Review

ANIMALS
Nutrition & Digestions (Chapter 27) What are nutrients, how are they used? o Nutrients: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins and minerals in the diet that provide raw materials and other substances needed for growth, repair, maintenance, reproduction and energy Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are used as a source of energy (energy nutrients) The body need substantial amounts of these nutrients macronutrients Vitamins and minerals do not obtain energy of building blocks Without them your body couldnt unlock the energy in the macronutrients or perform important functions Vitamins organic molecules Minerals inorganic substances Both needed in small amounts (micronutrients) and are vital to regulate chemical reactions Water provides the medium in which all the bodys chemical reactions take place Without water, other nutrients couldnt be broken down/absorbed/ transported Travels through your arteries/veins, lubricates your joints, cushions organs Structure and function of digestive organs o Teeth 8 front teeth are incisors (biting) 4 side pointed teeth called canines (tearing) 8 premolars and 12 molars (flattened surfaces for grinding/crushing) o Tongue Breaks down food into smaller particles so nutrients can be absorbed Forms food into ball-like mass o Salivary Glands Paired glands of the mouth that secrete saliva Saliva contains enzymes that break down food Lines the esophagus so food can travel down smoothly o Esophagus The food tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach Circular muscles produce waves of contractions (peristalsis) that push the food along o Liver Large, complex organ weighing over 3 pounds, lying just under the diaphragm that performs more than 500 functions in the body, including the secretion of bile, which aids in digestion of lipids Works with the duodenum to digest food o Sphincter Muscles/Peristalsis Prevent acid, bile from travelling back through the esophagus

Stomach Muscular sac which food is collected and partially digested by hydrochloric acid and proteases Layer of mucous lines that stomach and prevents self-digestion Protein digestion starts As food leaves the stomach it has the consistency of pea soup o Gall Bladder A sac attached to the underside of the liver, where bile is stored and concentrated o Pancreas A long glad that lies beneath the stomach and is surrounded on one side by the curve of the duodenum, it secretes a number of digestive enzymes and the hormones, insulin and glucagon o Small Intestine One of the most important organs as all of the nutrients are absorbed Large surface area is important as it absorbs all the nutrients Duodenum initial short segment of the small intestine that is actively involved in digestion and absorption of nutrients Jejuneum second segment Ileum third segment Small fine, finger like projections (villi) are folded surfaces and have a network of capillaries Along with the liver, help to digest lipids o Large Intestine (Colon) Function is to absorb sodium and water and to eliminate wastes and provide a home for friendly bacteria o Rectum Lower portion of the colon which terminates at the anus o Anus The opening of the rectum for the elimination of feces Absorption of nutrients o Carbohydrates begins in the small intestines o Proteins begins in the stomach o Fats and Oils begins in the small intestines Disorders of the digestive system o Inability to produce certain enzymes Enable to produce the enzyme to digest lactose (they are lactose intolerant) and unable to completely digest milk o Ulcer a hole in the lining of your stomach (Acid broke through the layer of mucus) o Irritable Bowel Syndrome Connections to circulatory system o Nutrients are absorbed into the blood stream Blood stream runs through the villi and microvilli Respiration (Chapter 28) What is respiration? o The uptake of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide (breathing) o External respiration is the exchange of gases at the lungs

Internal respiration is the exchange of oxygen and CO2 between the blood and tissues fluid What patterns of respiration exist among organisms? o Diffusions directly into cells (single-celled organisms) o Diffusions into blood vessels through skin (worms) o Tracheal system through spiracles (insects) o Diffusion across skin and gills (amphibians) o Lungs through alveoli (humans) o Gills (fish) Structure and function of respiratory organs o Nasal/oral Cavity Location where oxygen enters the body Lined with hairs that filter out dust/other particles Air is warmed/moistened Mucous fluid helps trap dirt/dust that is breathed in o Pharynx Back of the throat where the nasal cavity and the mouth meet o Epiglottis Flap of cartilage that prevents food from entering the trachea during swallowing o Larynx Cartilage at the top of the trachea Contains the vocal chords o Trachea Extends down from the larynx to your lungs Reinforced with rings of cartilage Inner trachea wall is lined with cilia Divides into 2 bronchi (one to each lung) o Lungs Receives oxygen (which is then put into the circulatory system) Exchanges carbon dioxide o Bronchi Divides from the trachea and leads to the lungs Divides into smaller and smaller branches into thousands of passageways (bronchioles) o Alveoli Capillaries surround these tiny air sacs Where gas exchange takes part in humans Perfect for gas exchange as they have thins walls which makes it easy for carbon dioxide and oxygen to diffuse (in/out of the circulatory system) o Diaphragm Separates the thyroid (chest cavity) from the abdominal cavity Contracts while inhaling (increases the volume/rib cage expands as the diaphragm moves downward) Relax (returns to normal volume) while breathing out o Intercostal Muscles Contracts while inhaling (lifts up the rib cage) Relax while breathing out (ribs drop back down) Mechanism of breathing

The movement of air into and out of the lungs A breath consists of taking air in to the lungs and expelling air from the lungs (inspiration and expiration Gas exchange (diffusion) in the alveoli o Diffusion id the movement of particles from a high concentration to a low concentration o The alveoli provide a perfect place for CO2 and O2 to diffuse between the air in the lungs and the blood o Membranes made up of a single layer of epithelial cells bound these cluster of alveoli and a network of capillaries tightly clasps each alveolar sac o The capillary walls are one cell thick and press against the alveolar epithelium o These two adjacent membranes provide the thinnest possible barrier between the blood in the capillaries and the air in the alveoli o Alveoli have a large surface area which makes efficient gas exchange

o o

Disorders of the respiratory system o Bronchitis Inflammation of the bronchi and bronchioles Mucus plugs some bronchioles limiting the amount of air that reaches the alveoli o COPD o Cough Excess mucus/irritating matter from external sources are lying on the various bronchioles and your body tries to expel them o Hiccup The diaphragm becomes irritated and pulls down which makes you suck air into your throat and when the air rushes out it hits the larynx (the sound of the hiccup) Connections to circulatory system o During gas exchange, the oxygen that is in the alveoli diffuses into the blood and the carbon dioxide diffuse out Circulation (Chapter 29) What patterns of circulation exist among organisms? o Transports nutrients, wastes and gases throughout an organisms o Two types of systems Open Circulatory System no closed loop, the circulating fluid bathes internal organs directly (insects, mollusk, arthropods) Closed Circulatory System can be a single or double loop. The heart transports blood to different blood vessels which continues and travels back to the heart Single loop: heart body heart

Double loop: heart lungs heart body Structure and function of circulatory organs o Four functions Nutrient and waste transport O2 and CO2 transport Temperature maintenance Hormone circulation o Arteries carry blood away from the heart, thick yet elastic wall, oxygen content high (except the pulmonary artery) high pressure Arterioles smaller in diameter than arteries; muscles tighten/relax in response to messages from nerves and hormones; main sit or regulation of blood pressure o Capillaries fine lattice of narrow tubes (reaches each cell and delivers gases, nutrients, pick up wastes) One cell thick Almost all exchanges between blood and the cells of the body occur through these vessels o Veins carry blood back to the heart, thinner wall, valves, low oxygen content (except the pulmonary vein) lower pressure Venules small veins that collect blood from the capillary bends and bring it to larger veins that carry it back to the heart o Right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle pulmonary valve pulmonary artery lungs pulmonary vein left atrium bicuspid valve left ventricle aortic valve aorta body vena cava

Chambers of the heart Fish have 2 chambers Humans have 4 chambers Left/right atria; left/right ventricle Septum thick wall in the center that splits the heart in 2

Pericardium membrane sack around the heart Pulmonary Artery only artery rich in CO2 Pulmonary Vein only vein rich in O2 Superior/Inferior vena cava collects blood from the systemic circulation; pump deoxygenated blood into the right atrium o Heart Beat Upper back wall of the right atrium the sinoatrial (SA) node triggers an impulse that causes both atria to contract Very quickly the impulse reaches the atrioventrical (AV) node at the bottom of the right atrium Immediately, the AV node initiates a signal that is conducted through the ventricles by way of the AV bundle and Purkinje fibers, causing them to contract Heart beat is a cycle of contraction and relaxation of a cardiac muscle o Monitor the heart Stethoscope Monitor blood pressure Systolic pressure pressure of arteries (120 mmHg) Diastolic pressure pressure of veins (80 mmHg) Measures electrical changes as the hearts chambers contract and relax Systemic, pulmonary and cardiac pathways o Systemic: heat body heart o Pulmonary: heart lung heart o Coronary: heart heart heart What are the components of blood? What are functions? o Blood Plasma Clear liquid made up of 90% water and dissolved substances (nutrients, hormones, gases, salts, ions, proteins, wastes) o Cells White blood cells: immune response, create anti-bodies for bacteria/infection Protect against infection Red blood cells: O2, CO2, contain hemoglobin (protein that carries O2), nutrients o Platelets Although blood is liquid, 45 % of its volume is occupied by cells called formed elements 3 principal types of elements: platelets, RBC, WBC Stop bleeding and help to heal wounds The lymphatic system o Counteracts the effects of net fluid loss from the blood Blood that leaves the capillaries is collected in the lymphs and put back into the system o Consequences of lymphatic system failure osmotic issues and blood pressure Disorders of the cardiovascular system o Heart murmur cause by damaged/overworked heart valve; can cause heart attack (the valve does not shut right away back flow of blood) o Hypertension high blood pressure o Stroke caused by blood clots; cause the death of brain cells and brain damage resulting impairment in movement, memory and speech o o o o

Connections to respiratory system o Travels to the lungs for gas exchange o Become oxygen rich o To lose the CO2 History & Development of Theory of Evolution (Chapter 15) How was the theory of natural selection developed? o By Charles Darwin o In the early 1800s while studying species on the Beagle, Darwin began to accumulate evidence proving that organisms have changed over time Organisms from the past and present are related to each other Factors other than climate play a role in the development of plant/animal diversity Members of the same species often change slightly in appearance after becoming geographically isolated from one another Organisms living on oceanic islands often resemble organisms living on nearby mainland o Factors that influence Darwins conclusions Evidence that the earth has changed over time (geologist found fossils, the way we see earth results from gradual change) Artificial selection (a breed selects a desired trait, eventually creating new varieties of organisms and undesired traits are eliminated Malthuss ideas on population dynamics (population growth of living organisms is limited due to the limited resources survival of the fittest) What is natural selection? o Choosing the best characteristic best suited for your environment Will pass on the characteristic o The process in which organisms without such traits Disease, predator o Direct explanation of biological diversity why animals are different in different places What other (modern) evidence supports the theory of evolution o Fossil records show how change is correlated with age o Homologous structures organisms have the same anatomical plan and embryological origin but with different forms and functions (evidence for natural selection/divergent evolution) o Analogous structures organisms that share a way of life and are similar in form and function but these structures do not have the same embryological origin and do not share the same underlying anatomy (evidence for natural selection/convergent evolution) Wings of bats and birds o Comparative embryological studies many organisms have early developmental stages that are similar (embryological relatedness) How do we depict evolutionary relationships? o Evolutionary history of an organism is called its phylogeny o Phylogenetic trees depict patterns of relationships amount major groups (taxa)

EVOLUTION
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Imperfect replicators, limited resources and heritability is what is responsible for the diverse number of species on the planet What is supporting evidence o Fossils shows patterns of organism characteristics that indicate species that have changed over time Not complete and has several gaps o Geology geological features would indicate that Earth is very old thus accommodating time for evolutionary change Change in the environment (layers of rocks: Grand Canyon) take a long time for this process o Artificial Selection as performed by farmers/breeders suggest traits can be selected and passed on from generation to generation Nature has a similar process natural selection o Embryological and Molecular (DNA/proteins) similarities among several different organisms suggest common ancestors o Phylogenetic Trees a depiction of evolutionary history of an organism/organisms Place information about the pattern of relationships among organisms and the degree of genetic divergence Genetic Basis for Evolution (Chapter 16) What is the genetic basis for evolution? How does evolution occur at the genetic level? o Genetic variation refers to heritable traits amount individuals in a population o Variation due to the expression of differences in alleles of genes is the necessary raw material of evolution o Individuals that survive long enough to reproduce or reproduce the most are those with the alleles that confer adaptive advantage o Genetic variation is key to the survival of a species because alleles conferring reproductive fitness at another o Microevolution a small-scale change in the frequencies of alleles in a gene pool over time (evolution at or below species level) o Macroevolution a large-scale change in the frequencies of alleles in a gene pool over time (evolution above the species level) o Small source of genetic variations cause by mutations which create new alleles (occur spontaneously or through action of radiation (can be beneficial or harmful) o Recombination is the main source of genetic variation during crossing over, independent assortment What factors contribute to changes in gene frequencies within populations? o Mutations and natural selection o Random genetic drift Change in the frequencies of alleles in the genetic pool of a population due to chance Large population are likely to experience less genetic drift than small populations Can occur in one or a few generations if a small population separates and starts its own population elsewhere o Gene flow Exchange of genes among neighboring populations due to immigration/ emigration (major reason for the stability of widespread species) Non-random mating

Inbreeding or the selection of mates for specific traits which may sometimes reduce genetic variability with a gene pool Explain changes in allele frequencies using graphs o Natural selection affects populations and allele frequencies Directional Selection one extreme phenotype is fittest when the environment of a population changes Neck length for giraffes Disruptive Selection occurs when two or more extreme phenotypes are fitter than intermediate phenotypes when the environment of a population changes Middle bulk are not fit for the environment Extremes are favoured Stabilizing Selection when the environment of a population does not change, the average phenotype does not change and the variability in the population becomes reduced Baby weight at birth

The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium o Populations that arent evolving are called equilibrium populations o P2 + 2pq +q2 = 1 Large breeding population (>1000) Mating is random No mutations No differential migration (immigration = emigration) No selection pressure Speciation and Extinction (Chapter 17) What is a species? o Morphological species recognizes species as groups of organisms that share certain anatomical and biochemical traits o Biological species recognizes species as groups of interbreed natural populations that re reproductively isolated from other such groups What is speciation? How does it occur? o Speciation is the evolution of reproductive isolation between two or more groups or organisms What are different types of speciation o Allopatric Speciation

Occurs when members of a population are separated by a physical barrier, triggering genetic and ecological divergence Examples water, mountain, bridge, separation of continents Sympatric Speciation Begins as members of a population occupy different ecological zones within the same geographical area, individuals may occupy special habitats or use different food sources; the splitting of a population may act as a trigger for genetic and ecological divergence

How is reproductive isolation maintained during speciation? o Restrict gene flow o Premating Physical barriers, physical functions, behaviors, anatomical structures that prevent organisms form mating Geographic isolation physical barrier remains over time between members of split population then they cannot reach each other to mate their gene pools will remain separate Habitat isolation members of a split population continue to occupy different habitats within the same geographical locale over time, their gene pools will remain separate Temporal isolation members of a split population live in the same geographical locale but breed at different times, mating will be prevented and their gene pools will remain separate. If breeding times overlap different breeding sites are generally used Behavioral isolation members of a split population live in the same geographical locale, but have developed different courtship behaviors, mating will be prevented and their gene pools will remain separate Mechanical isolation if members of a split population develop differences in their male and females structures such as in their genitalia or flower, so that copulation or pollen transfer cannot take place, then mating will be prevented and their gene pools will remain separate Post-mating

Structures, functions, development abnormalities that once mating has occurred, prevent organisms of two species or diverging population from producing vigorous fertile offspring o Hybrid inviability fertilization may not occur if the female reproductive tract is an unsuitable environment for the sperm or if the organisms have a genetic incompatibility. If fertilization occurs, development may stop if the organisms have different developmental systems. Hybrid inviability is common in plants, hybrid seeds may not germinate or may die soon after germination o Hybrid sterility if the hybrid organism develops into an adult it will likely be unable to produce functional gamete (offspring cannot reproduce) o Hybrid breakdown sometimes first-generation hybrids appear vigorous and are fertile. If these individuals mate with each other or with individuals of either parent species, the offspring have decreased fitness, are not well adapted and are soon eliminated What are different modes and rates of evolutionary change? o Speciation and evolutionary change can occur gradually and slowly, or rapidly and suddenly o Phyletic gradualism assert that new species develop slowly and gradually as an entire population changes over time o Punctuated equilibrium involves geologically rapid speciation with longer periods of stasis Why do organisms become extinct? o Caused mainly by environmental changes and adaptive capability of species Localized Distribution All species live within a small geographic range Therefore if a change occurs in that small area in which the species lives, then it is in danger of being eliminated Overspecialization Species have adapted to a narrow range of environmental conditions Reduced Genetic Variability A species has a narrow range of genotypes Genetic diversity within the gene pool of a species, rather than genetic uniformity is adaptive Small populations with little genetic diversity are more likely to inherit two copies of recessive genes that cause deleterious conditions o Cheetahs because they have a small gene pool (genetic variability Evolution of Life on Earth (Chapter 18) Geologic time scale o Earth formation 4.6 billion years ago 15 billion years ago the Big Bang occurred 300 million years between the time when earth cooled and the first bacteria appeared, biochemical evolution became biological evolution

Time since formation is divided into segments: Era Period Epoch Earths crust can be visualized as a geological time line in which five main divisions of rock strata are recognized as associated with major eras of geological time Origin of life on Earth o Primordial soup of macro-molecules (complex life arose from simple origins) Primordial soup theory life arose in the sea as elements and simple compounds of the primitive atmosphere reacted with one another to form simple organic molecules (amino acids, sugars) o First prokaryotic cells: 3 3.5 billion years ago based on fossil records o First eukaryotic cells: 2.7 billion years ago Origin is the serial endosymbiotic theory Eukaryotic cells likely arose as pre-eukaryotic cells became host to endosymbiotic prokaryotes o Multicellular life: 1.4 billion years ago Fish (gave rise to) Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals evolved: 200 million years ago Flowering plants: 120 million years ago Many of the phyla or organisms in existence today evolved during the Cambrian period (543 490 million years ago) in the Paleozoic era Chordates and vertebrate evolved in the late Cambrian era Fish became abundant and diverse in the Devonian period (417 360 million years ago) Amphibians evolved from fish Terrestrial plants appeared about 420 million years ago and flourished during the Carboniferous period (360 285 million years ago) Reptiles evolved from amphibians Birds evolved from reptiles at least 150 million years ago Flowering plants appeared during the early Cretaceous period (140 million years ago) Became the dominant form of plant life about 100 million years ago Basic aspects of human evolution o Primates, one of many orders of mammals that first appeared in the early Cenozoic era Primates have: large brains, binocular vision, five digits, opposable thumbs, complex social interactions o Two critical steps in the evolution of humans 1) Bipedalism (waling on two feet) 2) Enlargement of the brain o Oldest hominin fossil belong to the genus Sahelanthropus and is 6 to 7 million years old Probable direct ancestors of humans belong to the genus Australopithecus o First species of the human genus Homo is H. habilis appeared in Africa 2.4 million years ago Now extinct Considered human because this species exhibited an intelligence greater than that of its ancestors (made tools) o Second species of Homo H. erectus appeared 1.8 million years ago Lived in Africa, Asia, Europe Used fine, built shelters, fashioned sophisticated tools, exhibited culture o H. sapiens evolved from H. erectus about 500,000 years ago o o

Fossils show gradual change of the species H. sapiens with evolving over 75,000 year span (Neanderthal) Approximately 10,000 years before the Neanderthals died, the modern H. sapiens sapiens made its appearance

PLANTS
Plant Reproduction (Chapter 23) What are the general patterns of reproduction in flowering plants o Male plants produce pollen which carries the sperm to the female plant during pollination. There is no need for water during fertilization o In gymnosperms: ovules are exposed to the air (not enclosed) and pollen reaches them directly o In angiosperms: the pollen lands on the stigma and germinates, forming a pollen tube through which sperm cells travel to the egg o Pollen tubes grow through the style of the ovary o The ovary contains ovules, each containing an egg. A sperm fertilizes the egg forming a zygote which grows into an embryo o The ovary and surrounding structures form the fruit o Angiosperms try to avoid self-pollination by having separate male and female flowers. Also the stigma is generally higher than the anthers. In plants that have flowers with both male and females parts, they might mature at different times o Female Eggs are formed in the reproductive structures called archegonia o Male Sperm are formed in the reproductive structures called antheridia o The egg and sperm fuse during fertilization Diploid plants produce from fertilized eggs are the sporophytes (use meiosis to produce haploid spore Nonvascular plants and some vascular plants spores are borne in spore cases called sporangia (when dispersed spores grow into haploid gametophyte plants o Gametophytes haploid phase of a plant life cycle; this phase tend to dominate the life cycles of nonvascular plants o Sporophytes diploid phase of a plant life cycle; this generation tends to dominate the life cycles of vascular plants How does pollination occur, self and cross pollination o Self-Pollination Pollen to ovule of the same plant o Cross-Pollination Pollen to ovule of a different plant but same species Flower and seed structure o Flower/Fruit Ovary and ovules female flowers, Stigma and style pollen-receptive surface Petals and sepals Anther and filament

Seed is an embryo enclosed in a cotyledon Seed coat protection Cotyledon absorbs, stores and distributes nutrients in the seed Embryo baby How do seeds develop, become dispersed, germinate? o Develop Develop from ovules A zygote becomes a plant embryo within the seed (one end will be the shoot and one will be the roots) Monocots have one cotyledon Dicots have two cotyledons o

Dispersal Wind Milkweed, maple, dandelion Animals Beggar-tick, sandbur, blackberry Water Lotus, cattail, coconut Bursting Violet, jewelweed, witch hazel Human Bean, wheat, cherry Germination Requirements water, warm temperature Dormancy period of time when the seed is alive but is not actively growing Reason for seed dormancy temperature is not warm enough

Patterns of Plant Structure and Function (Chapter 24) What are vascular plants? o Possess network of conducting tissue (xylem and phloem) o Diverse habitats and sizes o Include ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms Ferns Gymnosperms Non-flowering plants Seeds are borne naked in the cones Large trees providing wood and fiber (conifers) Angiosperms (grasses, apples, maple trees, rose, lilies, potato) Flowering plants Seeds are borne enclosed in fruits Divided into the monocotyledons and dicotyledons What are the structures and functions of vascular plant tissues? o Vascular Tissue Continuous tube-like strands connecting the roots to stem and leaves Resemble hollow cells stacked on top of each other Two types of conducting tissue in plants o Xylem Specialised tissue that conducts water Primary direction of material movement is upwards (root to leaf) Consists of non-living tracheid and vessel element cells o Phloem Specialized tissue transporting organic molecules within the plant Two-way movement of material (leaf to stem to root) consists of living sieve tube and companion cells

What are the structures and functions of vascular plant organs? o Roots Anchor a plant in the soil Absorb water/mineral nutrients Dicots (have netlike veins in their leaves) Central column of xylem with radiating arms (looks like an X Phloem surround the arms in the X Ringing this column of vascular tissues (vascular cylinder) Pericycle forms the outer boundary (tissue made up of parenchyma cells which undergo cell division to produce branch roots) Cortex surrounds the pericycle (store food for growth and metabolism of the root cells o Endodermis is the inner most layer of the cortex (specialized calls that regulate the flow of water between the vascular tissues and outer portion of the root) o Epidermis is the outer layer which absorbs water and inorganic nutrients (some have roots hairs that provide a large surface area) Monocots (have parallel veins in their leaves) similar to the dicot but; Pith is the centrally located parenchyma tissue Xylem and phloem are arranged in rings around the pith

Stem

Transport fluids throughout the plant and to support the leaves Conduct water and inorganic nutrients form the roots to all plant parts Bring the products of photosynthesis to where they are needed/stored Transportation system is made up of xylem and phloem that parallel to each other forming cylinders of tissue (vascular bundles, veins in leaves) Xylem o Closer to the interior of the stem Phloem o Lies closer to the epidermis Dicots have a mass of ground tissue in the center of the stem called pith and a ring of ground tissue between the epidermis and the vascular bundles called cortex Monocots have ground tissue but because it surrounds scattered vascular bundles, ground tissue does not form areas of pith or cortex

Leaves

Veins continuations of the vascular bundle in the stem (xylem and phloem) Monocots veins are parallel Dicots usually netlike Gymnosperms (vascular plants with naked seeds) needle like leaves suited for growth under dry/cold conditions

Mesophyll in most leaves is divided into two layers Palisade layer o Lies beneath the upper epidermis of the leaf and consists of layers of loosely packed column like cells o Contains organelles in which photosynthesis takes place (in the chloroplasts) Spongy layer o Lies beneath the palisade layer and contains loosely packed cells with many air spaces o These spaces are connected directly/indirectly with the openings to the outside (stomata) Stomata Bracketed by two guard cells that regulate its opening and closing Opens when the solute concentration is high within the guard cells water moves into them Closes when the solute concentration is low

Classification and Evolution of plants

Plant Control Systems (Chapter 25) How do plants control their activities? What are plant hormones? o Plant tropism response to unequal stimulus from the environment o Plant hormones a chemical that affects plant growth, differentiation, maturation, flowering Natural hormones IAA Synthetic hormones IBA Classes of hormones Auxins Induce cell elongation, root development, differentiation of vascular tissues, development of flowers, fruits, and controls tropisms (IAA, IBA, NAA) Cytokinins Stimulate cell division, growth (zeatin, Kinetin, 6-BAP) Gibberellens Causes elongation of stems Abscisic Acid Stimulates leaves/fruits to fall Ethylene Simulates ripening of fruits - How do plants respond to their environment? o Tropisms response to unequal stimulus from the environment - Tropisms (photo, gravitopism, thigmotropism, hydrotropism) Tropism Stimulus Biological Change Response Positive Light Cell elongation is stimulated Growing shoot bends towards Phototropism on the shaded side of a stem the light but inhibited on the lighted side Positive Gravity Cell elongation is inhibited on Growing root bends Gravitropism the lower portion of the root downwards towards the but stimulate on the upper centre of gravity portion Positive Touch or pressure Cell elongation is inhibited on Growing shoots coils around Thigmotropism the stem side touching an the object. For example, in object but stimulated on the some climbing vines non-touching side Negative Touch or pressure Cell elongation stimulated on Shoot grows away from an -

Thirmotropism

the stem side touching an obstacle object but inhibited on the non-touching side Positive Water availability Root tips closest to a source of Growth of the root towards a Hydrotropism water and soluble minerals water source simply grow faster than those further away (hormones not involved here) - Requirements for plant growth o Macro Elements N (nitrogen), P (phosphorous), K (potassium) Large quantities are found in soil o Secondary Elements Ca, Mg, S o Micro Elements Fe (iron), B (boron), Zn (zinc), Cu (copper), Mn (manganese), Mo (molybdenum) - Requirement for photosynthesis o Chemical formula Sunlight + CO2 + H2O O2 (oxygen) + C6H12O6 (glucose)