifically bel canto) vocal music. However, early music of the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries, and in particular, baroque music extending up to about 1750, includes a substantial body of music for which coloratura technique is required by vocalists and instrumentalists alike. In the modern musicological sense the term is therefore used to refer to florid music from all periods of music history, both vocal and instrumental.[4] For example, in Germany the term "coloratura" (German: Koloratur) has been applied to the stereotypical and formulaic ornamentation used in 16th-century keyboard music written by a group of German organ composers referred to as the "colorists" (German: Koloristen).[2] In spite of its derivation from Latin colorare ("to color"), the term "coloratura" does not apply to the practice of "coloring" the voice, i.e. altering the quality or timbre of the voice for expressive purposes (for example, the technique of voix sombre used by Gilbert Duprez in the 1830s).[4]

Vocal ranges
The term is not restricted to describing any one range of voice. All other female and male voice types may also achieve mastery of coloratura technique. There are coloratura parts for all voice types in different musical genres.[3] Nevertheless, the term "coloratura", when used without further qualification, normally means soprano coloratura. A coloratura soprano role, most famously typified by the Queen of the Night in Mozart's Die Zauberflte,[5] has a high range and requires the singer to execute with great facility elaborate ornamentation and embellishment, including running passages, staccati, and trills. A coloratura soprano has the vocal ability to produce notes above high C (C6) and possesses a tessitura ranging from A4 to A5 or higher (unlike lower sopranos whose tessitura is G4G5 or lower). Richard Miller names two types of soprano coloratura voices (the coloratura and the dramatic [7] coloratura) as well as a [8] mezzo-soprano coloratura voice, and although he does not mention the coloratura contralto, he includes mention of specific works requiring coloratura technique for the contralto voice.[9] Examples of coloratura music for different voice ranges include:
An example of a coloratura passage from a soprano role. It includes a more difficult variant (top stave) with a leap to a high D (D6). Final cadenza from the Valse in Ophlie's Mad Scene (Act IV) from the opera Hamlet (1868) by Ambroise Thomas (piano-vocal [6] score , p. 292).

Mozart's Allelujah (from Exsultate, jubilate) may be arranged for and sung by a properly trained contralto, mezzo soprano or soprano. The piece was written for soprano castrato. The aria Every valley shall be exalted from Handel's Messiah is an example of a coloratura piece for tenor. Each singer of a major role in Rossini's operas must have a secure coloratura technique. Osmin, a character in Mozart's The Abduction from the Seraglio, is a coloratura role for a bass.

Coloratura

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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] Oxford American Dictionaries. Mac OS X. Apel (1969), p. 184. Steane, J. B.; Jander, Owen, "Coloratura" in Sadie (1992) 1: 907. Jander, Owen; Harris, Ellen T. "Coloratura" in Grove Music Online, grovemusic.com (http:/ / www. grovemusic. com). Retrieved 27 November 2006. Randel (1986), p. 180. http:/ / imslp. org/ wiki/ Hamlet_(Thomas,_Ambroise) Miller (2000), pp. 79. Miller (2000), pp. 1213. Miller (2000), p. 13.

References
Apel, Willi, ed. (1969). Harvard dictionary of music, second edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674375017. Miller, Richard (2000). Training soprano voices. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195130188. Randel, Don Michael, ed.; Apel, Willi, ed. (1986). New Harvard dictionary of music. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674615250. Sadie, Stanley, ed. (1992). The new Grove dictionary of opera (four volumes). London: Macmillan. ISBN 9781561592289.

Recitative
Recitative ( /rsttiv/), also known by its Italian name "recitativo" (Italian pronunciation:[retitativo]), is a style of delivery (much used in operas, oratorios, and cantatas) in which a singer is allowed to adopt the rhythms of ordinary speech. The mostly syllabic recitativo secco ("dry", accompanied only by continuo) is at one end of a spectrum through recitativo accompagnato (using orchestra), the more melismatic arioso, and finally the full-blown aria or ensemble, where the pulse is entirely governed by the music. Recitative does not repeat lines as formally composed songs do. It resembles sung ordinary speech more than a formal musical composition. The term recitative (or occasionally liturgical recitative) is also applied to the simpler formulas of Gregorian chant, such as the tones used for the Epistle and Gospel, preface and collects.

Origins
The first use of recitative in opera was preceded by the monodies of the Florentine Camerata in which Vincenzo Galilei, father of the astronomer Galileo Galilei, played an important role. The elder Galilei, influenced by his correspondence with Girolamo Mei on the writings of the ancient Greeks and wishing to recreate the old manner of storytelling and drama, pioneered the use of a single melodic line to tell the story, accompanied by simple chords from a harpsichord or lute. In the baroque era, recitatives were commonly rehearsed on their own by the stage director, the singers frequently supplying their own favourite baggage arias which might be by a different composer (some of Mozart's so-called concert arias fall into this category). This division of labour persisted in some of Rossini's most famous works: the recitatives for The Barber of Seville and La Cenerentola were composed by assistants.

Recitative

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Secco
Secco recitative, popularized in Florence though the proto-opera music dramas of Jacopo Peri and Giulio Caccini during the late 16th century, formed the substance of Claudio Monteverdi's operas during the 17th century, and continued to be used into the Romantic era by such composers as Gaetano Donizetti, reappearing in Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress. It also influenced areas of music outside opera from the outset; the recitatives of Johann Sebastian Bach, found in his passions and cantatas, are especially notable. In the early operas and cantatas of the Florentine school, secco recitative was accompanied by a variety of instruments, mostly plucked strings with perhaps a small organ to provide sustained tone. Later, in the operas of Vivaldi and Hndel, the accompaniment was standardised as a harpsichord and a bass viol or violoncello. When the harpsichord went out of use in the early 19th century, many opera-houses did not replace it with a piano; instead the violoncello was left to carry on alone or with reinforcement from a double bass. A 1919 recording of Rossini's Barber of Seville, issued by Italian HMV, gives a unique glimpse of this technique in action, as do cello methods of the period and some scores of Meyerbeer. There are examples of the revival of the harpsichord for this purpose as early as the 1890s (e.g. by Hans Richter for a production of Mozart's Don Giovanni at the London Royal Opera House, the instrument being supplied by Arnold Dolmetsch), but it was not until the 1950s that the 18th-century method was consistently observed once more.

Accompagnato
Accompanied recitative, known as accompagnato or stromentato, employs the orchestra as an accompanying body. As a result, it is less improvisational and declamatory than recitativo secco, and more song-like. This form is often employed where the orchestra can underscore a particularly dramatic text, as in Thus saith the Lord from Hndel's Messiah; Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart were also fond of it. A more inward intensification calls for an arioso; the opening of Comfort ye from the same work is a famous example, while the ending of it ("The voice of him that crieth in the wilderness") is accompagnato.

Post-Wagner uses
Later operas, under the influence of Richard Wagner, favored through-composition, where recitatives, arias, choruses and other elements were seamlessly interwoven into a whole. Many of Wagner's operas employ sections which are analogous to accompanied recitative. Recitative is also occasionally used in musicals, being put to ironic use in the finale of Weill's The Threepenny Opera. It also appears in Carousel and Of Thee I Sing. George Gershwin used it in his opera Porgy and Bess, though sometimes, the recitative in that work is changed to spoken dialogue. Porgy and Bess has also been staged as a musical rather than as an opera.

Instrumental Recitative
Recitative has also sometimes been used to refer to parts of purely instrumental works which resemble vocal recitatives. One of the earliest examples is found in the slow movement of Vivaldi's violin concerto in D, RV 208 which is marked 'Recitative', although it is perhaps more virtuosic and flashy than most operatic recitative. C. P. E. Bach included instrumental recitative in his "Prussian" piano sonatas of 1742, composed at Frederick the Great's court in Berlin. In 1761, Joseph Haydn took his post at Esterhazy Palace and soon after composed his Symphony No. 7 ("Le Midi") in concertante style (i.e. with soloists). In the second movement of that work, the violinist is the soloist in an instrumental recitative. Ludwig van Beethoven used the instrumental recitative in at least three works including Piano Sonata No. 17 (The Tempest), Piano Sonata No. 31 and perhaps the most famous example in the opening section of the Finale of his

Recitative Ninth Symphony. Here, Beethoven inscribed on the score (in French) "In the manner of a recitative, but in tempo." Leon Plantinga argues that the second movement of Beehoven's Fourth Piano Concerto is also an instrumental recitative,[1] although Owen Jander interprets it as a dialogue.[2] Other Romantic composers to employ instrumental recitative include Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (who composed a lyrical, virtuosic recitative for solo violin with harp accompaniment to represent the title character in his orchestral Scheherazade) and Hector Berlioz (whose choral symphony Romo et Juliette contains a trombone recitative as part of its Introduction). Arnold Schoenberg labeled the last of his Five Orchestral Pieces, Op. 16 "The obligato recitative" and also composed a piece for organ, Variations on a Recitative opus 40. Other examples of instrumental recitative in twentieth century music include the third movement of Douglas Moore's Quintet for Clarinet and Strings (1946), the first of Richard Rodney Bennett's Five Impromptus for guitar (1968), and the second of William Bolcom's 12 New Etudes for Piano (197786).

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References
[1] Leon Plantinga, Beethoven's Concertos: History, Style, Performance, 186. [2] Owen Jander, "Beethoven's 'Orpheus in Hades': The Andante con moto of the Fourth Piano Concerto", in 19th-Century Music 8:3 (Spring 1985), 195-212.

Bel canto
Bel canto (Bel-Canto) (Italian, "beautiful singing"), along with a number of similar constructions ("bellezze del canto"/"bellarte del canto"), is an Italian opera term. It has several different meanings and is subject to a wide array of interpretations.[1] The earliest use of the term "bel canto" occurred in late 17th-century Italy, when it was applied to a sophisticated model of singing that was evolving there among practitioners of operatic and sacred music. The term did not become widely used, however, until the middle of the next century, which was the heyday of opera seria, the static but technically challenging da capo aria, and the now-extinct castrato voice. In the mid-19th century, bel canto gained a more specific meaning when it was employed to distinguish what by now had developed into the traditional Italian vocal model from more forceful, less ingratiating styles of singing. These newer styles of singing had arisen as a result of 19th-century operas growing increasingly dramatic, pitting performers against louder and denser orchestral accompaniments in bigger theatres. Nonetheless, "neither musical nor general dictionaries saw fit to attempt [a] definition [of bel canto] until after 1900". The term remains vague and ambiguous in the 21st century and is often used nostalgically to evoke a lost singing tradition.[2]

Bel canto

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History of the term and its various definitions

As generally understood nowadays, the term "bel canto" refers to the Italian-originated vocal style that prevailed throughout most of Europe during the 18th century and lingered in a less elaborate but still dominant form until around 1840. The hallmarks of the bel canto style were: an impeccable legato production throughout the singer's (seamless) range the use of a light tone in the higher registers, an agile, flexible technique capable of despatching ornate embellishments, the ability to execute fast, accurate divisions, the avoidance of aspirates and the eschewing of a loose vibrato, a pleasing, well-focused timbre, a clean attack, limpid diction, and graceful phrasing rooted in a complete mastery of breath control.

Operas and oratorios highly conducive to this method of singing were composed by George Frideric Handel (16851759) and his contemporaries during the Baroque period. They contained da capo arias which were designed to provide solo singers with plentiful opportunities to display their technical skill and demonstrate their ability to improvise on the spot by embellishing the written score in a (hopefully) tasteful and illuminating manner. Da capo arias featured extensive and elaborate ornamentation, demanding much from the vocalist in the way of fluent runs, trills, turns (gruppetti), mordents, morendi, roulades, staccato passages, appoggiaturas, acciaccaturas, marcato notes, messa di voce effects, rapid scales, wide leaps spanning two octaves or more and brilliant cadenzas. In short: what is commonly referred to by opera-goers as coloratura. Two famous 18th-century teachers of coloratura vocalism were Antonio Bernacchi (16851756) and Nicola Porpora (16861768), but numerous others existed. A large proportion of these teachers were castrati. Singer/author John Potter declares in his book Tenor: History of a Voice (Yale University Press, 2009, p.31) that: "For much of the 18th century castrati defined the art of singing; it was the loss of their irrecoverable skills that in time created the myth of bel canto, a way of singing and conceptualising singing that was entirely different from anything that the world had heard before or would hear again." In a narrower application, the term "bel canto" is sometimes attached exclusively to Italian opera of the time of Gioachino Rossini (17921868), Vincenzo Bellini (18011835) and Gaetano Donizetti (17971848). These three composers wrote bravura works for the stage during what musicologists call the bel canto era, which lasted approximately from 1805 to 1840. The bel canto era preserved many of the Baroque's musical values, although such characteristic forms as opera seria and the da capo aria did not survive the passing of the 18th century. Changing tastes and social standards also killed off the operatic castrato voice and ensured the concomitant rise to singing supremacy of the prima donna soprano and the virtuoso tenor. (The last important opera role for a castrato was written in 1824 by Giacomo Meyerbeer [1791-1864].)[3] Actually, the phrase "bel canto" did not enter common usage until the middle of the 19th century, when it was set in opposition to the development of a weightier, more powerful style of speech-inflected singing associated with German opera and, above all, Richard Wagner's revolutionary music dramas. Wagner (18131883) decried the Italian singing model, alleging that it was concerned merely with "whether that G or A will come out roundly". He advocated a new, Germanic school of singing which would draw "the spiritually energetic and profoundly passionate

The bel canto-era composer Gioachino Rossini: portrait painted circa 1815 by Vincenzo Camuccini.

Bel canto into the orbit of its matchless Expression".[4] Interestingly enough, French musicians and composers never embraced the more florid extremes of the 18th-century Italian bel canto style. They disliked the castrato voice and because they placed a premium on the clear enunciation of the texts of their vocal music, they objected to the sung word being obscured by excessive fioritura. The popularity of the bel canto style as espoused by Rossini, Donizetti and Bellini faded in Italy during the mid-19th century. It was overtaken by a heavier, more ardent, less embroidered approach to singing that was necessary in order to perform the innovative works of Giuseppe Verdi (18131901) with maximum dramatic impact. Tenors, for instance, began to inflate their tone and deliver the high C (and even the high D) directly from the chest rather than resorting to a suave head voice/falsetto as they had done previouslysacrificing vocal agility in the process. Sopranos and baritones reacted in a similar fashion to their tenor colleagues when confronted with Verdi's drama-filled compositions. They subjected the mechanics of their voice production to greater pressures and cultivated the exciting upper part of their respective ranges at the expense of their mellow but less penetrant lower notes. Initially at least, the singing techniques of 19th-century contraltos and basses were less affected by the musical innovations of Verdi, which were built upon by his successors Amilcare Ponchielli (18341886) and Arrigo Boito (18421918). One reason for the eclipse of the old Italian singing model was the growing influence within the music world of bel canto's detractors, who considered it to be outmoded and condemned it as vocalization devoid of content. To others, however, bel canto became the vanished art of elegant, refined, sweet-toned musical utterance. Rossini lamented in a conversation that took place in Paris in 1858 that: "Alas for us, we have lost our bel canto".[5] Similarly, the so-called German style was as derided as much as it was heralded. In the introduction to a collection of songs by Italian masters published in 1887 in Berlin under the title Il bel canto, Franz Sieber wrote: "In our time, when the most offensive shrieking under the extenuating device of 'dramatic singing' has spread everywhere, when the ignorant masses appear much more interested in how loud rather than how beautiful the singing is, a collection of songs will perhaps be welcome which as the title purports may assist in restoring bel canto to its rightful place."[3] In the late-19th century and early-20th century, the term "bel canto" was resurrected by Italy's singing teachers, among whom the retired Verdi baritone Antonio Cotogni (18311918) was perhaps the pre-eminent figure. Cotogni and his ilk invoked it against an unprecedentedly vehement, unsubtle and vibrato-laden style of vocalism which was being adopted by more and more post-1890 singers in order to cope with: the impassioned demands of the stream of verismo operas that were flowing from the pens of Giacomo Puccini (18581924), Ruggero Leoncavallo (18571919), Pietro Mascagni (18631945) and Umberto Giordano (18671948); and the auditory challenges posed by the non-Italianate stage works of Richard Strauss (18641949) and other late-romantic/early modern era composers, with their strenuous and angular vocal lines and often thick orchestral textures. To make the situation worse, during the 1890s, the directors of the Bayreuth Festival began propagating a particularly forceful style of Wagnerian singing that placed such an undue emphasis on the articulation of the individual words of the composer's libretti, the all-important musical component of his operas was compromised. Called "Sprechgesang" by its proponents and the "Bayreuth bark" by its opponents, this hectoring, text-based, anti-legato approach to vocalism spread across the German-speaking parts of Europe prior to World War I. It was totally at odds with the ideals of "beautiful singing". As a result of these many factors, the concept of bel canto became shrouded in mystique and confused by a plethora of individual notions and interpretations. To complicate matters further, German musicology in the early 20th century invented its own historical application for "bel canto", using the term to denote the simple lyricism that came to the fore in Venetian opera and the Roman cantata during the 1630s and '40s (the era of composers Antonio Cesti, Giacomo Carissimi and Luigi Rossi) as a reaction against the earlier, text-dominated "stilo rappresentativo".[1] Unfortunately, this anachronistic use of the term bel canto was given wide circulation in Robert Haas's Die Musik

43

Bel canto des Barocks (Potsdam, 1928) and, later, in Manfred Bukofzer's Music in the Baroque Era (New York, 1947). Since the singing style of later 17th-century Italy did not differ in any marked way from that of the 18th century and early 19th century, a connection can be drawn; but the term is best limited to its mid-19th-century use, designating a style of singing that emphasized beauty of tone and technical expertise in the delivery of music that was either highly florid or featured long, flowing and difficult-to-sustain passages of cantilena.[3] In the 1950s, the phrase bel canto revival was coined to refer to a renewed interest in the operas of Donizetti, Rossini and Bellini. These composers had begun to go out of fashion during the latter years of the 19th century and their works, while never completely disappearing from the performance repertoire, were staged infrequently during the first half of the 20th century, when the operas of Wagner, Verdi and Puccini held sway. That situation changed significantly after World War II with the advent of a group of enterprising orchestral conductors and the emergence of a fresh generation of singers such as Maria Callas, Joan Sutherland and Beverly Sills, who had acquired bel canto techniques. These artists breathed new life into Donizetti, Rossini and Bellini's stage compositions, treating them seriously as music and re-popularizing them throughout Europe and America.[6] Today, some of the world's most frequently performed operas, such as Rossini's The Barber of Seville and Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor, are from the bel canto era.[7] Not coincidentally, the 18th-century operas of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (17561791), which require adroit bel canto skills if they are to be performed well, also experienced a post-war revival that shows no sign of abating, while the florid operas composed by Mozart's predecessor Handel have undergone a similar surge in popularity during recent decades. "I should think that performances of Handel operas now outnumber all others," avers classical music commentator Simon Callow in the April 2010 issue of Gramophone magazine (p.26).

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The bel canto teaching legacy

Musicologists occasionally apply the label bel canto technique to the arsenal of virtuosic vocal accomplishments and concepts imparted by singing teachers to their students during the late 18th century and the early 19th century. Many of these teachers were castrati. "All [their] pedagogical works follow the same structure, beginning with exercises on single notes and eventually progressing to scales and improvised embellishments," writes Potter on p.47 of his Tenor: History of a Voice. "The really creative ornamentation required for cadenzas, involving models and formulae that could generate newly improvised material, came towards the end of the process." (Today's pervasive idea that singers should refrain from improvising and always adhere strictly to the letter of a composer's published score is a comparatively recent phenomenon, promulgated during the first Mathilde Marchesi (18211913), a leading decades of the 20th century by dictatorial conductors such as Arturo Paris-based teacher of bel canto sopranos. Toscanini [1867-1957], who championed the dramatic operas of Verdi and Wagner and believed in keeping performers on a tight interpretive leash. See, for instance, Volume 1 of Michael Scott's survey The Record of Singing [Duckworth, London, 1977], pp.135136; also Potter, p.77.) Potter notes, however, that as the 19th century unfurled, "The general tendency ... was for singers not to have been taught by castrati (there were few of them left) and for serious study to start later, often at one of the new conservatories rather than with a private teacher. The traditional techniques and pedagogy were still acknowledged, but the teaching was generally in the hands of tenors and baritones who were by then at least once removed from the tradition itself."

Bel canto Early 19th-century teachers described the voice as being made up of three registers. The chest register was the lowest of the three and the head register the highest, with the passaggio in between. These registers needed to be smoothly blended and fully equalized before a trainee singer could acquire total command of his or her natural instrument, and the surest way to achieve this outcome was for the trainee to practise vocal exercises assiduously. Bel canto-era teachers were great believers in the benefits of vocalise and solfeggio. They strove to strengthen the respiratory muscles of their pupils and equip them with such time-honoured vocal attributes as "purity of tone, perfection of legato, phrasing informed by eloquent portamento, and exquisitely turned ornaments", to quote from the introduction to Volume 2 of Scott's The Record of Singing (Duckworth, London, 1979). Major refinements occurred to the existing system of voice classification during the 19th century as the international operatic repertoire diversified, split into distinctive nationalist schools and expanded in size. Whole new categories of singers such as mezzo-soprano and Wagnerian bass-baritone arose towards the end of the 19th century, as did such new sub-categories as lyric coloratura soprano, dramatic soprano and spinto soprano, and various grades of tenor, stretching from lyric through spinto to heroic. These classificatory changes have had a lasting effect on the way singing teachers designate voices and the way in which opera house managements cast their productions. It would be wrong, however, to think that there was across-the-board uniformity among 19th-century bel canto adherents when it came to passing on their knowledge and instructing students. Each of them had their own training regimes and pet notions; but, fundamentally, they all subscribed to the same set of bel canto precepts, and the exercises that they devised in order to enhance their students' breath support, dexterity, range and technical control remain valuable and, indeed, are still employed by some teachers.[1] Manuel Garca (18051906), author of the influential treatise L'Art du Chant, was the most prominent of the group of pedagogues that perpetuated bel-canto principles in their teachings and writings during the second half of the 19th century. His like-minded younger sister, Pauline Viardot (18211910), was also an important teacher of voice, as were Viardot's contemporaries Mathilde Marchesi, Camille Everardi, Julius Stockhausen, Carlo Pedrotti, Venceslao Persichini, Giovanni Sbriglia, Melchiorre Vidal and Francesco Lamperti (together with Francesco's son Giovanni Battista Lamperti). The voices of a number of their former students can be heard on acoustic recordings made in the first two decades of the 20th century and re-issued since on LP and CD. Some examples on disc of historically and artistically significant 19th-century singers whose bel canto-infused vocal styles and techniques pre-date the "Bayreuth bark" and the dramatic excesses of verismo opera are: Sir Charles Santley (born 1834), Gustav Walter (born 1834), Adelina Patti (born 1843), Marianne Brandt (born 1842), Lilli Lehmann (born 1848), Jean Lassalle (born 1847), Victor Maurel (born 1848), Marcella Sembrich (born 1858), Lillian Nordica (born 1857), Emma Calv (born 1858), Nellie Melba (born 1861), Francesco Tamagno (born 1850), Francesco Marconi (born 1853), Lon Escalais (born 1859), Mattia Battistini (born 1856), Mario Ancona (born 1860), Pol Planon (born 1851), and Antonio Magini-Coletti and Francesco Navarini (both born 1855).

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Quotations
Bel-canto not a school of sensuously pretty voice-production.[8] [...] It has come to be a generally recognised thing that voice, pure and simple, by its very composition, or "placing", interferes with the organs of speech; making it impossible for a vocalist to preserve absolute purity of pronunciation in song as well as in speech. It is because of this view that the principle of "vocalising" words, instead of musically saying them, crept in, to the detriment of vocal art. This false position is due to the idea that the "Arte del bel-canto" encouraged mere sensuous beauty of voice, rather than truth of expression.[9] David Ffrangcon Davies: The singing of the future [10] (1907, c1905) "Bel-canto" (of which we read so much) meant, and means, versatility of tone; if a man wish to be called an artist, his voice must become the instrument of intelligent imagination. Perhaps there would be fewer cases of vocal-specialising if the modern craze for "voice-production" (apart from linguistic truth) could be reduced. This

Bel canto wondrous pursuit is, as things stand, a notable instance of putting the cart before the horse. Voices are "produced" and "placed" in such wise that pupils are trained to "vocalise" (to use technical jargon) the words; i.e., they are taught to make a sound which is indeed something like but is not the word in its purity. "Tone" or sound is what the average student seeks, ab initio and not verbal purity. Hence the monotony of modern singing. When one hears an average singer in one role, one hears him in all.[11] David Ffrangcon Davies: The singing of the future [10] (1907, c1905) Those who regard the art of singing as anything more than a means to an end, do not comprehend the true purpose of that art, much less can they hope ever to fulfil that purpose. The true purpose of singing is to give utterance to certain hidden depths in our nature which can be adequately expressed in no other way. The voice is the only vehicle perfectly adapted to this purpose; it alone can reveal to us our inmost feelings, because it is our only direct means of expression. If the voice, more than any language, more than any other instrument of expression, can reveal to us our own hidden depths, and convey those depths to other souls of men, it is because voice vibrates directly to the feeling itself, when it fulfils its natural mission. By fulfilling its natural mission, I mean, when voice is not hindered from vibrating to the feeling by artificial methods of tone -production, which methods include certain mental processes which are fatal to spontaneity. To sing should always mean to have some definite feeling to express.[12] Clara Kathleen Rogers: The Philosophy Of Singing [13] (1893) The decline of Bel Canto may be attributed in part to Ferrein and Garcia who, with a dangerously small and historically premature knowledge of laryngeal function, abandoned the intuitive and emotional insight of the anatomically blind singers.[14] Paul Newham: Using voice and song in therapy Voice Culture has not progressed [...]. Exactly the contrary has taken place. Before the introduction of mechanical methods every earnest vocal student was sure of learning to use his voice properly, and of developing the full measure of his natural endowments. Mechanical instruction has upset all this. Nowadays the successful vocal student is the exception.[15] David C. Taylor The psychology of singing (1917)

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Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Stark, James (2003). Bel Canto: A History of Vocal Pedagogy. University of Toronto Press. ISBN978-08-0208-614-3. Duey, Philip A. (1951). Bel canto in its Golden Age. Da Capo Press. ISBN9781406754377. Jander, Owen (1992). Bel Canto, New Grove Dictionary of Opera. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-08-0208-614-3. Fischer, J. M. (1993). "Sprechgesang oder Belcanto". Grosse Stimmen: 22991. Osborne (1994) p.1 Time Magazine, 20 January 1967 (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,843311-1,00. html) Operabase. Opera Statistics (http:/ / operabase. com/ top. cgi?lang=en#opera) The singing of the future (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ singingoffuture00daviuoft#page/ 16/ mode/ 1up/ search/ school) (1907, c1905), p.16; David Ffrangcon Davies [9] The singing of the future (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ singingoffuture00daviuoft#page/ 16/ mode/ 1up/ search/ recognised) (1907, c1905), p.16; David Ffrangcon Davies [10] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ singingoffuture00daviuoft [11] The singing of the future (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ singingoffuture00daviuoft#page/ 14/ mode/ 1up/ search/ canto) (1907, c1905), p.14; David Ffrangcon Davies [12] The Philosophy Of Singing (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ philosophyofsing010361mbp#page/ n33/ mode/ 1up) (1893) by Clara Kathleen Rogers [13] http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ philosophyofsing010361mbp [14] Using voice and song in therapy: the practical application of voice movement therapy by Paul Newham (page 55 ref (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2ylRWlS0zqMC& pg=PA55& dq="The+ decline+ of+ Bel+ Canto+ may+ be+ attributed+ in+ part+ to+ Ferrein+ and"& hl=en#v=onepage& q="The decline of Bel Canto may be attributed in part to Ferrein and Garcia")) [15] The psychology of singing; a rational method of voice culture based on a scientific analysis of all systems, ancient and modern (http:/ / babel. hathitrust. org/ cgi/ pt?seq=7& view=image& size=100& id=uc1. $b796012& u=1& num=344) by David C. Taylor

Bel canto

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References & bibliography

Brown, M. Augusta "Extracts From Vocal Art" in The Congress of Women, Mary Kavanaugh Oldham (ed.), Chicago: Monarch Book Company (1894), p. 477. Available online from the University of Pennsylvania (http:// digital.library.upenn.edu/women/eagle/congress/brown.html) Digital Library. Accessed April 26, 2007. Coffin, Berton, Sounds of Singing, Second Edition, Littlefield (2002). Christiansen, Rupert, "A tenor for the 21st century" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/ 2002/03/15/bmtenor15.xml), The Daily Telegraph (15 March 2002; accessed 3 November 2008) Marchesi, Mathilde, Bel Canto: A Theoretical and Practical Vocal Method, Dover (1970) ISBN 0486223159 Osborne, Charles, The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini, Hal Leonard Corporation (1994) ISBN 0931340845 Pleasants, Henry, The Great Singers from the Dawn of Opera to Our Own Time, Macmillan Publishers, London (1983) ISBN 0333348540 Potter, John, Tenor: History of a Voice, Yale University Press, New Haven & London (2009) ISBN 9780300118735 Roselli, John, Singers of Italian Opera: The History of a Profession, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1995) ISBN 0521426979 Rushmore, Robert, The Singing Voice, Hamish Hamilton, London (1971) SBN 241019478 Scott, Michael, The Record of Singing, volumes 1 & 2, Duckworth, London (1977, 1979) ISBN 0715610309 & ISBN 1555531636 Somerset-Ward, Richard, Angels and Monsters: Male and Female Sopranos in the Story of Opera, Yale University Press, New Haven & London (2004) ISBN 03000099681 Reid, Cornelius L., Bel Canto: Principles and Practices, Joseph Patelson Music House (1950) ISBN 0915282011 Rosenthal, Harold and Warrack, John (editors), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Opera, second edition, Oxford University Press, London (1980) ISBN 019311321 X Scalisi, Cecilia, "Ral Gimnez, el maestro del bel canto" (http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota. asp?nota_id=543840), La Nacin (November 10, 2003). Accessed November 3, 2008. Trait complet de chant et de dclamation lyrique (http://www.omifacsimiles.com/cats/opera.html) Enrico Delle Sedie (Paris, 1847) fragment (http://www.accademia800.org/pagine/archivio/Delle Sedie estratto/Delle Sedie index.htm)

Other sources
Articles
Section on Bel Canto from The Singer's Handbook (http://www.archive.org/stream/ singershandbook017818mbp#page/n41/mode/1up/search/canto) (1942) by Lazar S. Samoiloff Nigro, Antonella. Observations on the Technique of Italian Singing from the 16th Century to the Present Day (http://www.cantorisancarlo.it/Observations.pdf) from the book "Celebri Arie Antiche: le piu' note arie del primo Barocco italiano trascritte e realizzate secondo lo stile dell'epoca" by Claudio Dall'Albero and Marcello Candela. ( ref (http://www.cantorisancarlo.it/Observation1.htm))

Bel canto

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Digitized, scanned material

"Bel Canto" Titles (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=(title:(bel canto) OR title:(belcanto)OR title:(bel-canto)) AND date:[1300 TO 1995] ) from the Internet Archive (e.g. Lamperti, Giovanni Battista: The Technics of Bel Canto) Harry Plunket Greene: Interpretation in Song (1912). New York: The Macmillan Company. Downloadable versions at the Internet Archive: (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Interpretation in Song) Lehmann, Lilli; Aldrich, Richard, translator (1902): How to sing. New York: Macmillan & Co. Ltd. Downloadable versions at the Internet Archive: (http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=creator:(Lilli Lehmann)) Garcia, Manuel; Garcia, Beata, translator (1894). Hints on singing, new and revised edition. London: E. Ascherberg. Downloadable versions at the Internet Archive: (http://www.archive.org/search. php?query=(singing) AND creator:(Manuel Garcia)).

Opera
Opera is an art form in which singers and musicians perform a dramatic work combining text (called a libretto) and musical score.[1] Opera is part of the Western classical music tradition.[2] Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as acting, scenery, and costumes and sometimes includes dance. The performance is typically given in an opera house, accompanied by an orchestra or smaller musical ensemble. Opera started in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with Jacopo Peri's lost Dafne, produced in Florence around 1597) and soon The Palais Garnier of the Paris Opra, one of the world's most famous opera spread through the rest of Europe: Schtz in houses. Germany, Lully in France, and Purcell in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century. In the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, except France, attracting foreign composers such as Handel. Opera seria was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until Gluck reacted against its artificiality with his "reform" operas in the 1760s. Today the most renowned figure of late 18th century opera is Mozart, who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian comic operas, especially The Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, and Cos fan tutte, as well as The Magic Flute, a landmark in the German tradition. The first third of the 19th century saw the highpoint of the bel canto style, with Rossini, Donizetti and Bellini all creating works that are still performed today. It also saw the advent of Grand Opera typified by the works of Meyerbeer. The mid-to-late 19th century was a "golden age" of opera, led and dominated by Wagner in Germany and Verdi in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the verismo era in Italy and contemporary French opera through to Puccini and Strauss in the early 20th century. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, particularly in Russia and Bohemia. The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as atonality and serialism (Schoenberg and Berg), Neoclassicism (Stravinsky), and

Opera Minimalism (Philip Glass and John Adams). With the rise of recording technology, singers such as Enrico Caruso became known to audiences beyond the circle of opera fans. Operas were also performed on (and written for) radio and television.

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Operatic terminology
The words of an opera are known as the libretto (literally "little book"). Some composers, notably Richard Wagner, have written their own libretti; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e.g. Mozart with Lorenzo Da Ponte. Traditional opera, often referred to as "number opera", consists of two modes of singing: recitative, the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech,[3] and aria (an "air" or formal song) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style. Duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action. In some forms of opera, such as Singspiel, opra comique, operetta, and semi-opera, the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, recitative, are also referred to as arioso. During the Baroque and Classical periods, recitative could appear in two basic forms: secco (dry) recitative, accompanied only by continuo, which was usually a harpsichord and a cello; or accompagnato (also known as strumentato) in which the orchestra provided accompaniment. By the 19th century, accompagnato had gained the upper hand, the orchestra played a much bigger role, and Richard Wagner revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed "endless melody". Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner's example, though some, such as Stravinsky in his The Rake's Progress have bucked the trend. The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail below.[4]

History
Origins
The word opera means "work" in Italian (it is the plural of Latin opus meaning "work" or "labour") suggesting that it combines the arts of solo and choral singing, declamation, acting and dancing in a staged spectacle. Dafne by Jacopo Peri was the earliest composition considered opera, as understood today. It was written around 1597, largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who gathered as the "Camerata de' Bardi". Significantly, Dafne was an attempt to revive the classical Greek drama, part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance. The members of the Camerata considered that the "chorus" parts of Greek dramas were originally sung, and possibly even the entire text of all roles; opera was thus conceived as a way of "restoring" this situation. Dafne is unfortunately lost. A later work by Peri, Euridice, dating from 1600, is the first opera score to have survived to the Claudio Monteverdi present day. The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed, however, goes to Claudio Monteverdi's L'Orfeo, composed for the court of Mantua in 1607.[5] The Mantua court of the Gonzagas, employers of Monteverdi, played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the concerto delle donne (till 1598), but also one of the first actual "opera singers"; Madama Europa.[6]

Opera

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Italian opera
The Baroque era Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long; in 1637 the idea of a "season" (Carnival) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice. Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas, Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria and L'incoronazione di Poppea, for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s. His most important follower Francesco Cavalli helped spread opera throughout Italy. In these early Baroque operas, broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities, sparking the first of opera's many reform movements, sponsored by Venice's Arcadian Academy which came to be associated with the poet Metastasio, whose libretti helped crystallize the genre of opera seria, which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century. Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established, comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called opera buffa.

George Frideric Handel, 1733

Before such elements were forced out of opera seria, many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an "opera-within-an-opera." One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class, newly wealthy, but still less cultured than the nobility, to the public opera houses. These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the commedia dell'arte, (as indeed, such plots had always been) a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy. Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays, operas in the new comic genre of "intermezzi", which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s, were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria. They became so popular, however, that they were soon being offered as separate productions. Opera seria was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form, usually consisting of secco recitative interspersed with long da capo arias. These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of opera seria the singer really became the star. The role of the hero was usually written for the castrato voice; castrati such as Farinelli and Senesino, as well as female sopranos such as Faustina Bordoni, became in great demand throughout Europe as opera seria ruled the stage in every country except France. Indeed, Farinelli was the most famous singer of the 18th century. Italian opera set the Baroque standard. Italian libretti were the norm, even when a German composer like Handel found himself writing for London audiences. Italian libretti remained dominant in the classical period as well, for example in the operas of Mozart, who wrote in Vienna near the century's close. Leading Italian-born composers of opera seria include Alessandro Scarlatti, Vivaldi and Porpora.[7]

Opera Reform: Gluck, the attack on the Metastasian ideal, and Mozart Opera seria had its weaknesses and critics. The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers, and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks. Francesco Algarotti's Essay on the Opera (1754) proved to be an inspiration for Christoph Willibald Gluck's reforms. He advocated that opera seria had to return to basics and that all the various elements music (both instrumental and vocal), ballet, and staging must be subservient to the overriding drama. Several composers of the period, including Niccol Jommelli and Tommaso Traetta, attempted to put these ideals into practice. The first to succeed however, was Gluck. Gluck strove to achieve a "beautiful simplicity". This is evident in his first reform opera, Orfeo ed Euridice, where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout. Gluck's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history. Weber, Mozart and Wagner, in particular, were influenced by his ideals. Mozart, in many ways Gluck's successor, combined a superb sense of drama, harmony, melody, and counterpoint to write a series of comedies, notably Cos fan tutte, The Marriage of Figaro, and Don Giovanni (in collaboration with Lorenzo Da Ponte) which remain among the most-loved, popular and well-known operas today. But Mozart's contribution to opera seria was more mixed; by his time it was dying away, and in spite of such fine works as Idomeneo and La clemenza di Tito, he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again.[8]
Illustration for the scoreof the original Vienna versionof Orfeo ed Euridice(published in Paris, 1764)

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Bel canto, Verdi and verismo The bel canto opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of Rossini, Bellini, Donizetti, Pacini, Mercadante and many others. Literally "beautiful singing", bel canto opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name. Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate, requiring supreme agility and pitch control. Following the bel canto era, a more direct, forceful style was rapidly popularized by Giuseppe Verdi, beginning with his biblical opera Nabucco. Verdi's operas resonated with the growing spirit of Italian nationalism in the post-Napoleonic era, and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement (although his own politics were perhaps not quite so radical). In the early 1850s, Verdi produced his three most popular operas: Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata. But he continued to develop his style, composing perhaps the greatest French Grand Opera, Don Carlos, and ending his career with two Shakespeare-inspired works, Otello and Falstaff, which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century.

Giuseppe Verdi, by Giovanni Boldini, 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)

After Verdi, the sentimental "realistic" melodrama of verismo appeared in Italy. This was a style introduced by Pietro Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana and Ruggero Leoncavallo's Pagliacci that came virtually to dominate the world's opera stages with such popular works as Giacomo Puccini's La bohme, Tosca, and Madama Butterfly. Later Italian composers, such as Berio and Nono, have experimented with modernism.[9]

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German-language opera
The first German opera was Dafne, composed by Heinrich Schtz in 1627, but the music score has not survived. Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century. Nevertheless, native forms developed too. In 1644 Sigmund Staden produced the first Singspiel, a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, the Theater am Gnsemarkt in Hamburg presented German operas by Keiser, Telemann and Handel. Yet many of the major German composers of the time, including Handel himself, as well as Graun, Hasse and later Gluck, chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages, especially Italian. Mozart's Singspiele, Die Entfhrung aus dem Serail (1782) and Die Zauberflte (1791) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera. The tradition was developed in the 19th century by Beethoven with his Fidelio, inspired by the climate of the French Revolution. Carl Maria von Weber established German Romantic opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian bel canto. His Der Freischtz (1821) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere. Other opera composers of the time include Marschner, Schubert, Schumann and Lortzing, but the most significant figure was undoubtedly Wagner.

Illustration inspired by Wagner's music drama Das Rheingold

Wagner was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history. Starting under the influence of Weber and Meyerbeer, he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a Gesamtkunstwerk (a "complete work of art"), a fusion of music, poetry and painting. In his mature music dramas, Tristan und Isolde, Die Meistersinger von Nrnberg, Der Ring des Nibelungen and Parsifal, he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of "endless melody". He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra, creating scores with a complex web of leitmotivs, recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama; Richard Wagner in 1871 and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions, such as tonality, in his quest for greater expressivity. Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works, which were usually based on stories from Germanic or Arthurian legend. Finally, Wagner built his own opera house at Bayreuth, exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted. Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden. On the other hand, Richard Strauss accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions. He first won fame with the scandalous Salome and the dark tragedy Elektra, in which tonality was pushed to the limits. Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success, Der Rosenkavalier, where Mozart and Viennese waltzes became as important an influence as Wagner. Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works, often with libretti by the poet Hugo von Hofmannsthal, right up until Capriccio in 1942. Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include Zemlinsky, Hindemith, Kurt Weill and the Italian-born Ferruccio Busoni. The operatic innovations of Arnold Schoenberg and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism.[10]

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French opera
In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions, a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian Jean-Baptiste Lully at the court of King Louis XIV. Despite his foreign origin, Lully established an Academy of Music and monopolised French opera from 1672. Starting with Cadmus et Hermione, Lully and his librettist Quinault created tragdie en musique, a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent. Lully's operas also show a concern for expressive recitative which matched the A performance of Lully's opera Armide at the Palais-Royal in 1761 contours of the French language. In the 18th century, Lully's most important successor was Jean-Philippe Rameau, who composed five tragdies en musique as well as numerous works in other genres such as opra-ballet, all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring. After Rameau's death, the German Gluck was persuaded to produce six operas for the Parisian stage in the 1770s. They show the influence of Rameau, but simplified and with greater focus on the drama. At the same time, by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France: opra comique. This was the equivalent of the German singspiel, where arias alternated with spoken dialogue. Notable examples in this style were produced by Monsigny, Philidor and, above all, Grtry. During the Revolutionary period, composers such as Mhul and Cherubini, who were followers of Gluck, brought a new seriousness to the genre, which had never been wholly "comic" in any case. By the 1820s, Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian bel canto, especially after the arrival of Rossini in Paris. Rossini's Guillaume Tell helped found the new genre of Grand Opera, a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner, Giacomo Meyerbeer. Meyerbeer's works, such as Les Huguenots emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects. Lighter opra comique also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of Boeldieu, Auber, Hrold and Adolphe Adam. In this climate, the operas of the French-born composer Hector Berlioz struggled to gain a hearing. Berlioz's epic masterpiece Les Troyens, the culmination of the Gluckian tradition, was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years. In the second half of the 19th century, Jacques Offenbach created operetta with witty and cynical works such as Orphe aux enfers, as well as the opera Les Contes d'Hoffmann; Charles Gounod scored a massive success with Faust; and Bizet composed Carmen, which, once audiences learned to accept its blend of Romanticism and realism, became the most popular of all opra comiques. Massenet, Saint-Sans and Delibes all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory. At the same time, the influence of Richard Wagner was felt as a challenge to the French tradition. Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success. Perhaps the most interesting response came from Claude Debussy. As in Wagner's works, the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy's unique opera Pellas et Mlisande (1902) and there are no real arias, only recitative. But the drama is understated, enigmatic and completely unWagnerian. Other notable 20th century names include Ravel, Dukas, Roussel and Milhaud. Francis Poulenc is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas (which include Dialogues des carmlites) have gained a foothold in the international repertory. Olivier Messiaen's lengthy sacred drama Saint Franois d'Assise (1983) has also attracted widespread attention.[11]

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English-language opera
In England, opera's antecedent was the 17th century jig. This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play. It was frequently libellous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes. In this respect, jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century. At the same time, the French masque was gaining a firm hold at the English Court, with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before. Inigo Jones became the quintessential designer of these productions, and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries. These masques contained songs and dances. In Ben Jonson's Lovers Made Men (1617), "the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner, stilo recitativo".[12] The approach of the English Commonwealth closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera. However, in 1656, the dramatist Sir William Davenant produced The Siege of Rhodes. Since his theatre was not licensed to Henry Purcell produce drama, he asked several of the leading composers (Lawes, Cooke, Locke, Coleman and Hudson) to set sections of it to music. This success was followed by The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru (1658) and The History of Sir Francis Drake (1659). These pieces were encouraged by Oliver Cromwell because they were critical of Spain. With the English Restoration, foreign (especially French) musicians were welcomed back. In 1673, Thomas Shadwell's Psyche, patterned on the 1671 'comdie-ballet' of the same name produced by Molire and Jean-Baptiste Lully. William Davenant produced The Tempest in the same year, which was the first musical adaption of a Shakespeare play (composed by Locke and Johnson).[12] About 1683, John Blow composed Venus and Adonis, often thought of as the first true English-language opera. Blow's immediate successor was the better known Henry Purcell. Despite the success of his masterwork Dido and Aeneas (1689), in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative, much of Purcell's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera, but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the semi-opera format, where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play, such as Shakespeare in Purcell's The Fairy-Queen (1692) and Beaumont and Fletcher in The Prophetess (1690) and Bonduca (1696). The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes, which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song. Despite these hindrances, his aim (and that of his collaborator John Dryden) was to establish serious opera in England, but these hopes ended with Purcell's early death at the age of 36. Following Purcell, the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades. A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to Thomas Arne, both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English. Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera, with his greatest success being Thomas and Sally in 1760. His opera Artaxerxes (1762) was the first attempt to set a full-blown opera seria in English and was a huge success, holding the stage until the 1830s. Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera, he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice. His modernized ballad opera, Love in Thomas Arne a Village (1762), began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into the 19th century. Charles Burney wrote that Arne introduced "a light, airy, original, and pleasing melody, wholly different from that of Purcell or Handel, whom all English composers had either pillaged or imitated".

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Besides Arne, the other dominating force in English opera at this time was George Frideric Handel, whose opera serias filled the London operatic stages for decades, and influenced most home-grown composers, like John Frederick Lampe, who wrote using Italian models. This situation continued throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, including in the work of Michael William Balfe, and the operas of the great Italian composers, as well as those of Mozart, Beethoven and Meyerbeer, continued to dominate the musical stage in England. The only exceptions were ballad operas, such as John Gay's The Beggar's Opera (1728), musical burlesques, European operettas, and late Victorian era light operas, notably the Savoy Operas of W. S. Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan, all of which types of musical entertainments frequently spoofed operatic conventions. Sullivan wrote only one grand opera, Ivanhoe (following the efforts of a number of young English composers beginning about 1876),[12] but he claimed that even his light operas constituted part of a school of "English" opera, intended to supplant the The Mikado (Lithograph) French operettas (usually performed in bad translations) that had dominated the London stage from the mid-19th century into the 1870s. London's Daily Telegraph agreed, describing The Yeomen of the Guard as "a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage."[13] In the 20th century, English opera began to assert more independence, with works of Ralph Vaughan Williams and in particular Benjamin Britten, who in a series of works that remain in standard repertory today, revealed an excellent flair for the dramatic and superb musicality. Today composers such as Thomas Ads continue to export English opera abroad.[14] More recently Sir Harrison Birtwistle has emerged as one of Britain's most significant contemporary composers from his first opera Punch and Judy to his most recent critical success in The Minotaur. In the first decade of the 21st century, the librettist of an early Birtwistle opera, Michael Nyman, has been focusing on composing operas, including Facing Goya, Man and Boy: Dada, and Love Counts. Also in the 20th century, American composers like Leonard Bernstein, George Gershwin, Gian Carlo Menotti, Douglas Moore, and Carlisle Floyd began to contribute English-language operas infused with touches of popular musical styles. They were followed by composers such as Philip Glass, Mark Adamo, John Corigliano, Robert Moran, John Coolidge Adams, and Jake Heggie.

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Russian opera
Opera was brought to Russia in the 1730s by the Italian operatic troupes and soon it became an important part of entertainment for the Russian Imperial Court and aristocracy. Many foreign composers such as Baldassare Galuppi, Giovanni Paisiello, Giuseppe Sarti, and Domenico Cimarosa (as well as various others) were invited to Russia to compose new operas, mostly in the Italian language. Simultaneously some domestic musicians like Maksym Berezovsky and Dmitry Bortniansky were sent abroad to learn to write operas. The first opera written in Russian was Tsefal i Prokris by the Italian composer Francesco Araja (1755). The development of Russian-language opera was supported by the Russian composers Vasily Pashkevich, Yevstigney Fomin and Alexey Verstovsky. However, the real birth of Russian opera came with Mikhail Glinka and his two great operas A Life for the Tsar (1836) and Ruslan and Lyudmila (1842). After him in the 19th century in Russia there were written such operatic masterpieces as Rusalka and The Stone Guest by Feodor Chaliapin as Ivan Susanin in Glinka's A Alexander Dargomyzhsky, Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina by Life for the Tsar Modest Mussorgsky, Prince Igor by Alexander Borodin, Eugene Onegin and The Queen of Spades by Pyotr Tchaikovsky, and The Snow Maiden and Sadko by Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov. These developments mirrored the growth of Russian nationalism across the artistic spectrum, as part of the more general Slavophilism movement. In the 20th century the traditions of Russian opera were developed by many composers including Sergei Rachmaninoff in his works The Miserly Knight and Francesca da Rimini, Igor Stravinsky in Le Rossignol, Mavra, Oedipus rex, and The Rake's Progress, Sergei Prokofiev in The Gambler, The Love for Three Oranges, The Fiery Angel, Betrothal in a Monastery, and War and Peace; as well as Dmitri Shostakovich in The Nose and Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, Edison Denisov in L'cume des jours, and Alfred Schnittke in Life with an Idiot and Historia von D. Johann Fausten.[15]

Other national operas

Spain also produced its own distinctive form of opera, known as zarzuela, which had two separate flowerings: one from the mid-17th century through the mid-18th century, and another beginning around 1850. During the late 18th century up until the mid-19th century, Italian opera was immensely popular in Spain, supplanting the native form. Czech composers also developed a thriving national opera movement of their own in the 19th century, starting with Bedich Smetana, who wrote eight operas including the internationally popular The Bartered Bride. Antonn Dvok, most famous for Rusalka, wrote 13 operas; and Leo Janek gained international recognition in the 20th century for his innovative works including Jenfa, The Cunning Little Vixen, and Ka Kabanov. The key figure of Hungarian national opera in the 19th century was Ferenc Erkel, whose works mostly dealt with historical themes. Among his most often performed operas are Hunyadi Lszl and Bnk bn. The most famous modern Hungarian opera is Bla Bartk's Duke Bluebeard's Castle. The best-known composer of Polish national opera was Stanisaw Moniuszko, most celebrated for the opera Straszny Dwr (in English The Haunted Manor).[16] In the 20th century, other operas created by Polish composers included King Roger by Karol Szymanowski and Ubu Rex by Krzysztof Penderecki.

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Contemporary, recent, and Modernist trends

Modernism Perhaps the most obvious stylistic manifestation of modernism in opera is the development of atonality. The move away from traditional tonality in opera had begun with Richard Wagner, and in particular the Tristan chord. Composers such as Richard Strauss, Claude Debussy, Giacomo Puccini, Paul Hindemith and Hans Pfitzner pushed Wagnerian harmony further with a more extreme use of chromaticism and greater use of dissonance. Operatic modernism truly began in the operas of two Viennese composers, Arnold Schoenberg and his student Alban Berg, both composers and advocates of atonality and its later development (as worked out by Schoenberg), dodecaphony. Schoenberg's early musico-dramatic works, Erwartung (1909, premiered in 1924) and Die glckliche Hand display heavy use of chromatic harmony and dissonance in general. Schoenberg also occasionally used Sprechstimme, which he described as: "The voice rising and falling relative to the indicated intervals, and everything being bound together with the time and rhythm of the music except where a pause is indicated". The two operas of Schoenberg's pupil Alban Berg, Wozzeck (1925) and Lulu (incomplete at his death in 1935) share many of the same characteristics as described above, though Berg combined his highly personal interpretation of Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique with melodic passages of a more traditionally tonal nature (quite Mahlerian in character) which perhaps partially explains why his operas have remained in standard Arnold Schoenberg in 1917. Portrait by Egon Schiele. repertory, despite their controversial music and plots. Schoenberg's theories have influenced (either directly or indirectly) significant numbers of opera composers ever since, even if they themselves did not compose using his techniques. Composers thus influenced include the Englishman Benjamin Britten, the German Hans Werner Henze, and the Russian Dmitri Shostakovich. (Philip Glass also makes use of atonality, though his style is generally described as minimalist, usually thought of as another 20th century development.) However, operatic modernism's use of atonality also sparked a backlash in the form of neoclassicism. An early leader of this movement was Ferruccio Busoni, who in 1913 wrote the libretto for his neoclassical number opera Arlecchino (first performed in 1917).[17] Also among the vanguard was the Russian Igor Stravinsky. After composing music for the Diaghilev-produced ballets Petrushka (1911) and The Rite of Spring (1913), Stravinsky turned to neoclassicism, a development culminating in his opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex (1927).[18] Well after his Rimsky-Korsakov-inspired works The Nightingale (1914), and Mavra (1922), Stravinsky continued to ignore serialist technique and eventually wrote a Stravinsky in 1921. full-fledged 18th century-style diatonic number opera The Rake's Progress (1951). His resistance to serialism (which ended at the death of Schoenberg) proved to be an inspiration for many other composers.[19]

Opera Other trends A common trend throughout the 20th century, in both opera and general orchestral repertoire, is the use of smaller orchestras as a cost-cutting measure; the grand Romantic-era orchestras with huge string sections, multiple harps, extra horns, and exotic percussion instruments were no longer feasible. As government and private patronage of the arts decreased throughout the 20th century, new works were often commissioned and performed with smaller budgets, very often resulting in chamber-sized works, and short, one-act operas. Many of Benjamin Britten's operas are scored for as few as 13 instrumentalists; Mark Adamo's two-act realization of Little Women is scored for 18 instrumentalists. Another feature of 20th century opera is the emergence of contemporary historical operas, sometimes known as "headline opera" or "CNN opera" for their ripped-from-the-evening-news aspects. The Death of Klinghoffer, Nixon in China and Doctor Atomic by John Adams, and Dead Man Walking by Jake Heggie exemplify the dramatisation on stage of events in recent living memory, where characters portrayed in the opera were alive at the time of the premiere performance. Earlier models of opera generally stuck to more distant history, re-telling contemporary fictional stories (reworkings of popular plays), or mythical/legendary stories.[20] The Metropolitan Opera in the US reports that the average age of its audience is now 60. Many opera companies have experienced a similar trend, and opera company websites are replete with attempts to attract a younger audience. This trend is part of the larger trend of greying audiences for classical music since the last decades of the 20th century.[21] In an effort to attract younger audiences, the Metropolitan Opera offers a student discount on ticket purchases.[22] Major opera companies have been better able to weather the funding cutbacks, because they can afford to hire star singers which draw substantial audiences who want to see if their favourite singer will be able to hit their high "money notes" in the show. Smaller companies in the US have a more fragile existence, and they usually depend on a "patchwork quilt" of support from state and local governments, local businesses, and fundraisers. Nevertheless, some smaller companies have found ways of drawing new audiences. Opera Carolina offer discounts and happy hour events to the 2140 year old demographic.[23] In addition to radio and television broadcasts of opera performances, which have had some success in gaining new audiences, broadcasts of live performances in HD to movie theatres have shown the potential to reach new audiences. Since 2006, the Met has broadcast live performances to several hundred movie screens all over the world.[24] In the last 20 years or so, a production style known as Eurotrash has taken root in Europe and, to a smaller, extent, in North America. Eurotrash stagings typically change the opera's time and place, are usually sexually explicit (with an emphasis on what might be considered perversion), and may mix costumes from different eras. Directors David Alden and his twin brother Christopher Alden have taken credit for pioneering what has come to be called the Eurotrash style. From musicals back towards opera Also by the late 1930s, some musicals began to be written with a more operatic structure. These works include complex polyphonic ensembles and reflect musical developments of their times. Porgy and Bess (1935), influenced by jazz styles, and Candide (1956), with its sweeping, lyrical passages and farcical parodies of opera, both opened on Broadway but became accepted as part of the opera repertory. Show Boat, West Side Story, Brigadoon, Sweeney Todd, Evita, The Light in the Piazza, The Phantom of the Opera and others tell dramatic stories through complex music and are now sometimes seen in opera houses. Some musicals, beginning with Tommy (1969) and Jesus Christ Superstar (1971) and continuing through Les Misrables (1980), Rent (1996) and Spring Awakening (2006), use various operatic conventions, such as through composition, recitative instead of dialogue, leitmotifs and dramatic stories told predominantly through rock, pop or contemporary music.

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Acoustic enhancement with speakers

A subtle type of sound electronic reinforcement called acoustic enhancement is used in some concert halls where operas are performed. Acoustic enhancement systems help give a more even sound in the hall and prevent "dead spots" in the audience seating area by "...augment[ing] a hall's intrinsic acoustic characteristics." The systems use "...an array of microphones connected to a computer [which is] connected to an array of loudspeakers." However, as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems, debates have arisen, because some "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be altered."[25] Kai Harada's article "Opera's Dirty Little Secret" states that opera houses began using electronic acoustic enhancement systems in the 1990s "...to compensate for flaws in a venue's acoustical architecture."[26] Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers, Harada points out that none of the major opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems "...use traditional, Broadway-style sound reinforcement, in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre." Instead, most opera houses use the sound reinforcement system for acoustic enhancement, and for subtle boosting of offstage voices, child singers, onstage dialogue, and sound effects (e.g., church bells in Tosca or thunder effects in Wagnerian operas).

Operatic voices
Operatic voices needed enough volume to compete with the overwhelming volume of the orchestra. In times without electronic devices nor microphones that could amplify them they needed special techniques to make sure the people in the end rows of the theatre could enjoy them as much as the front rows did. Therefore a singing technique was developed to make sure they could stand out in the bombast of the orchestra, without the musicians having to compromise in volume.

Vocal classifications
Singers and the roles they play are classified by voice type, based on the tessitura, agility, power and timbre of their voices. Male singers can be loosely classified by vocal range as bass, bass-baritone, baritone, tenor and countertenor, and female singers as contralto, mezzo-soprano and soprano. (Men sometimes sing in the "female" vocal ranges, in which case they are termed sopranist or countertenor. Of these, only the countertenor is commonly encountered in opera, sometimes singing parts written for castrati men neutered at a young age specifically to give them a higher singing range.) Singers are then classified by voice type for instance, a soprano can be described as a lyric soprano, coloratura, soubrette, spinto, or dramatic soprano. These terms, although not fully describing a singing voice, associate the singer's voice with the roles most suitable to the singer's vocal characteristics. A particular singer's voice may change drastically over his or her lifetime, rarely reaching vocal maturity until the third decade, and sometimes not until middle age.

Historical use of voice parts

The following is only intended as a brief overview. For the main articles, see soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, tenor, baritone, bass, countertenor and castrato. The soprano voice has typically been used as the voice of choice for the female protagonist of the opera since the latter half of the 18th century. Earlier, it was common for that part to be sung by any female voice, or even a castrato. The current emphasis on a wide vocal range was primarily an invention of the Classical period. Before that, the vocal virtuosity, not range, was the priority, with soprano parts rarely extending above a high A (Handel, for example, only wrote one role extending to a high C), though the castrato Farinelli was alleged to possess a top D (his lower range was also extraordinary, extending to tenor C). The mezzo-soprano, a term of comparatively recent origin, also has a large repertoire, ranging from the female lead in Purcell's Dido and Aeneas to such heavyweight roles as Brangne in

Opera Wagner's Tristan und Isolde (these are both roles sometimes sung by sopranos; there is quite a lot of movement between these two voice-types). For the true contralto, the range of parts is more limited, which has given rise to the insider joke that contraltos only sing "witches, bitches, and britches" roles. In recent years many of the "trouser roles" from the Baroque era, originally written for women, and those originally sung by castrati, have been reassigned to countertenors. The tenor voice, from the Classical era onwards, has traditionally been assigned the role of male protagonist. Many of the most challenging tenor roles in the repertory were written during the bel canto era, such as Donizetti's sequence of 9 Cs above middle C during La fille du rgiment. With Wagner came an emphasis on vocal heft for his protagonist roles, with this vocal category described as Heldentenor; this heroic voice had its more Italianate counterpart in such roles as Calaf in Puccini's Turandot. Basses have a long history in opera, having been used in opera seria in supporting roles, and sometimes for comic relief (as well as providing a contrast to the preponderance of high voices in this genre). The bass repertoire is wide and varied, stretching from the comedy of Leporello in Don Giovanni to the nobility of Wotan in Wagner's Ring Cycle. In between the bass and the tenor is the baritone, which also varies in weight from say, Guglielmo in Mozart's Cos fan tutte to Posa in Verdi's Don Carlos; the actual designation "baritone" was not used until the mid-19th century.

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Famous singers
Early performances of opera were too infrequent for singers to make a living exclusively from the style, but with the birth of commercial opera in the mid-17th century, professional performers began to emerge. The role of the male hero was usually entrusted to a castrato, and by the 18th century, when Italian opera was performed throughout Europe, leading castrati who possessed extraordinary vocal virtuosity, such as Senesino and Farinelli, became international stars. The career of the first major female star (or prima donna), Anna Renzi, dates to the mid-17th century. In the 18th century, a number of Italian sopranos gained international renown and often engaged in fierce rivalry, as was the case with Faustina Bordoni and Francesca Cuzzoni, who started a fist fight with one another during a performance of a Handel opera. The French disliked castrati, preferring their male heroes to be sung by a haute-contre (a high tenor), of which Joseph Legros was a leading example.[27]

The castrato Senesino, c. 1720

Though opera patronage has decreased in the last century in favor of other arts and media (such as musicals, cinema, radio, television and recordings), mass media and the advent of recording have supported the popularity of many famous singers including Maria Callas, Enrico Caruso, Kirsten Flagstad, Mario Del Monaco, Ris Stevens, Alfredo Kraus, Franco Corelli, Montserrat Caball, Joan Sutherland, Birgit Nilsson, Nellie Melba, Rosa Ponselle, Beniamino Gigli, Jussi Bjrling, Feodor Chaliapin, and "The Three Tenors" (Luciano Pavarotti, Plcido Domingo, and Jos Carreras).

Opera

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Funding of opera
Outside the US, and especially in Europe, most opera houses receive public subsidies from taxpayers.[28] For example, in Milan, Italy, 60% of La Scala's annual budget of 115 million is from sales and private donations, with the remaining 40% coming from public funds.[29] In 2005, La Scala received 25% of Italy's total state subsidy of 464 million for the performing arts.[30]

Cinema
Major opera houses and production companies have begun broadcasting their performances to local cinemas throughout the United States and in many other countries. The Metropolitan Opera, first opened in 1883, began high-definition television transmissions in 2006.[31] Many of its performances are also shown live in movie theaters around the world. In 2007, Met performances were shown in over 424 theaters in 350 U.S. cities. La bohme went out to 671 screens worldwide. The Met remains the only company that transmits all of its performances live, although in many cases this is only via radio broadcast. San Francisco Opera, founded in 1923, began prerecorded broadcasts in March 2008. As of June 2008, approximately 125 theaters in 117 U.S. cities carry the broadcast. Their distribution company, Bigger Picture, screens the operas with the same HD digital cinema projectors used for major Hollywood films.[32] European opera houses and festivals such as La Scala in Milan, the Salzburg Festival, La Fenice in Venice and the Maggio Musicale in Florence have also broadcast their productions to 91 theaters in 90 U.S. cities since 2006.[33] [34] The emergence of the Internet is also seemingly affecting the way in which audiences consume opera. In a first for the genre, in 2009 British Opera house Glyndebourne made available online a full digital video download of Wagners Tristan und Isolde, filmed two years previously.[35]

References
Notes
[1] Some definitions of opera: "dramatic performance or composition of which music is an essential part, branch of art concerned with this" (Concise Oxford English Dictionary); "any dramatic work that can be sung (or at times declaimed or spoken) in a place for performance, set to original music for singers (usually in costume) and instrumentalists" (Amanda Holden, Viking Opera Guide); "musical work for the stage with singing characters, originated in early years of 17th century" (Pears Cyclopaedia, 1983 ed.). [2] Comparable art forms from various other parts of the world, many of them ancient in origin, are also sometimes called "opera" by analogy, usually prefaced with an adjective indicating the region (for example, Chinese opera). These independent traditions are not derivative of Western opera, but are rather distinct forms of musical theatre. Opera is also not the only type of Western musical theatre: in the ancient world, Greek drama featured singing and instrumental accompaniment; and in modern times, other forms such as the musical have appeared. [3] Apel, p. 718. [4] General information in this section comes from the relevant articles in The Oxford Companion to Music, by. P.Scholes (10th ed., 1968). [5] Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapter 1; articles on Peri and Monteverdi in The Viking Opera Guide. [6] Karin Pendle Women and music 2001 p65 "From 15871600 a Jewish singer cited only as Madama Europa was in the pay of the Duke of Mantua," [7] Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 13. [8] Man and Music: the Classical Era, ed. Neal Zaslaw (Macmillan, 1989); entries on Gluck and Mozart in The Viking Opera Guide. [9] Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 5, 8 and 9. Viking Opera Guide entry on Verdi. [10] General outline for this section from The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 13, 6, 8 and 9, and The Oxford Companion to Music; more specific references from the individual composer entries in The Viking Opera Guide. [11] General outline for this section from The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 14, 8 and 9; and The Oxford Companion to Music (10th ed., 1968); more specific references from the individual composer entries in The Viking Opera Guide. [12] From Webrarian.com's (http:/ / www. webrarian. co. uk/ ivanhoe/ ivan01. html) Ivanhoe site. [13] the Daily Telegraph's review of Yeomen stated, "The accompaniments... are delightful to hear, and especially does the treatment of the woodwind compel admiring attention. Schubert himself could hardly have handled those instruments more deftly. ...we have a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage. (quoted at p. 312 in Allen, Reginald (1975). The First Night Gilbert and Sullivan. London: Chappell & Co. Ltd.). Sullivan produced a few light operas in the 1890s that were of a more serious nature than those in the G&S series, including Haddon Hall and The Beauty Stone, but Ivanhoe (which ran for 155 consecutive performances, using alternating casts a record until Broadway's La bohme) survives as his only Grand Opera. [14] Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 1, 3 and 9. The Viking Opera Guide articles on Blow, Purcell and Britten.

Opera
[15] Taruskin, Richard: Russia in 'The New Grove Dictionary of Opera', ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992); Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapters 79. [16] See the chapter on "Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian Opera to 1900" by John Tyrrell in The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera (1994). [17] Chris Walton, "Neo-classical opera" in Cooke, p. 108. [18] Stravinsky had already turned away from the modernist trends of his early ballets to produce small-scale works that do not fully qualify as opera, yet certainly contain many operatic elements, including Renard (1916: "a burlesque in song and dance") and The Soldier's Tale (1918: "to be read, played, and danced"; in both cases the descriptions and instructions are those of the composer). In the latter, the actors declaim portions of speech to a specified rhythm over instrumental accompaniment, peculiarly similar to the older German genre of Melodrama. [19] Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapter 8; The Viking Opera Guide articles on Schoenberg, Berg and Stravinsky; Malcolm MacDonald Schoenberg (Dent,1976); Francis Routh, Stravinsky (Dent, 1975). [20] However, something similar happened in French opera during the Revolutionary era. One example is Gossec's Le triomphe de la Rpublique (1793), depicting the French victory at Valmy the previous year. Such works were obviously intended as propaganda. [21] General reference for this section: Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, Chapter 9. [22] "Information about Metropolitan Opera Company student discounts" (http:/ / www. metoperafamily. org/ metopera/ about/ education/ student. aspx). Metoperafamily.org. . Retrieved 2010-11-09. [23] Opera Carolina discount information (http:/ / www. operayoungprofessionals. org/ ) [24] "On Air & On Line: 200708 HD Season" (http:/ / www. metoperafamily. org/ metopera/ broadcast/ hd_events_alternates. aspx). The Metropolitan Opera. 2007. . Retrieved 10 April 2008. [25] Kai Harada, "Why do you need a Sound System?" (http:/ / harada-sound. com/ sound/ handbook/ intro2. html), harada-sound.com, 2005 [26] Kai Harada, "Opera's Dirty Little Secret" (http:/ / industryclick. com/ magazinearticle. asp?releaseid=5643& magazinearticleid=66853& siteid=15& magazineid=138), Entertainment Design, 1 March 2001 [27] The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera (ed. Parker, 1994), Chapter 11 [28] "Special report: Private money for the arts," (http:/ / www. economist. com/ world/ displaystory. cfm?story_id=E1_SPJPNP) The Economist, 6 August 2001 [29] Owen, Richard (26 May 2010). "Is it curtains for Italys opera houses" (http:/ / entertainment. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ arts_and_entertainment/ stage/ opera/ article7136329. ece). The Times (London). . [30] Willey, David (27 October 2005). "Italy facing opera funding crisis" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ entertainment/ 4381128. stm). BBC News. . [31] Metropolitan Opera (http:/ / www. metopera. org/ hdlive) high-definition live broadcast page [32] "The Bigger Picture" (http:/ / www. thebiggerpicture. us/ opera). Thebiggerpicture.us. . Retrieved 2010-11-09. [33] Emerging Pictures (http:/ / opera. emergingpictures. com) [34] "Where to See Opera at the Movies" sidebar p. W10 in June 2122, 2008 The Wall Street Journal. [35] "Tristan und Isolde Download Tristan und Isolde" (http:/ / www. glyndebourne. com/ operas/ tristan_und_isolde/ download). Glyndebourne. 2007-08-06. . Retrieved 2010-11-09.

62

Main sources Apel, Willi, ed. (1969). Harvard Dictionary of Music, Second Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. SBN 674375017. Cooke, Mervyn (2005). The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78009-8. See also Google Books partial preview (http://books.google.com/ books?id=fovWU9Prkj0C&lpg=PA110&ots=gIao4R-VZr&dq=Number opera&pg=PA108#v=onepage& q=Number opera&f=false). Accessed 3 October 2009. Silke Leopold, "The Idea of National Opera, c. 1800", United and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800, ed. Tim Blanning and Hagen Schulze (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1934. The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, edited by Stanley Sadie (1992), 5,448 pages, is the best, and by far the largest, general reference in the English language. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 and ISBN 1-56159-228-5 The Viking Opera Guide (1994), 1,328 pages, ISBN 0-670-81292-7 The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera, ed. Roger Parker (1994) The Oxford Dictionary of Opera, by John Warrack and Ewan West (1992), 782 pages, ISBN 0-19-869164-5 Opera, the Rough Guide, by Matthew Boyden et al. (1997), 672 pages, ISBN 1-85828-138-5 Opera: A Concise History, by Leslie Orrey and Rodney Milnes, World of Art, Thames & Hudson Other sources DiGaetani, John Louis: An Invitation to the Opera, Anchor Books, 1986/91. ISBN 0-385-26339-2.

Opera MacMurray, Jessica M. and Allison Brewster Franzetti: The Book of 101 Opera Librettos: Complete Original Language Texts with English Translations, Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 1996. ISBN 9781884822797 Simon, Henry W.: A Treasury of Grand Opera, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1946.

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External links
Operabase Comprehensive opera performances database (http://operabase.com) StageAgent synopses & character descriptions for most major operas (http://www.stageagent.com/browse/ showtype/opera) What's it about? Opera plot summaries (http://www.opera-opera.com.au/plotind.htm) Vocabulaire de l'Opra (http://operamusique.googlepages.com/) (French) OperaGlass, a resource at Stanford University (http://opera.stanford.edu/main.html) HistoricOpera historic operatic images (http://www.historicopera.com) "Americas Opera Boom" (http://www.american.com/archive/2007/july-august-magazine-contents/ america2019s-opera-boom) By Jonathan Leaf, The American, July/August 2007 Issue Opera~Opera article archives (http://www.opera-opera.com.au/archives.htm) "A History of Opera" (http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/o/opera/). Theatre and Performance. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 2011-15-02.

Aria
An aria (Italian for air; plural: arie or arias in common usage) in music was originally any expressive melody, usually, but not always, performed by a singer. The term is now used almost exclusively to describe a self-contained piece for one voice usually with orchestral accompaniment. Perhaps the most common context for arias is opera, although there are many arias that form movements of oratorios and cantatas. Composers also wrote concert arias, which are not part of any larger work, such as "Ah perfido" by Beethoven, and a number of concert arias by Mozart, such as "Conservati fedele". The aria first appeared in the 14th century when it signified a manner or style of singing or playing. Aria could also mean a melodic scheme (motif) or pattern for singing a poetic pattern, such as a sonnet. It was also attached to instrumental music, though this is no longer the case. Over time, arias evolved from simple melodies into a structured form. In the 17th century, the aria was written in ternary form (ABA); these arias were known as da capo arias. The aria later "invaded" the opera repertoire with its many sub-species (Aria cantabile, Aria agitata, Aria di bravura, and so on). By the mid-19th century, many operas became a sequence of arias, reducing the space left for recitative, while other operas (for instance those by Wagner) were entirely through-composed, with no section being readily identifiable as a self-contained aria. An arietta is a short aria.

Notable arias

Aria

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Voice type soprano

Aria O mio babbino caro S, mi chiamano Mim Vissi d'arte Der Hlle Rache Song to the Moon Summertime Glitter and Be Gay Sempre libera

Opera Gianni Schicchi La bohme Tosca The Magic Flute Rusalka Porgy and Bess Candide La traviata Carmen Samson and Delilah

Composer Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Puccini Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Antonn Dvok George Gershwin Leonard Bernstein Giuseppe Verdi Georges Bizet Camille Saint-Sans

mezzo-soprano Habanera Mon cur s'ouvre ta voix Voi, che sapete Ombra mai fu contralto Ah, Tanya, Tanya Weiche, Wotan, weiche Lullaby tenor Celeste Aida Ch'ella m creda libero E lucevan le stelle La donna mobile Nessun dorma Una furtiva lagrima Vesti la giubba baritone Largo al factotum Votre toast (Toreador song) Der Vogelfnger bin ich ja Die Frist ist um

The Marriage of Figaro Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Serse Eugene Onegin Das Rheingold The Consul Aida La fanciulla del West Tosca Rigoletto Turandot L'elisir d'amore Pagliacci The Barber of Seville Carmen The Magic Flute The Flying Dutchman George Frideric Handel Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky Richard Wagner Gian Carlo Menotti Giuseppe Verdi Giacomo Puccini Giacomo Puccini Giuseppe Verdi Giacomo Puccini Gaetano Donizetti Ruggero Leoncavallo Gioachino Rossini Georges Bizet Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Richard Wagner Giuseppe Verdi

Tutto e deserto... Il balen del suo sorriso Il trovatore bass Non pi andrai O Isis und Osiris Madamina, il catalogo questo Hier sitz ich zur Wacht

The Marriage of Figaro Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart The Magic Flute Don Giovanni Gtterdmmerung Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Richard Wagner

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External links
The Aria Database [1]

References
[1] http:/ / www. aria-database. com/

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Phonation
Phonation
Glottal states From open to closed: Voiceless (full airstream) Breathy voice (murmur) Slack voice Modal voice (maximum vibration) Stiff voice Creaky voice (restricted airstream) Glottalized (blocked airstream) Supra-glottal phonation Faucalized voice ("hollow") Harsh voice ("pressed") Strident (harsh trilled) Non-phonemic phonation Whisper Falsetto

Phonation has slightly different meanings depending on the subfield of phonetics. Among some phoneticians, phonation is the process by which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasi-periodic vibration. This is the definition used among those who study laryngeal anatomy and physiology and speech production in general. Other phoneticians, though, call this process quasi-periodic vibration voicing, and they use the term phonation to refer to any oscillatory state of any part of the larynx that modifies the airstream, of which voicing is just one example. As such, voiceless and supra-glottal phonation are included under this definition, which is common in the field of linguistic phonetics.

Voicing
The phonatory process, or voicing, occurs when air is expelled from the lungs through the glottis, creating a pressure drop across the larynx. When this drop becomes sufficiently large, the vocal folds start to oscillate. The minimum pressure drop required to achieve phonation is called the phonation threshold pressure, and for humans with normal vocal folds, it is approximately 23cm H2O. The motion of the vocal folds during oscillation is mostly lateral, though there is also some superior component as well. However, there is almost no motion along the length of the vocal folds. The oscillation of the vocal folds serves to modulate the pressure and flow of the air through the larynx, and this modulated airflow is the main component of the sound of most voiced phones. The sound that the larynx produces is a harmonic series. In other words, it consists of a fundamental tone (called the fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch) accompanied by harmonic overtones, which are multiples of the fundamental frequency[1] .[2] According to the Source-Filter Theory, the resulting sound excites the resonance chamber that is the vocal tract to produce the individual speech sounds.[3] [4] The vocal folds will not oscillate if they are not sufficiently close to one another, are not under sufficient tension or under too much tension, or if the pressure drop across the larynx is not sufficiently large. In linguistics, a phone is

Phonation called voiceless if there is no phonation during its occurrence.[4] In speech, voiceless phones are associated with vocal folds that are elongated, highly tensed, and placed laterally (abducted) when compared to vocal folds during phonation.[5] Fundamental frequency, the main acoustic cue for the percept pitch, can be varied through a variety of means. Large scale changes are accomplished by increasing the tension in the vocal folds through contraction of the cricothyroid muscle. Smaller changes in tension can be effected by contraction of the thyroarytenoid muscle or changes in the relative position of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages, as may occur when the larynx is lowered or raised, either volitionally or through movement of the tongue to which the larynx is attached via the hyoid bone.[5] In addition to tension changes, fundamental frequency is also affected by the pressure drop across the larynx, which is mostly affected by the pressure in the lungs, and will also vary with the distance between the vocal folds. Variation in fundamental frequency is used linguistically to produce intonation and tone. There are currently two main theories as to how vibration of the vocal folds is initiated: the myoelastic theory and the aerodynamic theory.[6] These two theories are not in contention with one another and it is quite possible that both theories are true and operating simultaneously to initiate and maintain vibration. A third theory, the neurochronaxic theory, was in considerable vogue in the 1950s, but has since been largely discredited.[7]

67

Myoelastic and aerodynamic theory

The myoelastic theory states that when the vocal cords are brought together and breath pressure is applied to them, the cords remain closed until the pressure beneath themthe subglottic pressureis sufficient to push them apart, allowing air to escape and reducing the pressure enough for the muscle tension recoil to pull the folds back together again. Pressure builds up once again until the cords are pushed apart, and the whole cycle keeps repeating itself. The rate at which the cords open and closethe number of cycles per seconddetermines the pitch of the phonation.[7] The aerodynamic theory is based on the Bernoulli energy law in fluids. The theory states that when a stream of breath is flowing through the glottis while the arytenoid cartilages are held together by the action of the interarytenoid muscles, a push-pull effect is created on the vocal fold tissues that maintains self-sustained oscillation. The push occurs during glottal opening, when the glottis is convergent, whereas the pull occurs during glottal closing, when the glottis is divergent. During glottal closure, the air flow is cut off until breath pressure pushes the folds apart and the flow starts up again, causing the cycles to repeat.[7] The textbook entitled Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation[6] by Ingo Titze credits Janwillem van den Berg as the originator of the theory and provides detailed mathematical development of the theory.

Neurochronaxic theory
This theory states that the frequency of the vocal fold vibration is determined by the chronaxy of the recurrent nerve, and not by breath pressure or muscular tension. Advocates of this theory thought that every single vibration of the vocal folds was due to an impulse from the recurrent laryngeal nerves and that the acoustic center in the brain regulated the speed of vocal fold vibration.[7] Speech and voice scientists have long since left this theory as the muscles have been shown to not be able to contract fast enough to accomplish the vibration. In addition, persons with paralyzed vocal folds can produce phonation, which would not be possible according to this theory. Phonation occurring in excised larynges would also not be possible according to this theory.

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State of the glottis

In linguistic phonetic treatments of phonation, such as those of Peter Ladefoged, phonation was considered to be a matter of points on a continuum of tension and closure of the vocal cords. More intricate mechanisms were occasionally described, but they were difficult to investigate, and until recently the state of the glottis and phonation were considered to be nearly synonymous.[8]

A continuum from closed glottis to open. The black triangles represent the arytenoid cartilages, the sail shapes the vocal cords, and the dotted circle the windpipe.

If the vocal cords are completely relaxed, with the arytenoid cartilages apart for maximum airflow, the cords do not vibrate. This is voiceless phonation, and is extremely common with obstruents. If the arytenoids are pressed together for glottal closure, the vocal cords block the airstream, producing stop sounds such as the glottal stop. In between there is a sweet spot of maximum vibration. This is modal voice, and is the normal state for vowels and sonorants in all the world's languages. However, the aperture of the arytenoid cartilages, and therefore the tension in the vocal cords, is one of degree between the end points of open and closed, and there are several intermediate situations utilized by various languages to make contrasting sounds.[8] For example, Gujarati has vowels with a partially lax phonation called breathy voice or murmured, while Burmese has vowels with a partially tense phonation called creaky voice or laryngealized. Both of these phonations have dedicated IPA diacritics, an under-umlaut and under-tilde. The Jalapa dialect of Mazatec is unusual in contrasting both with modal voice in a three-way distinction. (Note that Mazatec is a tonal language, so the glottis is making several tonal distinctions simultaneously with the phonation distinctions.)[8]
Mazatec breathy voice [ja] he wears modal voice creaky voice [j] tree [ja] he carries

Note: There was an editing error in the source of this information. The latter two translations may have been mixed up. Javanese does not have modal voice in its plosives, but contrasts two other points along the phonation scale, with more moderate departures from modal voice, called slack voice and stiff voice. The "muddy" consonants in Shanghainese are slack voice; they contrast with tenuis and aspirated consonants.[8] Although each language may be somewhat different, it is convenient to classify these degrees of phonation into discrete categories. A series of seven alveolar plosives, with phonations ranging from an open/lax to a closed/tense glottis, are:

Phonation

69

Open glottis

[t] [d] [d]

voiceless (full airstream) breathy voice slack voice modal voice (maximum vibration) stiff voice creaky voice

Sweet spot

[d] [d] [d]

Closed glottis [t] glottal closure (blocked airstream)

The IPA diacritics under-ring and subscript wedge, commonly called "voiceless" and "voiced", are sometimes added to the symbol for a voiced sound to indicate more lax/open (slack) and tense/closed (stiff) states of the glottis, respectively. (Ironically, adding the 'voicing' diacritic to the symbol for a voiced consonant indicates less modal voicing, not more, because a modally voiced sound is already fully voiced, at its sweet spot, and any further tension in the vocal cords dampens their vibration.)[8] Alsatian, like several Germanic languages, has a typologically unusual phonation in its stops. The consonants transcribed /b/, /d/, // (ambiguously called "lenis") are partially voiced: The vocal cords are positioned as for voicing, but do not actually vibrate. That is, they are technically voiceless, but without the open glottis usually associated with voiceless stops. They contrast with both modally voiced /b, d, / and modally voiceless /p, t, k/ in French borrowings, as well as aspirated /k/ word initially.[8]

Glottal consonants
It has long been noted that in many languages, both phonologically and historically, the glottal consonants [, , h] do not behave like other consonants. Phonetically, they have no manner or place of articulation other than the state of the glottis: glottal closure for [], breathy voice for [], and open airstream for [h]. Some phoneticians have described these sounds as neither glottal nor consonantal, but instead as instances of pure phonation, at least in many European languages. However, in Semitic languages they do appear to be true glottal consonants.[8]

Supra-glottal phonation
In the last few decades it has become apparent that phonation may involve the entire larynx, with as many as six valves and muscles working either independently or together. From the glottis upward, these articulations are:[9] 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. glottal (the vocal cords), producing the distinctions described above ventricular (the 'false vocal cords', partially covering and damping the glottis) arytenoid (sphincteric compression forwards and upwards) epiglotto-pharyngeal (retraction of the tongue and epiglottis, potentially closing onto the pharyngeal wall) raising or lowering of the entire larynx narrowing of the pharynx

Until the development of fiber-optic laryngoscopy, the full involvement of the larynx during speech production was not observable, and the interactions among the six laryngeal articulators is still poorly understood. However, at least two supra-glottal phonations appear to be widespread in the world's languages. These are harsh voice ('ventricular' or 'pressed' voice), which involves overall constriction of the larynx, and faucalized voice ('hollow' or 'yawny' voice), which involves overall expansion of the larynx.[9] The Bor dialect of Dinka has contrastive modal, breathy, faucalized, and harsh voice in its vowels, as well as three tones. The ad hoc diacritics employed in the literature are a subscript double quotation mark for faucalized voice, [a], and underlining for harsh voice, [a].[9] Examples are,

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70

Voice Bor Dinka

modal tt

breathy tt

harsh tt

faucalized tt

diarrhea go ahead scorpions to swallow

Other languages with these contrasts are Bai (modal, breathy, and harsh voice), Kabiye (faucalized and harsh voice, previously seen as ATR), Somali (breathy and harsh voice).[9] Elements of laryngeal articulation or phonation may occur widely in the world's languages as phonetic detail even when not phonemically contrastive. For example, simultaneous glottal, ventricular, and arytenoid activity (for something other than epiglottal consonants) has been observed in Tibetan, Korean, Nuuchahnulth, Nlaka'pamux, Thai, Sui, Amis, Pame, Arabic, Tigrinya, Cantonese, and Yi.[9]

Familiar language examples

In languages such as French, all obstruents occur in pairs, one modally voiced and one voiceless. In English, every voiced fricative corresponds to a voiceless one. For the pairs of English plosives, however, the distinction is better specified as voice onset time rather than simply voice: In initial position /b d g/ are only partially voiced (voicing begins during the hold of the consonant), while /p t k/ are aspirated (voicing doesn't begin until well after its release). Certain English morphemes have voiced and voiceless allomorphs, such as the plural, verbal, and possessive endings spelled -s (voiced in kids /kdz/ but voiceless in kits /kts/) and the past-tense ending spelled -ed (voiced in buzzed /bzd/ but voiceless in fished /ft/. A few European languages, such as Finnish, have no phonemically voiced obstruents but pairs of long and short consonants instead. Outside of Europe, a lack of voicing distinctions is not uncommon; indeed, in Australian languages it is nearly universal. In languages without the distinction between voiceless and voiced obstruents, it is often found that they are realized as voiced in voiced environments such as between vowels, and voiceless elsewhere.

Vocal registers
See also Speech register, a subset of a language used in a particular social setting.

In phonology
In phonology, a register is a combination of tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological parameter. For example, among its vowels, Burmese combines modal voice with low tone, breathy voice with falling tone, creaky voice with high tone, and glottal closure with high tone. These four registers contrast with each other, but no other combination of phonation (modal, breath, creak, closed) and tone (high, low, falling) is found.

In pedagogy and speech pathology

Among vocal pedagogues and speech pathologists, a vocal register also refers to a particular phonation limited to a particular range of pitch, which possesses a characteristic sound quality.[10] The term "register" may be used for several distinct aspects of the human voice:[7] : A particular part of the vocal range, such as the upper, middle, or lower registers, which may be bounded by vocal breaks A particular phonation A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice A certain vocal timbre

Phonation Four combinations of these elements are identified in speech pathology: the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register.

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References
[1] Titze, I. R. (2008). The human instrument. Sci.Am. 298 (1):94-101. PM 18225701 [2] Titze, I.R. (1994). Principles of Voice Production, Prentice Hall (currently published by NCVS.org), ISBN 978-0137178933. [3] Lieberman, Philip; Sheila Blumstein (1988). Speech physiology, speech perception, and acoustic phonetics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN0521313570. [4] Greene, Margaret; Lesley Mathieson (2001). The Voice and its Disorders. John Wiley & Sons; 6th Edition edition. ISBN13: 978-1861561961. [5] Zemlin, Willard (1998). Speech and hearing science : anatomy and physiology. Allyn and Bacon; 4th edition. ISBN0138274371. [6] Titze, I. R. (2006).The Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation, Iowa City:National Center for Voice and Speech, 2006. [7] McKinney, James (1994). The Diagnosis and Correction of Vocal Faults. Genovex Music Group. ISBN13: 978-1565939400. [8] Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8. [9] Edmondson, Jerold A.; John H. Esling (2005). "The valves of the throat and their functioning in tone, vocal register, and stress: laryngoscopic case studies". Phonology (Cambridge University Press) 23: 157191. doi:10.1017/S095267570600087X. [10] Large, John (February/March 1972). "Towards an Integrated Physiologic-Acoustic Theory of Vocal Registers". The NATS Bulletin 28: 3035.

External links
Universitt Stuttgart Speech production (http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/phonetik/EGG/page4.htm)

O mio babbino caro

"O mio babbino caro" ("Oh My Dear Papa") is a soprano aria from the opera Gianni Schicchi (1918), by Giacomo Puccini, to a libretto by Giovacchino Forzano. It is sung by Lauretta after tensions between her father Schicchi and the family of Rinuccio, the boy she loves, have reached a breaking point that threatens to separate her from Rinuccio. It provides a contrasting interlude expressing lyrical simplicity and single-hearted love in the atmosphere of hypocrisy, jealousy, double-dealing and feuding in medieval Florence of Puccini's only comedy, and it provides the only set-piece in the through-composed opera.

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The aria was first performed at the premiere of Gianni Schicci on 14 December 1918 at the Metropolitan Opera in New York by the popular Victorian English soprano Florence Easton. It has been sung subsequently by many sopranos. Dame Joan Hammond won a Gold Record in 1969 for 1 million sold copies of this aria.[1] The aria is frequently performed in concerts and as an encore in recitals by many popular and crossover singers; it is used in films and several bands cover the aria in their own style.

Music
The short aria consists of 32 bars and takes between 21/2 and three minutes to perform; it is written in A-flat major with the time signature of 6/8 and a tempo indication of andantino ( =120). The vocal range extends from E4 to A5 with a tessitura of F4 to A5. The 5-bar orchestral prelude consists of octave tremolos by the strings, but many recital arrangements start with a presentation of the melodic theme; the remaining accompaniment uses strings and a harp playing broken chords.

Florence Easton as Lauretta at the world premiere of Gianni Schicchi, 14 December 1918.

Lyrics
Italian O mio babbino caro, mi piace, bello, bello. Vo'andare in Porta Rossa a comperar l'anello! S, s, ci voglio andare! e se l'amassi indarno, andrei sul Ponte Vecchio, ma per buttarmi in Arno! Mi struggo e mi tormento! O Dio, vorrei morir! Babbo, piet, piet! Babbo, piet, piet! Literal translation Oh my dear papa, I love him, he is handsome, handsome. I want to go to Porta Rossa To buy the ring! Yes, yes, I want to go there! And if my love were in vain, I would go to the Ponte Vecchio And throw myself in the Arno! I am anguished and tormented! Oh God, I'd like to die! Papa, have pity, have pity! Papa, have pity, have pity! Singable English Oh my beloved father, I love him, I love him! Ill go to Porta Rossa, To buy our wedding ring. Oh yes, I really love him. And if you still say no, Ill go to Ponte Vecchio, And throw myself below. My love for which I suffer, At last, I want to die. Father I pray, I pray. Father I pray, I pray.

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References
[1] Hammond, Joan (1970). A Voice, a Life. Victor Gollancz. p.238. ISBN0 575 00503 3.

External links
"O mio babbino caro": Free scores at the International Music Score Library Project. "O mio babbino caro" (http://www.aria-database.com/cgi-bin/aria-search.pl?338a) at The Aria Database "O mio babbino caro" (http://www.free-scores.com/download-sheet-music.php?pdf=6939), score (piano and voice) "O mio babbino caro" (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jujyPSq63Jk) on YouTube, sung by Sissel Kyrkjeb at a Royal Gala in the London Coliseum, May 1995.

La donna mobile
"La donna mobile" ("Woman is fickle") is the cynical Duke of Mantua's canzone from Giuseppe Verdi's opera Rigoletto (1851). The inherent irony is that it is the callous playboy Duke himself who is mobile ("inconstant"). Its reprise in the last act is chilling, as Rigoletto realizes from the sound of the Duke's lively voice coming from within the tavern (offstage), that the body in the sack over which he has grimly triumphed is not that of the Duke after all: Rigoletto had paid Sparafucile, an assassin, to kill the Duke but Sparafucile deceived him by killing Gilda, Rigoletto's beloved daughter, instead. The canzone is famous as a showcase for tenors. Raffaele Mirate's performance of the bravura aria at the opera's 1851 premiere was hailed as the highlight of the evening. It has been recorded by Enrico Caruso, Mario Lanza, Plcido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti, Juan Diego Flrez, Jussi Bjrling, Vitas and hundreds of others. Before this song's first public performance (in Venice), it was rehearsed under tight secrecy: a necessary precaution, because it proved to be catchy and soon after its first public performance every gondolier in Venice was singing it.

The music
Jos Carreras, aged 8, in his first public performance, singing La donna Mobile on Spanish National Radio (December 1954).

The almost comical-sounding theme of La donna mobile is introduced immediately, and runs as illustrated (transposed from the original key of B major). The theme is repeated several times in the approximately two minutes it takes to perform the aria, but with the importantand obviousomission of the last bar. This has the effect of driving the music forward as it creates the impression of being incomplete and unresolved, which it is, having left off not on the tonic or dominant but on the submediant. Once the Duke has finished singing, however, the theme is once again repeated; but this time including the last, and conclusive, bar and finally resolving to the tonic. The song is strophic in form with an orchestral ritornello.

La donna mobile

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Libretto
Original Italian La donna mobile Qual piuma al vento, Muta d'accento e di pensiero. Sempre un amabile, Leggiadro viso, In pianto o in riso, menzognero. Refrain La donna mobil qual piuma al vento, Muta d'accento e di pensier! e di pensier! e di pensier! sempre misero Chi a lei s'affida, Chi le confida mal cauto il cuore! Pur mai non sentesi Felice appieno Chi su quel seno non liba amore! 'Refrain La donna mobil qual piuma al vento, Muta d'accento e di pensier! e di pensier! e di pensier! English translation This woman is flighty Like a feather in the wind, She changes in voice and in thought. Always sweet, Pretty face, In tears or in laughter, she is a liar. Refrain The woman is flighty Like a feather in the wind, She changes in voice and in thought, And in thought! And in thought! Always miserable Is he who trusts her, He who confides in her his unwary heart! Yet one never feels Fully happy Who on that bosom does not drink love! 'Refrain Woman is flighty Like a feather in the wind, She changed her words, And her thoughts! And her thoughts! Alternative translation Women are fickle (or erratic/flighty) Like a feather in the wind, They changed her words. (You can't tell what she's really saying or thinking) And lovely face, Graceful visage, (or beautiful face) That in tears or in laughter - is lying. 'Refrain Women are fickle, Like a feather in the wind, They changed her words, and her thought! and her thought! Weeping or laughing, (or wretched) Is lying, He who confides in her - incautious (reckless) his heart! Yet one never feels Fully happy, Who on that bosom/breast, - does not sip/taste love? Refrain Women are fickle, Like a feather in the wind, They change in tone, and in thought, and in thought! and in thought!

In popular culture
In Disney's 1990 short "The Prince and the Pauper" In the film 1992, "The Perfect Husband" The canzone is sung to unsettling effect by the character Richard Benning in Ambrose Bierce's 1893 short story An Adventure at Brownville, including after the suicide of one of Benning's wards. In the 2000 film The Family Man, Jack Campbell (Nicolas Cage) gets dressed and heads out to work while singing this song. In an episode of M*A*S*H, B.J. Hunnicutt sings his version of the song while in the shower. In the 2004 movie The Punisher, a fight scene between Thomas Jane (The Punisher) and Kevin Nash (The Russian) occurs while the song plays and his apartment neighbors sing and dance to the song. The first verse of the song is featured in Rugrats in Paris: The Movie. In the South Park episode "Quintuplets 2000", Kenny sings the canzone while making money for his singing training in Europe. In the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Tinker, Tenor, Doctor, Spy", the holographic doctor sings the first verse while daydreaming that he is in recital for the crew. He "improvises" humorous lyrics to the canzone to trick Tuvok, who is experiencing pon farr, into receiving a medicinal sedative. In Chekhov's 'Three Sisters' Doctor Chebutykin sings snippets throughout. In the video game Grand Theft Auto III this song can be heard on the Double Clef FM radio station.

La donna mobile In the Futurama episode "The 30% Iron Chef", Elzar makes a working pastry replica of downtown Venice. In the model a shrimp rows a gondola down a canal while singing the song. In the episode of The Simpsons titled The Last of the Red Hat Mamas Lisa sings the song with new lyrics. In an episode of Aaahh!!! Real Monsters, Zimbo and the Snorch torture Ickis, Krumm and Oblina by singing this song during the closing credits. In the 1999 film My Favorite Martian Martin the Martian sings the song while in a hot tub. Many football crowd chants/songs are to this tune. Arsenal: one of the fan's songs with lyrics "We've got Cesc Fabregas." West Ham United F.C.: one of the supporters' songs praising striker Paulo di Canio. Aston Villa F.C.: one of the supporters' songs praising Villa striker Gabriel Agbonlahor. Heart of Midlothian F.C.: one of the supporters' songs praising owner Vladimir Romanov. As is the tune "Your ground's too big for you" The Hall Song of Chancellor Hall, University of the West Indies, Mona Campus in Jamaica, is set to the song's tune. In an episode of "Figure it Out Family Style" (19981999), a contestant with the secret "Self Taught Opera Soloist," sings the song as his featured song upon the panel figuring his secret out, while his father helped him out. In "Queer as Folk", Season 3, Ted gets a job as a singing waiter and is embarrassed when his friends show up at the restaurant as he is singing this song. In an episode of Dark Angel, a tall prisoner sings this song in the yard to distract the guards while Max escapes. In the film Hannibal Brooks, Oliver Reed (Brooks) distracts German soldiers by drunkenly singing 'Der Schnapps ist gut, mein Herr' to this melody, in order to make his escape. In the film My Mom's New Boyfriend, the Italian Chef Enrico sings the song while drunkenly serenading Meg Ryan's character near the end of the movie. Ryan's kidnappers comment on his good singing. "The Maestro" is an episode of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld (aired 6 October 1995; episode 113, third episode of season #7). Elaine sings this canzone as she drives away with "the Maestro". In the "Elmo's World" segment of an episode of Sesame Street, Elmo, dressed as a horse, is onstage. He starts singing La donna mobile, but his voice is raspy, and when he stops, he gives the pun "I'm a little hoarse (horse)." Mr Noodle in "Singing" lip syncs the song. In a Weekend Update sketch on Saturday Night Live, Opera Man (played by Adam Sandler) sang the song as a parody of a woman in the news. At the start of the first episode of the Doctor Who story "Doctor Who and the Silurians," the Doctor (Jon Pertwee) attempts to sing the aria while performing repairs on his new antique car Bessie, but can only sing the first line and hums the rest. In another, later Doctor Who story, "The Lodger", the Doctor (Matt Smith) attempts to sing this in the shower. In the 2009 video game Little King's Story, an edited version of the song plays while in the area named "The Ripe Kingdom" before that kingdom is conquered. In the television series I Dream of Jeannie, in the episode "My Master, The Great Caruso [1]" (1966) Major Nelson sings the song using several different Jeannie-modified voices, including a soprano, a basso profondo, a lounge singer, and Betty Boop. In a story from My Friends Tigger & Pooh titled "Symphony for a Rabbit," Rabbit performs an ode to vegetables set to this tune. An abridged version was performed by burlesque opera singer Prince Poppycock for the Las Vegas auditions of the 5th season of America's Got Talent.

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In the animated series The Tick episode "Bloomsday [2]", The Tick sings to calm the 400 year bloom while battling El Seed. Joe McElderry performed the song on the 2nd series of Popstar to Operastar.

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References
[1] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=OjYr2fwr7DE#t=21m45s [2] http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0819535/

Nessun dorma
Nessun dorma (English: None shall sleep)[1] is an aria from the final act of Giacomo Puccini's opera Turandot,[2] and is one of the best-known tenor arias in all opera. It is sung by Calaf, il principe ignoto (the unknown prince), who falls in love at first sight with the beautiful but cold Princess Turandot. However, any man who wishes to wed Turandot must first answer her three riddles; if he fails, he will be beheaded.

Context and analysis

In the act before this aria, Calaf has correctly answered the three riddles put to all of Princess Turandot's prospective suitors. Nonetheless, she recoils at the thought of marriage to him. Calaf offers her another chance by challenging her to guess his name by dawn. (As he kneels before her, the Nessun dorma theme makes a first appearance, to his words, "Il mio nome non sai!") If she does so, she can execute him; but if she does not, she must marry him. The cruel and emotionally cold princess then decrees that none of her subjects shall sleep that night until his name is discovered. If they fail, all will be killed. As the final act opens, it is now night. Calaf is alone in the moonlit palace gardens. In the distance, he hears Turandot's heralds proclaiming her command. His aria begins with an echo of their cry and a reflection on Princess Turandot: "Nessun dorma! Nessun dorma! Tu pure, o Principessa, nella tua fredda stanza, guardi le stelle.. che tremano d'amore, e di speranza!" (English translation: "None shall sleep! None shall sleep! Even you, O Princess, in your cold bedroom, watch the stars.. that tremble with love and with hope!") "Ma il mio mistero chiuso in me; il nome mio nessun sapr! No, No! Sulla tua bocca lo dir quando la luce splender!" ("But my secret is hidden within me; none will know my name! No, no! On your mouth I will say it when the light shines!") "Ed il mio bacio scioglier il silenzio che ti fa mia!" ("And my kiss will dissolve the silence that makes you mine!") Just before the climactic end of the aria, a chorus of women is heard singing in the distance: "Il nome suo nessun sapr... E noi dovrem, ahim, morir, morir!" ("No one will know his name... and we will have to, alas, die, die!") Calaf, now certain of victory, sings: "Dilegua, o notte! Tramontate, stelle! Tramontate, stelle! All'alba vincer! Vincer! Vincer!" ("Vanish, o night! Set, stars! Set, stars! At dawn, I will win! I will win! I will win! ") In performance, the final "Vincer!" features a sustained B4,[3] followed by the final note, an A4 sustained even longeralthough Puccini's score did not explicitly specify that either note be sustained.[4] In the original score, the B is written as an eighth note while the A is a quarter note. Both are high notes in the tenor range. The only recording to follow Puccini's score exactly was the very first, sung by Gina Cigna and Francesco Merli, conducted by Franco Ghione.

Nessun dorma In Alfano's completion of Act 3, the Nessun dorma theme makes a final triumphal appearance at the end of the opera. The theme also makes a concluding reappearance in Luciano Berio's later completion (this having been an expressed intention of Puccini's), but in a more subdued orchestration.

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Recordings
Nessun dorma sung by some of the most famous interpreters of Calaf appear on the following compilation recordings. (For full-length recordings of the opera, see Turandot discography.) The Very Best of Beniamino Gigli (EMI Classics) The Very Best of Jussi Bjrling (EMI Classics) Richard Tucker in Recital (Columbia Masterworks/Myto) The Very Best of Franco Corelli (EMI Classics) Pavarotti Forever (Decca) The Essential Plcido Domingo (Deutsche Grammophon)

Cultural references and adaptations

Luciano Pavarotti
Nessun dorma achieved pop status after Luciano Pavarotti's recording of it was used as the theme song of BBC television's coverage of the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. It subsequently reached #2 on the UK Singles Chart[5] Although Pavarotti rarely sang the role of Calaf on stage, Nessun dorma became his signature aria and, in turn, a sporting anthem in its own right, especially for football.[5] Pavarotti gave a rendition of Nessun dorma at his final performance, the finale of the Opening Ceremony of the 2006 Torino Winter Olympics, although it was later revealed that he had lip-synched the specially pre-recorded performance.[6] His Decca recording of the aria was played at his funeral during the flypast by the Italian Air Force.[7]

Other artists
Nessun dorma has been performed by such people as Aretha Franklin, Manowar, Sarah Brightman, David Phelps, Mina, Paul Potts, Russell Watson, Gardar Thor Cortes, Michael Bolton, Jackie Evancho, and Donald Braswell II. Scott Foppiano, American Theatre Organ Society's Organist of the year for 2007,[8] released a theatre pipe organ transcription of the aria on his album, Beyond the Blue Horizon.[9] In 2009, singer Antony Hegarty, lead singer of Antony and the Johnsons recorded the aria with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra, which was released for free by the Italian coffee company, Lavazza. While the orchestration of the recording is Puccini's original, Hegarty performs the song with his famous, quavering delivery.[10] British guitarist Jeff Beck's 2010 album, Emotion & Commotion, includes an instrumental version of this aria where the guitar takes the place of the human voice to an orchestral accompaniment.[11] In 2007, trumpeter Chris Botti covered "Nessun Dorma" on his album Italia.[12] [13] Ryuichi Kawamura recorded a Japanese-language version for his 2011 album The Voice. In 2009 Russian countertenor Vitas covered "Nessun Dorma" on his 2010 album Masterpieces of Three Centuries. By coincidence the first line "Don't let anyone sleep" gave birth to his fourth program Sleepless Night released in 2009. [14]

In films
Nessun dorma has been used in many films,[15] often appearing at a central moment in the filmsometimes with the aria's moment of musical resolution aligned with the film's narrative climax, giving symbolic meaning to the aria's rich emotional impact. Films in which the aria plays a significant role in the soundtrack include The Killing Fields,[16] New York Stories, [17] Mar adentro,[18] The Sum of All Fears,[19] The Mirror Has Two Faces,[20] and Bend It Like Beckham.[15] Nessun Dorma is also the title of a short film by Ken Russell included in the 1987 film Aria.[21] (Aria consists of ten segments by a variety of directors; each one features the director's visual accompaniment to

Nessun dorma arias and scenes from operas. The films have minimal or no dialogue, with most of the spoken content coming from the words of the aria itself.)

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References
Notes
[1] Puccini, Giacomo; Adami, G., & Simoni, R. (1978). "Act III, Scene I" (in English, Italian). Turandot. Opera Vocal Score Series. Milano, Italy: Ricordi. p.291. OCLC84595094. "None shall sleep tonight!" [2] The libretto and score are BMG Ricordi S.p.A. [3] Note: this article uses scientific pitch notation; e.g., B4 is the B above Middle C [4] 'Puccini scores' (musical and contextual analysis of 'Nessun Dorma'), National Review, July 23, 1990 (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1282/ is_n14_v42/ ai_9244263) (accessed 8 October 2007) [5] 'Nessun Dorma put football back on map' The Telegraph, September 7, 2007 (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ news/ main. jhtml?xml=/ news/ 2007/ 09/ 07/ wpav307. xml) (accessed 8 October 2007) [6] 'Pavarotti, Revered Even When Lip-Synching' The New York Times, April 7, 2008 (http:/ / thelede. blogs. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 07/ pavarotti-revered-even-when-lip-synching/ ) (accessed 7 April 2008) [7] BBC News coverage of Pavarotti's final performance (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ entertainment/ 6981032. stm) (accessed 8 October 2007); BBC News coverage of Pavarotti's funeral (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ entertainment/ 6983912. stm) (accessed 8 October 2007) [8] Scott Foppiano (http:/ / www. atos. org/ artists/ foppiano/ ) on The American Theatre Organ Society's website [9] Scott Foppiano (http:/ / theatreorgancds. com/ artist. php?a=Scott+ Foppiano) on theatreorgancds.com [10] Antony & Lavazza (http:/ / www. lavazza2010. com/ lavazza2010/ en/ brano) [11] Perusse, Bernard, "Beck in a reflective mood" (http:/ / www. ottawacitizen. com/ entertainment/ Beck+ reflective+ mood/ 2918886/ story. html), Ottawa Citizen, 17 April 2020 [12] "Italia overview" (http:/ / www. allmusic. com/ album/ r1187619). Allmusic.com. . [13] "Chris Botti" (http:/ / www. jazzmonthly. com/ artist_ag/ botti_chris/ reviews/ botti_review. html). JazzMonthly.com. . [14] http:/ / www. vitas. com. ru/ pressa_eng. php [15] Christopher Blank, High Note (http:/ / www. commercialappeal. com/ news/ 2007/ oct/ 13/ high-note/ ), Commercial Appeal, October 13, 2007. IMDB lists a total of 28 films, from 1942 to 2007, which include "Nessun dorma" (including two 3Tenors titles); see Giacomo Puccini (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ name/ nm0006242/ ) [16] Stephen Holden, Eloquent Movies With Eloquent Soundtracks (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?res=9A04E2DE1E30F933A05752C0A962958260& sec=& spon=& pagewanted=print), New York Times, January 30, 1994 [17] Soundtracks for [[New York Stories (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/ tt0097965/ soundtrack)] (1989)]. [18] Nelson Pressley, 'The Sea Inside': A Quest for Death (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2004/ 12/ 17/ AR2005033116908. html), The Washington Post, December 17, 2004; Page C05 [19] Gloria Goodale, 'Sum' signals change since 9/11 (http:/ / www. csmonitor. com/ 2002/ 0531/ p17s03-almo. html), Christian Science Monitor, May 31, 2002 [20] Jay Carr, Barbra Streisand looks into her 'Mirror' and discovers she's still a funny girl (http:/ / www. highbeam. com/ doc/ 1P2-8395772. html), Boston Globe, November 10, 1996. Retrieved via subscription 14 June 2008. [21] Richard Corliss, Opera for The Inoperative (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/ 0,9171,967298,00. html), Time Magazine, May 02, 1988.

External links
Mark D. Lew (1997). "Commentary on Symbolism, Poetry, and 'Nessun Dorma'" (http://home.earthlink.net/ ~markdlew/comm/turandot.htm). Nessun Dorma sung by Sarah Brightman - (Live Earth, 2007) (http://video.liveearth.org/video/ Sarah-Brightman-Nessun-Dorma-Li) Nessun Dorma sung by Vitas - (Shanghai, China, 2009) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=udeGp2DEPFg)

Vesti la giubba

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Vesti la giubba
"Vesti la giubba" (Put on the costume) is a famous tenor aria from Ruggero Leoncavallo's 1892 opera Pagliacci. "Vesti la giubba" is the conclusion of the first act, when Canio discovers his wife's infidelity, but must nevertheless prepare for his performance as Pagliaccio the clown because "the show must go on". The aria is often regarded as one of the most moving in the operatic repertoire of the time. The pain of Canio is portrayed in the aria and exemplifies the entire notion of the "tragic clown": smiling on the outside but crying on the inside. This is still displayed today as the clown motif often features the painted on tear running down the cheek of the performer. The 1904 recording by Enrico Caruso was the first million-selling record in history.[1]

Lyrics
Recitar! Mentre preso dal delirio, non so pi quel che dico, e quel che faccio! Eppur d'uopo, sforzati! Bah! Sei tu forse un uom? Tu se' Pagliaccio! Vesti la giubba, e la faccia infarina. La gente paga, e rider vuole qua. E se Arlecchin t'invola Colombina, ridi, Pagliaccio, e ognun applaudir! Tramuta in lazzi lo spasmo ed il pianto in una smorfia il singhiozzo e 'l dolor, Ah! Ridi, Pagliaccio, sul tuo amore infranto! Ridi del duol, che t'avvelena il cor! Act! While in delirium, I no longer know what I say, or what I do! And yet it's necessary... make an effort! Bah! Are you not a man? You are a clown! Put on your costume, powder your face. The people pay to be here, and they want to laugh. And if Harlequin shall steal your Columbina, laugh, clown, so the crowd will cheer! Turn your distress and tears into jest, your pain and sobbing into a funny face Ah! Laugh, clown, at your broken love! Laugh at the grief that poisons your heart!

In popular culture
This aria is often used in popular culture, and has been featured in many renditions, mentions, and spoofs. The 1971 album Spike Jones Is Murdering The Classics features a satirization of "Vesti la giubba" called "Pal-Yat-Chee" the name intended as a play on the name of the opera. The song features vocals by Homer and Jethro as bumpkins who try to make sense of the opera and its main character. Rock band Queen use part of the melody for the opening lines of the 1984 song "It's a Hard Life" from the album The Works. An upbeat adaptation appears in the main title for the Marx Brothers film A Night at the Opera, and Groucho sings verses of it sporadically throughout the film. A recording by Mario Del Monaco was used in the 1989 film Cookie. The Hey Arnold! episode "What's Opera, Arnold?" parodies the climax of this song. Harold plays Canio (though refers to himself as "Pagliacci, the Crying Clown"), and sings "Big ugly clown-o, a big sad, ugly clown-o" to the tune of said climax. The tune is also used whenever Harold and his friends confess that they did something wrong to Principal Wartz.

Vesti la giubba The Penguin attends a performance of Pagliacci with a lady friend in the Batman: The Animated Series episode "Birds of a Feather" and sings along to "Vesti la giubba". Sideshow Bob performed the climax of this song in the Simpsons' episode "The Italian Bob". Jazz trumpeter Maynard Ferguson recorded an arrangement of this piece just entitled "Pagliacci" on his 1974 album Primal Scream Robert De Niro's character Al Capone weeps during a live performance of this song in the 1987 film The Untouchables. James Bond brings a public performance of the aria to an abrupt end in Moonraker when he knocks one of Drax's henchmen off a tall building, causing him to land on (and destroy) the piano. The song is played over the end credits of the Seinfeld episode "The Opera", in which the characters attend a performance of the opera. The song is heard playing down the phone in Seinfeld episode "The Keys" when Jerry phones Kramer's mother after he disappears from his apartment. The Italian singer Mina recorded a pop version of this aria on her 1988 double album Ridi pagliaccio vol. 1-2 In the episode "The Dabba Don" of Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law, the prosecutor wears the clown costume of Pagliacci and sings the rousing last stanza of the aria to end the climax of the episode. This is an example of and a comment on the strong associations the aria has come to have with the depiction of Italian-American mobsters in popular culture. Colin Baker's final (ad-libbed) line in his tenure as The Doctor in BBC TV's Doctor Who is to sing one of the lines from the aria.

80

References
[1] Chronomedia. (http:/ / www. terramedia. co. uk/ Chronomedia/ years/ 1904. htm) Accessed on September 11, 2007.

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