MAGNETIC METHOD

Kevin Mickus

Department of Geosciences, Southwest Missouri State University, Springfield, MO 65804;

mickus@cart1.smsu.edu

OVERVIEW

The magnetic method is a geophysical technique that measures variations in the earth’s magnetic field to
determine the location of subsurface features. This nondestructive technique has numerous applications in
engineering and environmental studies, including the location of voids, near-surface faults, igneous dikes, and
buried ferromagnetic objects (storage drums, pipes). Magnetic field variations can be interpreted to determine
an anomaly’s depth, geometry and magnetic susceptibility.
Magnetic data, measured in gammas and either collected as total field or gradient measurements, must
be collected in a grid or along a profile with stations spacing between 1 and 10 meters. Relatively little data
processing is required for total field measurements as only time varying changes (diurnal variations) are removed
from the field data. No data processing is required for gradient data.
The interpretation of magnetic data commonly involves the construction of profiles or maps and determining
the location of obvious magnetic anomalies. If additional interpretation is required, a residual magnetic anomaly
due to an object of interest can be determined from the total magnetic field. The interpretation of the residual
magnetic anomalies involves creating models of the subsurface magnetic susceptibility variations to infer a
geological cross-section. These models are generally built using a variety of methods ranging from analytical
solutions to simple geometries to more complex three-dimensional computer algorithms.

INTRODUCTION

The magnetic method of exploring the subsurface is used to either map or locate rock types that contain
varying amounts of magnetic susceptible minerals or to locate man-made ferromagnetic (e.g., iron) substances.
Thus, the magnetic method has found a broad spectrum of applications in engineering and environmental studies
ranging from locating voids and metal containers containing contaminants to mapping dikes that act as barriers
to groundwater flow. Table 1 lists the main uses of the magnetic method in shallow geophysical applications.
The magnetic method is relatively easy to perform and inexpensive as it requires little data processing or
manipulation. The technique has good depth penetration compared to other geophysical techniques such as
ground penetrating radar, high frequency electromagnetics and DC-resistivity. The main disadvantages are that
subsurface information is obtained only if there are buried ferromagnetic materials and the interpretation of
magnetic anomalies is nonunique. This nonuniqueness means complementary data (e.g., other geophysical
data or drill hole data) are required to determine the sources of the magnetic anomalies.
The magnetic method as applied to engineering and environmental studies is relatively straightforward. A
summary of the fundamental aspects including overviews of theory, data collection, processing, and
interpretation is discussed below. For more detailed information on the magnetic technique, numerous papers
covering engineering and environmental aspects are available in the following journals: Geophysics, Geophysical
Prospecting, Exploration Geophysics, Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics, and the Journal
of Applied Geophysics (formerly Geoexploration). For more detailed investigation on the theoretical background
of the magnetic method, the reader is referred to books by Grant and West (1965) and Blakely (1995). For
overviews of the applied magnetic method, the reader is referred to books by Telford et al. (1990) and Robinson
and Caruh (1988). Recent books by Burger (1992), Vorelsang (1995), Milson (1996), Sharma (1997) and
Reynolds (1998) contain a chapter on the magnetic method with an emphasis on engineering and environmental
applications, while the overview paper by Hinze (1990) specifically focuses on engineering and environmental
magnetic applications.
 Table 1. Applications of the Magnetic Method.

Locating

Drums, pipes, cable and metallic objects

Buried military ordnance (e.g., shells)
Buried well casings
Underground coal burns
Underground voids including mine shafts and adits

Mapping

Archaeological remains (fire pits, cemeteries, garbage pits)

Landfills
Concealed dikes and faults
Steeply dipping geological contacts

PRINCIPLES OF THE MAGNETIC METHOD

Theory

The theoretical basis of the magnetic method is to a first approximation the same as the gravity method
(Mickus, this volume). The main differences between the two techniques are that in the magnetic method, the
total magnetic field (x, y and z components) is measured, whereas in the gravity method commonly only the
z-component is measured. Additionally, the magnetic properties of rocks can vary by several orders of
magnitude, while the densities of rocks usually only vary by a few percent.
The theory behind the applied magnetic method can be explained by a magnetic dipole in which the basic
elements can be seen in a simple bar magnetic (Figure 1). The bar magnetic consists of two poles (dipolar),
a positive north-seeking pole and a negative south-seeking pole, and these poles always exist as pairs. These
two poles produce a magnetic field called the magnetic field intensity (H). If a magnetizable body (e.g., iron or
magnetite) is placed in an external magnetic field (e.g., the earth’s magnetic field), it will become magnetized
and produce a secondary magnetic field, determined by the material’s magnetic polarization (M). For low
external magnetic fields (e.g., the earth’s), the degree in which the body is magnetized is determined by its
magnetic susceptibility, k, and is defined as

M = kH.

(1)

Magnetic susceptibility is a nondimensional quantity and is the fundamental physical property used in
the magnetic method. The measurement of the total magnetic field, (which includes the external magnetic
field and the magnetization) is called the magnetic induction (B) and is written as

B = µo (1 + k)H (2)

where, µo is the magnetic permeability of free space. The units of B are teslas, which is generally too large a
number for applied magnetic work, so gammas (10-9 teslas) are more commonly used. Also, note that B is a
vector quantity and in most magnetic work today, the amplitude of B is measured and it is called the total
magnetic field.
Figure 1. Magnetic field due to a simple bar magnetic (adapted from Reynolds, 1998).

Earth’s magnetic field

The earth’s magnetic field consists of three components: 1) the main field, 2) the external field and 3)
magnetizable materials within the earth’s crust. The main field which accounts for over 99% of the earth’s total
magnetic field is internal in origin and is thought to be caused by convection currents of conducting material
(mainly iron and nickel) within the liquid outer core. The earth’s main magnetic field approximates to a first
degree a magnetic dipole and is the inducing field for magnetizable objects within the earth’s crust. The main
field consists of several magnetic elements, which are important in understanding the measured magnetic
anomaly patterns. These elements include: 1) magnitude of the field (F), 2) magnetic inclination (I) which is the
dip of a magnetic compass needle from horizontal (e.g., magnetic south pole is -90o , magnetic north pole is 90o,
and magnetic equator is 0o ), and 3) magnetic declination (D) which is the angle between geographic and
magnetic north. Figure 2 shows the relationship between these values. These values are collectively known as
the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF).
Additionally, the earth’s main magnetic field changes with time due to variations in the motion of the
convection currents within the outer core. These changes (called westward drift or secular variations) cause the
magnitude, inclination and declination to change with time. As a consequence, the IGRF is updated every ten
years or so and is revised to give the DGRF (Definitive), which is current reference model of the earth’s magnetic
field. The current DGRF can be obtained from the national geophysical data center of the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Agency (NOAA). The use of the DGRF in the magnetic method is explained below in the data
processing and interpretation sections.
The external magnetic field (also called diurnal variations) is due to electric currents within the earth’s
ionosphere. These currents are mainly caused by interactions with plasmas connected with solar winds. These
diurnal variations fluctuate rapidly but smoothly with time (minutes to hours) with maximum amplitudes varying
from 50 to 200 gammas. On some days, these fluctuations are more random with amplitudes of several hundred
gammas and are called magnetic storms. These storms are associated with solar flares and sunspot activity,
and may persist for hours or several days. During such storms, magnetic surveying should be stopped. The
removal of diurnal variations from field data is discussed below under data collection and processing.
The magnetizable materials within the earth’s crust create small amplitude magnetic fields that cause
spatial variations of the earth’s main magnetic field. These materials are the targets of the magnetic method.
Figure 2. The main magnetic field components. F-direction of earth’s main magnetic field, D-
magnetic declination, I-magnetic inclination, H-Horizontal component of the main magnetic field
(adapted from Reynolds, 1998).

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

The magnetic characteristics of rocks and minerals are a complex subject whose details are still under
investigation. However, for most engineering and environmental applications, the magnetic characteristics are
usually controlled by the content of magnetic minerals (mainly magnetite) in a rock and the type of metal
(mainly iron) composing buried drums, cables and pipes. Table 2 shows the range of magnetic susceptibilities
of common rock and mineral types.
The magnetic readings measured by a magnetometer are usually assumed to be caused by magnetization
induced in a magnetizable material (those with a large magnetic susceptibility) by the earth’s main magnetic
field. This magnetization is not permanent and is lost when the external field is removed. In addition, most rocks
and minerals have a permanent magnetization called remnant magnetization that is acquired by a variety of
mechanisms (Telford et al., 1990) and is usually in a different direction and magnitude than the induced
magnetization. In most cases, the magnitude of the remnant magnetization is small compared to the induced
magnetization and can be ignored, although for detailed surveys (source anomalies less than 5 gammas) it can
be important, requiring laboratory analyzes to determine the remnant magnetization properties of the rock or
soil samples.
Most engineering and environmental magnetic studies involve taking readings over soil, which in most
situations has a low magnetic susceptibility and the interpreter will not have to be concerned with anomalies
caused by magnetic susceptibility variations within the soil. However, the magnetic susceptibilities of a soil
reflect their source rocks, as soils derived from mafic igneous rocks (e.g, basalts and gabbros) tend to have a
high magnetite content (Sharma, 1997). Furthermore, magnetite is a heavy mineral, resistant to weathering, so
it tends to accumulate in river deposits, beach sands and alluvial fans, and thus may create magnetic anomalies
in areas of accumulation. Also, highly organic soils often contain maghemite, a mineral with a high magnetic
susceptibility and may cause localized magnetic anomalies.
 MAGNETIC INSTRUMENTS (MAGNETOMETERS)

The measurement of the earth’s magnetic field using portable magnetometers has greatly improved within
last 20 years because of the use of integrated circuit devices and the incorporation of internal computers that
allow for the storage, display and simple processing of data as it is being collected. Basically, magnetometers
are most commonly used to measure the earth’s total magnetic field and magnetic field gradients. They can
be broken down into two types: 1) proton precession and 2) alkali-vapor. Figure 3 shows a commonly used
proton precession magnetometer.
Proton precession magnetometers are the most commonly used magnetometers and are available in mobile
and base station modes. Mobile modes are available with or without internal computers and can have graphic
displays that store, display and process the data in the field. These instruments consist of a sensor attached
to a nonferrous pole that is either hand carried or attached to the back of the surveyor and a processing unit
attached to a shoulder harness positioned in front of the surveyor. The sensor contains a liquid

Table 2. Magnetic susceptibilities of common rocks and minerals

Rock/Mineral Type Susceptibility x 103 (SI units)

Dolomite 0-0.9
Limestone 0-3.0
Sandstone 0-20
Shale 0.01-15
Granite 0-50
Basalt 0.2-175
Limonite 2.5
Hematite 0.05-35
Clay 0.2
Magnetite 1200-19200
Gypsum -0.11
Pyrite 0.05-5
Figure 3. Proton precession magnetometer with sensor mounted on an aluminum pole. Photo
courtesy of Diane Doser.

(e.g., kerosene, charcoal lighting fluid) that processes a large number of hydrogen ions. If the instrument has
been rented, the sensor will be shipped without the flammable liquid, so the surveyor should fill the sensor with
the manufacturers suggested fluid. The processing unit will contain either disposable batteries (usually not
shipped with the unit) or more commonly, rechargeable batteries that provide the energy source for the
magnetometer.
An advantage of proton precession magnetometers over older magnetometers (e.g., fluxgate) is that the
sensor does not have to be oriented. However, these types of magnetometers cannot continuously measure the
earth’s magnetic field like fluxgate magnetometers as readings must be taken at least 2-5 seconds apart. New
developments in sensor technology using the Overhauser effect have allowed proton precession magnetometers
to take readings every 0.5 seconds. Additionally, proton precession magnetometers will give erroneous readings
in regions with magnetic field gradients of 5000 gammas/m (meter) or larger. These high values are rare but can
occur near surface accumulations of iron. The instruments have accuracies of 0.5 to 1 gammas, total field
ranges from 20,000 to 100,000 gammas and can operate in temperatures from -40o C to 60o C. Base station
magnetometers can be programmed to record readings down to every 2 seconds. These values provide more
than sufficient accuracy for most engineering and environmental applications throughout the world. Several
manufacturers sell and rent proton precession magnetometers in North America, including Geometrics, GSM
and Scintrex with prices ranging from $6,000 to $8,000 depending on the desired accessories. Additionally,
instruments are being developed that contain differential GPS (global positioning systems) units, so both
horizontal position and magnetic field readings can be obtained simultaneously.
Alkali-vapor magnetometers are basically similar to proton precession magnetometers except for the type
of sensor, which is based on the radiofrequency spectroscopy of an irradiating alkali metal. The two metals
commonly in use are cesium and potassium, with potassium having higher measurement accuracies than
cesium. Alkali-vapor magnetometers have a higher sampling rate (10 readings per second) and accuracy (0.01
gammas) than proton precession magnetometers. These higher accuracies make them suited for detailed
studies including archaeology, void detection and changes in soil properties. The only drawback is their higher
price ($15,000 to $17,000). These instruments can be obtained from the same manufacturers listed above.
Magnetic gradiometers can be considered as a basic magnetometer system with two different sensors
(either proton precession or alkali vapor) spaced 0.2 to 0.3 meters apart (either vertically (more common) or
horizontally). The readings are measured in gammas/m and are useful in determining the lateral boundaries of
buried magnetic features. The advantages of gradiometer measurements are that they are free of noise (e.g.,
diurnal variations), suppress regional magnetic anomalies in favor of shallow sources, and the earth’s main
magnetic field does not have to be removed.

DATA COLLECTION

Magnetic data acquisition can be done on land or by air. Additionally, either total field or magnetic gradient
measurements can be obtained, as some magnetometers are able to collect both measurements
simultaneously. The data collection techniques are similar for both types of measurements, except that base
stations are not required for gradient surveys. Because most engineering and environmental studies cover a
small area and the magnetic sources are usually small in size and magnitude, land-based surveys are most
commonly performed.
A land-based magnetic survey is a relatively simple task that can be performed by one person. First,
stations are surveyed out in either a grid or along profiles perpendicular to suspected linear features (e.g., faults,
pipes, dikes). The stations should be located away from any large metallic objects (e.g., fences, pipes,
telephone wires, surveyors automobiles). The station spacing depends on the size of the sources and the area
to be surveyed with typical spacings ranging from 1 meter when looking for cables to over 10 meters in mapping
geologic contacts. Since elevation variations and changes in latitude and longitude do not influence magnetic
readings in most localized surveys, station locations can be determined using a plastic measuring tape (100
or 300 meters) (or a measuring wheel) and a compass for orientation. Individual station locations can be marked
with any type of nonferrous marker (e.g., wooden or plastic stake). However, recent developments in
magnetometers have combined a differential GPS with the magnetometer (Geometrics, Inc. and GSM) that can
determine horizontal positions with sub-meter accuracy. Still, most magnetic surveys currently continue to use
the traditional methods outlined above.
Once the stations have been located, the surveyor must tune the magnetometer to the average earth’s
magnetic field within the survey area. The correct tuning range can be determined from global magnetic maps
(DGRF) usually available with the magnetometer manual, any introductory geophysics book or NOAA. The
magnetometer has an adjustable knob, which can be turned to the earth’s average main field (between 30,000
and 65,000 gammas).
The next step in a magnetic survey is to determine if a magnetic base station is required. A base station
may be needed to remove diurnal variations, which are unpredictable. Unless the source objectives have large
magnetic susceptibilities (e.g., buried drums, pipes) that produce magnetic fields at least one order of a
magnitude larger than the diurnal variations, a permanent base station located away from all metallic objects
should be set up, where the magnetic field is recorded at regular time intervals. This can be done by the
surveyor returning to the base station every one to five minutes or by putting a second automatically recording
magnetometer at the base station. The former procedure is not recommended for detailed surveys as it may
miss some diurnal changes. Base station magnetometers can be set to record at a given time interval and for
detailed surveys (e.g., archaeology, voids), with the shorter the time period, the better the final results. Results
from small station spacing (1 meter) archaeology studies show that if the base station is recorded at different
times as the field magnetometer, small amplitude linear anomalies are produced (Weymouth, 1986).
Once the base station is set up (if needed), the surveyor is ready to take readings. The magnetometer
sensor usually is connected to an nonferrous pole and is carried by the surveyor. The processing unit is
attached to a harness worn by the surveyor (Figure 3). The sensor is commonly set at heights 2 to 2.5 meters
above the ground to avoid small-scale magnetic anomalies due to small iron objects. However, in detailed
surveys these objects may be the target. In such a case, the sensor should be lowered to 0.3 to 0.6 meters
above the ground. Once the survey begins, he/she should not be wearing any ferromagnetic material and at each
station, at least two readings should be recorded. If the readings are not within 2 gammas, readings should be
taken until they do. Also, the time of each reading should be recorded, as they will be used in correcting for the
diurnal variations.

DATA PROCESSING

The observed magnetic readings obtained from a magnetic survey reflect the earth’s total magnetic field
including the earth’s main field, diurnal variations and crustal magnetization sources. As compared to the gravity
method (Mickus, this volume), there are few corrections applied to observed magnetic data. Elevation
corrections are not needed as the vertical gradient of the earth’s magnetic field is less than 0.03 gammas/m.
Terrain effects are usually small and neglected unless the topography is caused by steep slopes consisting of
a high magnetic susceptibility material (>0.01 SI) (Sharma, 1997).
The most common processing technique is to remove the diurnal variations using the data collected at a
base station. The base station data are plotted versus time (Figure 4). The first reading at the base station is
Figure 4. Typical diurnal variation curve used to remove diurnal variations from total field
magnetic data (adapted from Milson, 1996). See text for details.

regarded as the base value and any variations from this value at the base station for later times is subtracted
or added to the field data (Figure 4). For example, on Figure 4 the diurnal variation curve at A is approximately
25 gammas above the base level so 25 gammas are subtracted from the mobile station recorded at this time.
The only other processing technique that may be applied is to remove the earth’s main magnetic field
(DGRF). This is usually performed on surveys covering many kilometers and is not performed for small-scale
engineering and environmental surveys because the earth’s main magnetic changes 0 to 2 gammas/km in east-
west and 2-5 gammas/km in north-south directions. Gradiometer data does not require the removal of diurnal
variations or the DGRF.

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

The object of the magnetic method is to determine information about the earth’s subsurface. The techniques
used to analyze and interpret magnetic data are basically the same as those used in the gravity method. I will
highlight the most commonly used techniques and the reader is referred to the gravity method section (Mickus,
this volume) for further details.

Data presentation

Magnetic data are either collected along a profile or in a grid. The most basic interpretation technique is to
collect data along a profile and plot the profile. Then, the profile is examined for obvious magnetic maximum or
minimum. Figure 5 shows a profile in central Mexico across a region with known voids (producing magnetic
minima) embedded in highly magnetic volcanic rocks. If further information on the voids is desired (e.g., depth,
size), a residual magnetic anomaly can be determined and subsequently modeled.
Figure 5. Profile of total field magnetic anomalies over suspected and known voids in central Mexico.
Boxes represent magnetic minima associated with the voids. (Adapted from Azate et al., 1990).

The most common technique in magnetic interpretation is visualizing a grid of

magnetic or magnetic gradient data. There are a number of techniques to display gridded data including contour
maps, wire meshes, grey scale or color images. Figure 6 shows magnetic and gradiometer (vertical gradient)
data contoured over a buried storage drum. Both surveys indicate magnetic field maxima over the drum with
the magnetic field indicating a north-northeast orientation. The gradient anomaly better defines the orientation
plus indicates the ends of tanks. Figure 7 shows a wire mesh representation of magnetic data collected over
a buried pipe. The linear, high amplitude anomaly is characteristic of linear features such as pipes and dikes.

Magnetic anomaly patterns

The magnetic field intensities of buried magnetized objects produce different anomaly patterns than gravity
anomalies produced by similarly shaped objects. Because of the dipolar nature of magnetic fields, a single
magnetized body will produce both a positive and negative anomaly and thus is more difficult to interpret than
gravity anomalies. The shape of the anomaly depends on the magnetic inclination (I) where the body is located.
Figure 8 shows the magnetic anomaly due a positively magnetized sphere at different magnetic inclinations.
Note how only at the magnetic north pole (I=90o) is the maximum peak directly over the sphere. At other
inclinations it is offset toward the south until the magnetic equator (I=0o) where the minimum is centered over
the sphere. Thus, the body is not always directly under the maximum or minimum anomaly. Also, note all the
anomalies shown in Figure 8 are for north-south profiles. Individual east- west profiles will not show the positive
and negative anomaly patterns and a misinterpretation on the location of the buried body is possible. If possible,
north-south profiles should be collected.
Figure 6. Grid of total field magnetic (gammas) and vertical gradient magnetic (gammas/m) data
shown as contour plots. The maxima anomalies are due to a buried storage tank. (Adapted from
Stanely and Cattach, 1990).

Regional and residual magnetic anomalies

For most magnetic applications, the data presentation methods shown above will be the only steps needed
to determine the location of buried magnetic objects. However, to determine the depth and geometry of these
objects, one must perform a regional/residual anomaly separation. The resultant residual magnetic anomaly is
then modeled to determine the depth and geometry of the anomaly’s source. All the techniques described under
the gravity methods (Mickus, this volume) are used in the magnetic method and are described in more detail
in Telford et al. (1990), Hinze (1990) and Roberts et al. (1990). In shallow magnetic studies, the regional field
is usually smooth and uncomplicated, so the more mathematical techniques (e.g., wavelength filtering, upward
continuation) are not needed nor used. The simplest methods are manual techniques such as graphical
smoothing where a simple smooth regional anomaly is subtracted from the observed gravity anomaly to obtain
a residual anomaly (see Figure 2 from the gravity method section). An advantage of the manual techniques is
that the interpreter may have information on the lateral location of the source bodies and this information can
be used to select an appropriate regional anomaly.

Data enhancement

Data enhancement techniques are used to increase the perceptibility of magnetic anomalies that are related
to bodies of interest. This is not important in all types of shallow magnetic surveys, as the anomalies due to iron
and highly magnetic rocks produce anomalies that are readily obvious. However, in detailed magnetic surveying
for faults, geologic mapping and locating voids, the magnetic anomalies may have a small amplitude and are
Figure 7. Grid of total field magnetic data shown as a wire mesh with a high amplitude, linear
magnetic anomaly characteristic of anomalies caused by pipes and igneous dikes. (Adapted from
Schilinger, 1990).

obscured by nearby anomalies. As in the gravity method, the derivative methods are most commonly used
(Hinze, 1990) and are applied to the grid of magnetic or magnetic gradient data collected in the field. The first
and second derivative methods can both be used as they enhance near-surface anomalies at the expense of
deeper anomalies and are good at locating the edges of a body. Recently, the enhanced analytic signal (or total
gradient) technique has been shown to be a superior edge detection method than the traditional first and second
derivative techniques (Sharma, 1997). The enhanced analytic signal technique produces a result that is not
dependent on magnetic inclination as are the traditional methods.

Modeling

Magnetic modeling is usually the final step in magnetic interpretation and involves trying to determine the
depth and geometry of one or more subsurface bodies using a residual magnetic anomaly. There are many
different techniques available to perform the modeling procedure and basically they are the same as for the
gravity method (Mickus, this volume). They are: 1) analytical solutions due to simple geometries, 2) forward
modeling using 2-(two-dimensional), 2.5- (two and one-half dimensional) and 3-D (three-dimensional) irregularly
shaped bodies, and 3) inverse modeling using 2-, 2.5- and 3-D irregularly shaped bodies. Most of these
techniques involve iterative modeling, where the magnetic intensity due to the model is calculated and compared
to the observed or residual magnetic anomalies. If the calculated values do not match the observed anomalies,
the model is changed and the procedure is performed again until the match between the calculated
Figure 8. Typical north-south profiles of total field magnetic anomalies over a sphere at different
magnetic inclinations. (Adapted from Nettleton, 1976).

values and the observed anomalies is deemed close enough. Like the gravity method, simplifications of
analytical solutions (called depth rules) due to simple geometries are commonly used to obtain an
approximation of a body’s depth. A commonly used depth rule is Peter’s half slope formula (Reynolds, 1998)
where d is the horizontal distance between the tangents of the lines that represents one half the maximum slope
of an anomaly due to infinite prism (Figure 9): The depth to the top of the body is given by

z≅1.6d
(3)

There are several depth rules (see Telford et al. 1990, Reynolds, 1998) that can be used to determine a body’s
depth.
To determine the subsurface geometry of a magnetic body or bodies, one must perform computer forward
or inverse modeling of 2-, 2.5-, 3-D bodies. Forward and inverse modeling works the same as in gravity
modeling (see gravity methods, this volume), however there are some important differences. Since the shape

and amplitude of magnetic anomalies depend on the earth’s main magnetic field and the direction the profile
Figure 9. The use of Peter’s half slope rules to determine the depth to a magnetic body. (Adapted
from Robinson and Caruh, 1988).

was taken (not important for 3-D models), one must know the DGRF at the survey’s location. The required
parameters include the intensity of the Earth’s main magnetic field, magnetic inclination and declination, and
the azimuth of the profile to be modeled.

Costs for Magnetic Surveys

The typical costs for a magnetic and/or gradiometer survey depends on if the client wants to perform the
their own survey, contract out the survey to a consulting company, the amount of interpretation, the number of
stations, and the object of interest. Since a magnetic and/or gradiometer survey is relatively easy to perform,
the client may want to rent an instrument. Typical rental costs are shown in Table 3 for both proton precession
and alkali-vapor magnetometers.
If the client wishes to contract out the survey to a consulting firm, of course, the costs jump dramatically
(Table 3). The per day costs include equipment rental and one person performing the survey. Surveying the
station locations will add additional costs except for magnetometers with integrated GPS units. Most
engineering and environmental surveys will collect between 400 and 5000 stations depending on the target and
this will take approximately from one to ten days to collect.
The amount of data processing and interpretation (map making and estimates of the depth to magnetic
sources) depends on the source target. If buried drums and pipes are the target, the data interpretation is
relatively straightforward and fast to perform. If geologic mapping is the objective, more detailed modeling and
data enhancement techniques are required which are more time consuming to perform. Estimates on these
costs are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Typical costs for magnetic surveys.

Service Costs

Magnetometer rental

Mobile proton precession $20-40/day plus $60-90 mobilization

Base station proton precession “

 Mobile proton precession and gradiometer $35-45/day plus $60-70 mobilization

Mobile alkali-vapor $60-85/day plus $100-160 mobilization

Base station alkali-vapor “

Alkali-vapor gradiometer $90-120/day plus $100-250 mobilization

Portable GPS receivers $45-55/day plus $90-110 mobilization

Consulting services

Total-field magnetic survey (data collection only) $900-1100/day

Total-field magnetic and gradiometer survey (data “

collection only) (But will require more days than Total field alone)

Station surveying $100-150/day

Data processing and interpretation for simple $100-200/day

survey (e.g., locating buried drums)

Data processing and interpretation for detailed $300-400/day

survey (e.g., geologic mapping)
SUMMARY

The magnetic method is a relatively uncomplicated geophysical technique that can be applied to a variety
of engineering and environmental problems including the location of shallow subsurface voids, faults, igneous
dikes, storage tanks and pipes. Magnetic data collection can be performed by one person usually on a grid or
along a profile with magnetic stations spaced between 1 and 10 meters. The field magnetic data are processed
to remove diurnal variations of the earth’s magnetic field and then plotted as profiles or some type of map
(contour, wire mesh, gray scale) and interpreted for subsurface sources. If detailed interpretation is desired, a
residual magnetic anomaly due to an object of interest may be determined from a regional magnetic field. The
residual magnetic anomaly is usually modeled by computer methods to determine the depth, geometry and
magnetic susceptibility of the source of the anomaly. These models provide a basis of a geological interpretation
of the subsurface.

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