FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

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CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

Table of Contents
Page 1.0 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................... 3 1.1 Changes .......................................................................................................................................... 3 2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 3 2.1 Construction and Location ............................................................................................................... 3 2.2 Protection ......................................................................................................................................... 4 2.3 Occupancy ....................................................................................................................................... 4 2.4 Equipment and Processes .............................................................................................................. 4 2.5 Human Element ............................................................................................................................... 4 3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................................................... 4 3.1 Fire Hazards During Construction ................................................................................................... 4 3.2 Wind and Collapse Hazards During Construction ........................................................................... 5 3.3 Fire Hazards After Construction ...................................................................................................... 5 3.4 Wind and Collapse Hazards after Construction .............................................................................. 6 4.0 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................................... 6 4.1 FM Global ........................................................................................................................................ 6 4.2 NFPA Standards .............................................................................................................................. 6 4.3 Others .............................................................................................................................................. 7 APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS ....................................................................................................... 7 APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY ....................................................................................... 7 APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION ..................................................................................... 7 C.1 Steel Framing .................................................................................................................................. 7 C.1.1 Description ............................................................................................................................ 7 C.2 Cantilevered Roof Framing ............................................................................................................. 7 C.3 Floating Buildings ............................................................................................................................ 8 C.4 Castellated Beams .......................................................................................................................... 9 C.5 Deep Steel Trusses ........................................................................................................................ 9 C.6 Cable Roofs .................................................................................................................................... 9 C.7 Water-Filled Steel Columns .......................................................................................................... 10 C.8 Reinforced Concrete ..................................................................................................................... 10 C.9 Slip-Form Construction .................................................................................................................. 11 C.10 Lift-Slab Construction .................................................................................................................. 11 C.11 Tilt-Up Construction ..................................................................................................................... 11 C.12 Prestressed Concrete ................................................................................................................. 12 C.13 Load-Bearing Masonry Walls ...................................................................................................... 12 C.14 Thin Brick Walls .......................................................................................................................... 12 C.15 Poured Gypsum Roofs ............................................................................................................... 12 C.16 Noncombustible Precast Plank ................................................................................................... 13 C.17 Combustible Precast Plank and Cementitious Wood Fiber ....................................................... 13 C.18 Stressed-Skin Plywood ............................................................................................................... 14 C.19 Stressed-Skin Particle Board ...................................................................................................... 14 C.20 Glued Laminated Timbers ........................................................................................................... 14 C.21 Air-Inflated Enclosures ................................................................................................................ 14 C.22 Space Frames ............................................................................................................................. 14

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List of Figures
Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Cantilevered roof framing. .................................................................................................................. 8 Floating building. ................................................................................................................................. 8 Castellated beam. ............................................................................................................................... 9 Inverted dome cable roof. ................................................................................................................. 10 Double-curved cable roof. ................................................................................................................. 10 Poured gypsum roof. ........................................................................................................................ 13 Steel-edge precast gypsum plank roof. ............................................................................................ 13

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1.0 SCOPE This data sheet describes various construction systems and the hazards for each. Practical recommendations are presented for fire, wind perils and collapse. (Earthquake effects are not covered in this data sheet. See Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes.) 1.1 Changes May 2010. Replaced all references to Data Sheet 2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA), with references to Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers. 2.0 LOSS PREVENTION RECOMMENDATIONS 2.1 Construction and Location During the construction, alteration or demolition involving any type of construction, follow the respective guidelines in Data Sheet 1-0, Safeguards During Construction, Alteration and Demolition. 2.1.1 Temporary bracing should be provided for steel framework until a permanent bracing system is in place. (See Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design.) 2.1.2 A structural check should be made before heavy loads not considered in the design are applied to steel framing. See Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction, for further discussion on collapse. 2.1.3 Cantilevered beams should be designed for an unbalanced, live load. The combination of partial and no live loads that produces maximum stress should be used. 2.1.4 A roof assembly with a minimum fire resistance rating of 2 hours is recommended for the display or shopping area of a floating building. This should cover the area under the tower and extend outward horizontally from the exterior tower wall line for a distance of 30 ft (9.1 m). Areas with combustible contents should be sprinkered in addition to providing fire resistive construction. 2.1.5 The design of cable roofs should be entrusted to structural engineers with specific experience in this work. 2.1.6 Cable roofs of 100,000 ft2 (9,000 m2) area or larger should be investigated for flutter by model testing in a wind tunnel. 2.1.7 Drains in a concave area of a cable-supported roof must be adequate (see Data Sheet 1-54) and kept clear. 2.1.8 Water-filled steel columns should have a fire-resistance rating established in accordance with ASTM Standard E 119, Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. 2.1.9 Temporary bracing of concrete lift-slabs during the lifting period should be carefully designed and the construction closely supervised by the designers. 2.1.10 Temporary bracing of tilt-up concrete walls should be carefully designed and construction closely supervised. 2.1.11 Erection of building framing for tilt-up concrete walls should be expedited. 2.1.12 To stabilize masonry walls, building framing should be placed as soon as possible. 2.1.13 Construction of thin brick walls should be closely planned and supervised. 2.1.14 Poured gypsum roofs should not be installed over areas of high humidity. 2.1.15 The first ply of roofing should be fastened promptly (before the poured gypsum is completely hardened) in accordance with the manufacturers recommendations. 2.1.16 Noncombustible precast plank should be fastened to the supporting members in accordance with the manufacturers instruction. 2.1.17 Hollow joist construction should be avoided with stressed-skin plywood. 2.1.18 FM Approved, fire retardant plywood and framing are recommended.

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2.1.19 Hollow joist stressed-skin particle board construction should be avoided. 2.1.20 Use of air-inflated enclosures is not recommended except for short periods or as emergency shelters, or for low value, easily replaced contents. 2.2 Protection 2.2.1 Fire protection should follow daily construction progress as closely as possible. (See Data Sheet 1-0, Safeguards During Construction, Alteration and Demolition.) 2.2.2 Automatic sprinklers, if needed for cable roofs, should be designed to tolerate roof movement. 2.2.3 Automatic sprinkler protection should be provided for stressed-skin particleboard. 2.2.4 When wood fiberboard has been used for gypsum roof forms, automatic sprinkler protection should be installed. 2.2.5 If combustible plank has an ASTM E 84 ( Standard Test Methods for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials) flame spread greater than 25, automatic sprinkler protection should be provided or an FM Approved (see Appendix A for definition) fire-retardant coating applied. 2.2.6 If FM Approved impregnated plywood and framing are not used, automatic sprinkler protection should be provided. See other FM Global standards and the Approval Guide, an online resource of FM Approvals, for further information on fire retardant impregnated lumber. 2.3 Occupancy 2.3.1 Potential explosion sources should be kept out of buildings with load-bearing masonry walls. 2.4 Equipment and Processes 2.4.1 At least two blowers should be provided for air-inflated enclosures; either one should be capable of maintaining full inflation pressure with normal leakage. If three or more blowers are used, the capacity of each should be such that full pressure can be maintained with one blower shut down. 2.4.2 If electric blowers are used for air-inflated enclosures, a self-starting, fluid fueled engine generator set should be provided for use during power failures. 2.5 Human Element 2.5.1 Grass and weeds should be kept trimmed within 20 ft (6 m) of air-inflated enclosures. 3.0 SUPPORT FOR RECOMMENDATIONS 3.1 Fire Hazards During Construction Although steel is normally a strong material, it starts to weaken when exposed to fire temperatures above 800F (427C). It must be protected from fire by insulation or water spray. Such protection is usually lacking during construction. Uninsulated, cantilevered steel beams are vulnerable to fire. Because of their arrangement, the collapse of one beam may bring down others. If a fire in the first story of a floating building breaks through the roof, the girders as well as the floor above will be exposed. Collapse of a girder could bring down the entire tower. The form work used in slip-form construction is generally oil-lubricated wood or plastic. Some type of heater with an exposed flame may be present in cold weather. The combustibles are difficult if not impossible to reach with hose lines, so a fire would be hard to control. Because of inaccessibility, the presence of combustibles presents an above normal hazard. With lift-slab construction, there is little hazard from fire since very little form work is used. The roof used with tilt-up concrete walls may be of combustible materials.

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Prestressed concrete presents the same fire and wind hazards as reinforced concrete. Concrete post tensioned in place involves form work, which is possibly combustible, and it cannot support its own weight until the cables have been tensioned. Therefore, if the formwork should burn or otherwise fail, the posttensioned concrete would collapse. There is no special fire hazard associated with loadbearing masonry walls during construction. There is little fire hazard associated with thin brick walls during construction. 3.2 Wind and Collapse Hazards During Construction When steel members are first erected in the field, they are loosely connected with one or two bolts. Rigidity is provided later by high strength bolts or welding. In some cases, building walls provide additional support (shear walls). Moderate winds have blown down unbraced steel framing. Collapse under gravity loads is not common during construction of steel framework. Collapse of one cantilevered steel beam may bring down others; the hazard is greater than for conventional steel framing. During the process of lifting the concrete slabs, the construction is relatively unstable. A local failure due to wind or uneven lifting may cause complete collapse. After the concrete wall is tilted into place, temporary bracing is provided. The wall is vulnerable to wind and collapse until the roof framing is in place. Prestressed concrete construction is vulnerable to collapse until the connections are made. Load-bearing masonry walls are unstable until the floor framing is in place. Prefabricated sections of thin brick walls are particularly vulnerable to damage during transportation and erection because the panels are long, thin, and brittle. Because of their light weight, precast planks used for roof decking can be lifted by wind unless fastened to their supports. Unless the first ply of roofing is nailed before the poured gypsum is completely dry, roofing nails that rely on rusting for their grip will not hold properly, and wind resistance will be low. 3.3 Fire Hazards After Construction Where protection (insulation or automatic sprinkers) is not provided, fire remains a hazard after construction of steel framing. Cable roofs move under the effects of wind and temperature change. Special hangers and flexible couplings are required for sprinkler piping. Where long individual cables are used, the loss of one section will cause extensive damage. With intersecting interconnected cables, adjacent cables can bridge the damaged area. Given proper design and construction there are no normal hazards after installation of tilt-up walls. However, the roof may be combustible. Precast, prestressed concrete is generally cast in steel forms at a remote point and presents no fire hazard. Cast-in-place, prestressed concrete generally presents the same fire hazard as reinforced concrete. Loss of a load-bearing masonry wall or one floor, as by an explosion, will bring down everything above in deck-of-cards fashion. Falling beams, caused by collapse of one load-bearing wall, can initiate collapse in other walls. When wood fiberboard is used for forms, poured gypsum construction is combustible. The fire hazard of combustible precast plank varies according to the combustibility of the plank. Some planks should be protected by automatic sprinklers. Unless the plywood is Approved fire retardant impregnated lumber, this is combustible construction.

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Stressed-skin particle board is combustible construction. The use of the concealed space as a plenum is especially hazardous. A rapidly spreading, inaccessible fire can result. Glue-laminated timbers are slow burning and will not contribute significantly to fire spread. Air-inflated enclosures have been unsprinklered to date. A fire in the unsprinklered occupancy may cause the enclosure to act as a hot air balloon with resultant loss of the envelope and possibly the contents as well. As the structure tries to lift, it can pull free of the moorings (usually stakes driven into the ground). Once the enclosure is free, the hot air can spill out and the skin can flutter down into the fire and be torn on sharp contents. Grass fires present an exposure condition. 3.4 Wind and Collapse Hazards after Construction It is rare for a properly designed and constructed steel framed structure to be damaged by wind or to collapse. Cable-supported roofs 100,000 ft2 (9,000 m2) or larger are subject to flutter in windstorms. Flutter can break the adhesive bond between roof insulation and deck, weaken cable connections, and damage the sprinkler piping. Cable roofs with concavities are vulnerable to the weight of collected rain water and snow. There are no wind and collapse hazards for prestressed concrete construction under normal conditions. Thin brick walls are subject to wind damage unless properly designed and supported. Poured gypsum is subject to long term deterioration when exposed to high humidity. There are no special wind or collapse hazards with stressed-skin plywood after construction. There are no special wind or collapse hazards with stressed-skin particle board after construction. There are no special hazards with glue laminated timber from wind or collapse. Air-inflated enclosures are particularly susceptible to wind damage. The wind force for which they are designed is too low for permanent installations. The envelope may be blown against the contents and torn, or the tie-downs may fail. Hail and wind blown debris have collapsed enclosures. Loss of power to the blowers that maintain the inflation results in gradual collapse. Snow loading also can cause collapse. Space-frame construction, when properly designed, presents little collapse hazard. If structural integrity is lost over a small portion of the roof, the surrounding members will help support the damaged area. The fire hazard depends on the material used for the skin. 4.0 REFERENCES 4.1 FM Global Data Sheet 1-0, Safeguards During Construction, Alteration and Demolition Data Sheet 1-2, Earthquakes Data Sheet 1-21, Fire Resistance of Building Assemblies Data Sheet 1-28, Wind Design. Data Sheet 1-54, Roof Loads for New Construction. Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers 4.2 NFPA Standards NFPA 102, Grandstands, Folding and Telescopic Seating, Tents and Membrane Structures, 1995. NFPA 220, Types of Building Construction, 1995.

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4.3 Others American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 84, Standard Test Methods for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 119, Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. APPENDIX A GLOSSARY OF TERMS FM Approved: references to FM Approved in this data sheet means the product and services have satisfied the criteria for FM Approval. Refer to the Approval Guide, am online resource of FM Approvals, for a complete listing of products and services that are FM Approved. Castellated beam: a wide flange steel beam which is cut along its web in a sawtooth fashion. Its upper and lower portions are shifted longitudinally with respect to each other and welded together along the web, thus creating a deeper beam with openings in its web. APPENDIX B DOCUMENT REVISION HISTORY May 2010. Replaced all references to Data Sheet 2-8N, Installation of Sprinkler Systems (NFPA), with references to Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers. In 1999 editorial and organizational revisions were made to this document. APPENDIX C SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION Until the 1800s many factories, warehouses, and even institutional buildings were plank-on-timber construction with load-bearing masonry walls. Small buildings were mostly frame construction. The first building with a wrought iron frame was erected in 1858 and the use of Portland cement soon followed. A steel-framed building was built in 1884. These developments made taller buildings possible and the first skyscrapers were built around 1900. Multistory industrial buildings remained popular for several decades. After World War II, the trend in manufacturing, retailing, offices, and even motels was to large, one-story buildings. In some cases, story height reached 60 ft (18 m). Structural systems became lighter, with thin exterior walls of metal and glass. Rising land costs, however, produced a trend back to multistory buildings for office and hotel occupancies. C.1 Steel Framing C.1.1 Description Conventional steel framing involves rolled steel members. The pieces are shop fabricated, or cut to length with connectors attached at a remote location. Parts are assembled at the construction site by bolting or welding. Buildings framed with steel are classified according to the construction of the roof deck and insulation protection for the steel. Framing for metal buildings usually consists of cold-formed steel z or c shaped purlins formed from thin steel plate (0.060 to 0.120 in., [1.5 to 3.0 mm] thick) with stiffened flanges. The purlins are usually supported by primary steel members constructed of steel plate sections welded together to form a web and flanges. C.2 Cantilevered Roof Framing Cantilevered roof framing uses steel girders projecting beyond the supporting columns to support ends of other girders or beams. The cantilevered loading reduces bending moments and the weight of steel required to frame a given roof. Cantilevered framing simulates continuous beam construction by placing the connections approximately at points of zero moment. Two basic types of cantilevered roof framing area are used (Fig. 1). In the single-column type, most of the girders are supported at one end by a wall or single column. The other end is supported by an adjacent girder. At least one girder is supported by two columns to provide a starting point for erection. Girders are often all the same nominal depth. The interior girders are usually of lighter weight (thinner flanges and webs).

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Fig. 1. Cantilevered roof framing.

The second type is the suspended beam type. The girders are supported by a wall and a column or two columns. Girders extend across the tops of the columns to support suspended beams. The beams are usually of less depth and weight than the girders. The two types are usually not combined in any building. In both types the girders and beams support open-web joists or light solid-web purlins (beams) that support the roof deck. Buildings of cantilevered construction are classified according to deck construction and insulation protection for the steel. C.3 Floating Buildings Another architectural use of the cantilever principle produces a floating building. Generally, there is a one-story display or shopping area with a shaft rising out of it. Perched upon this shaft area is a multistory building (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Floating building.

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Floating buildings are normally of fire-resistive construction. However, there may be some seriously unprotected elements. The overhang is achieved with cantilevers which are supported by the central shaft and surrounding columns. The cantilevers generally are steel girders in enclosed, heated spaces. These enclosures may not be fire resistive. C.4 Castellated Beams To make a castellated beam, the web of a standard rolled steel beam is cut sawtooth fashion, the cuts are offset, and the contacting portions of web welded (Fig. 3). This yields a beam that is deeper and more efficient in resisting certain loads.

Fig. 3. Castellated beam.

Castellated beams were originally used for supporting overhead, traveling cranes. With the development of continuous stamping machines to make the cuts, their use expanded to include framing for light buildings. Essentially, the castellated beams compete with bar joists and light trusses. The beams are, in fact, a form of Vierendell truss and more difficult to analyze than normal beams. Otherwise, they present no more problem than regular steel framing. Special sprinkler layouts may be used with piping passing through the openings in the webs. See Data Sheet 2-0, Installation Guidelines for Automatic Sprinklers. Buildings framed with exposed, castellated beams are classified according to the deck construction. C.5 Deep Steel Trusses One-story buildings are frequently built with light, truss-type members supported by relatively heavy, solid web members for roof framing. The solid web members are now giving way to deep trusses with light angles or tees as components. Buildings with exposed, deep steel trusses are classified according to deck construction. C.6 Cable Roofs The steel cable-supported roof deck can take many three-dimensional forms, but most popular is the inverted dome or arch (Fig. 4). The other forms are doubly curved shells. Cables intersect and are generally tied together. One curves upward; the intersecting cable, downward (Fig. 5). Various forms of covering are used, including precast concrete plank and steel deck, both with built-up roofing. Buildings with cable roofs are normally of noncombustible construction.

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Fig. 4. Inverted dome cable roof.

Fig. 5. Double-curved cable roof.

C.7 Water-Filled Steel Columns Exterior box-shaped steel columns have been fire-proofed by filling them with a nonfreeze, corrosion resistive solution. To date buildings so equipped range from one to 64 stories in height. Most codes ask for 1 to 2 hours fire resistance for such columns. To date, no published test data demonstrate such systems could provide longer protection, so buildings with water-filled columns are classified as noncombustible construction. (See Data Sheet 1-21, Fire Resistance of Building Assemblies.) Buildings with water-filled columns will be classified according to the deck construction. C.8 Reinforced Concrete Reinforced concrete consists of aggregate mixed (generally) with Portland cement. The resulting product is weak in tension. To overcome this weakness, deformed steel bars are provided for greater tensile strength. (See C.12 Prestressed Concrete.) Reinforced concrete, cast in place or precast, can be used for floors, walls, or roofs. Generally, joints between components of precast concrete are cast in place to obtain structural continuity. It would be difficult to find a nonmoving structure that does not have concrete in some portion. Usually, fine and coarse aggregates (such as sand and gravel) are combined. By variation concrete can be obtained weighing from 60 lb/ft3 (960 kg/m3) to several hundred lb/ft3 (several Mg/m3). The lightweight concretes (60-90 lb/ft3) (960-1440 kg/m3) have little strength and are generally used for insulation. Lightweight structural concretes weigh 90 to 120 lb/ft3 (1440 to 1920 kg/m3) and have special applications where low dead weight and reasonable structural strength are desired. Normal structural concretes weigh 140 to 150

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lb/ft3 (2240 to 2400 kg/m3). Compressive strength generally varies from 3000 to 5000 psi (21 to 34 MPa). Concretes that weigh over 150 lb/ft3 (2400 kg/m3) are used for radiation shielding. Metallic punchings are generally used for aggregate in heavy concrete. Reinforced concrete can be a difficult product to build with. It is made from an engineered mixture of cement, various aggregates, and reinforcement whose behavior is not as well understood as that of other materials, although much research work is being done. A number of different trades are involved in construction of concrete assemblies. Buildings made of reinforced concrete are fire resistive but this is a relative term. Concrete with siliceous aggregate is not a good insulator and is subject to spalling when exposed to fire. With proper engineering, specific fire-resistance ratings can be obtained. If a concrete assembly is exposed to a fire of greater intensity or duration than that designed for, irreparable damage can be expected. Actually, fire-resistive concrete may present a major fire hazard during the forming period because of the amount and arrangement of combustibles present at that time. Hazards During Construction Fire. Oil-lubricated wood, plastic, or steel forms and wood shoring are used during the placing and forming period. Wood forms are as hazardous as boards on joists. Portable heaters provide ready ignition sources. Finally, automatic sprinkler protection will not be available during forming. Wind. There is little hazard from wind when concrete structures are properly designed and constructed. FM Global loss experience has been favorable. Collapse. The supporting shoring is temporary. Until the concrete has gained its design strength, it is vulnerable to collapse. A minimum of 7 days is generally considered necessary before the concrete has sufficient strength to support its own weight and a limited live load. Hazards After Construction Given a properly designed and constructed structure, there are no hazards under normal conditions. C.9 Slip-Form Construction This is a method of constructing reinforced concrete towers, silos, and shafts. Form work is constructed to a height, then concrete placed and allowed to set. The forms are then freed, raised, and another lift of concrete is placed. This continues until the structure is topped out. An alternate method uses slowly but continuously moving slip-forms. The exposed concrete left behind strengthens quickly enough to support operations above. Slip-formed buildings are usually of fire-resistive construction. C.10 Lift-Slab Construction Floor and roof slabs are constructed of reinforced concrete on the ground, usually in deck-of-cards fashion, and carefully jacked up preformed columns and/or shafts. It is possible to even construct walls and install plumbing and electric fixtures while the floors are at ground level, and then raise an entire floor as one unit. This is a very efficient form of construction, but adequate bracing is essential. Collapses have occurred during lifting. Wind also can exert forces on the assembly. Buildings constructed by the lift-slab technique may be of either fire-resistive or noncombustible construction. C.11 Tilt-Up Construction Tilt-up construction is employed in making of reinforced concrete walls, mainly for one-story buildings. Wall panels are constructed flat and tilted into place. Once the panels are positioned, wet concrete is used to connect them. Until the roof is in place, these walls are highly susceptible to toppling by wind or accident.

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C.12 Prestressed Concrete Prestressed concrete is widely used, particularly for one-story commercial and industrial buildings, and bridges. This type of construction is both cast in place or, more commonly, precast. As with ordinary reinforced concrete, metal components are provided to overcome concretes low tensile strength. Internal wires or cables are stretched and the tensile force in them compresses the concrete. As external loads are applied, the compression is released until the stress on the concrete is zero or slightly in the tensile range. By locating the prestressing steel off center and varying its location along the length of the structural member, stresses under full loading can be controlled by the designer. Steel bars can be combined with prestressing wires for certain applications. Two methods are used for prestressing: Pretensioning. Concrete is poured around wires that have been placed under tension. When the concrete has hardened sufficiently, the tensioning equipment is released. The steel wires tend to return to their original length and compress the concrete. This method is generally used with precasting. Post-tensioning. The steel wires are tensioned after the concrete has been placed. The wires are prevented from bonding to the concrete, usually by encasing them in sheaths. When the concrete has gained sufficient strength, hydraulic jacks working against the ends of the member place tension on the wires and compression in the concrete. When desired stresses are reached, the wires are anchored to the ends of the member. In most cases, a grout will be pumped into the sheath to achieve full length bonding. Post-tensioning is generally used with cast-in-place concrete. The critical period structurally for all prestressed concrete assemblies is before installation. As load comes on the installed member, stresses decrease (unless overload occurs). Thus, prestressed concrete assemblies are pretested. C.13 Load-Bearing Masonry Walls Multistory motels and apartment buildings are being economically built with load-bearing masonry walls. There are no columns. Such walls have been constructed to 16 stories, thanks to advances in materials and careful design. C.14 Thin Brick Walls Polymer additives have made high strength mortars possible. This has lead to the construction of curtain walls one brick thick, which are sometimes prefabricated. These walls are not load bearing. Fire resistance of the thin brick walls is low, approximately 1 to 1-12 hours. Buildings with thin brick walls may be of any type of construction except wood frame. C.15 Poured Gypsum Roofs Poured gypsum is frequently used when a roof of low combustibility is desired. Steel members resembling small rails are laid across steel beams or trusses and attached by welding. Between the rail shaped members, paper faced gypsum board, mineral board, glass fiber board, asbestos cement board, or fiberboard sheet is placed. This serves as a form for poured gypsum concrete, reinforced with steel mesh (Fig. 6), and is normally left in place. During the curing period, the gypsum is ventilated through the form. With gypsum form board, the paper exposed on the underside will not contribute enough heat in event of fire to be significant. The assembly can, therefore, be considered noncombustible, as can gypsum over mineral board, asbestos cement board, and glass fiberboard. Wood fiber formboard, however, is combustible. Buildings with poured gypsum roofs are usually of fire-resistive or noncombustible construction. If there are wood fiber formboards, the construction is combustible.

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Fig. 6. Poured gypsum roof.

C.16 Noncombustible Precast Plank Lightweight, Portland cement concrete planks for roof decking are usually in the form of channels and used with the legs of the channels facing down. Flat planks, 2 to 2 34 in. (50 to 70 mm) thick, are also used. These are not prestressed. Common mesh reinforcing steel is suitable for the spans and loads used. Steel edged gypsum plank is another common form of roof plank. Steel mesh reinforcing and gypsum are placed in a steel form of tongue and groove shape. The plank can be cut with a saw, so pieces left at the end of a run of plank can be used as starting pieces for the next run. Where planks end between supporting members, the tongues and grooves provide structural continuity (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Steel-edge precast gypsum plank roof.

Noncombustible planks of mineral fibers are also available. They are flat rather than channel shaped, and have tongue-and-grooved edges. Noncombustible, precast plank is sometimes used for flooring where loads are light. Buildings with noncombustible, precast plank roof decking are usually of fire-resistive or noncombustible construction. C.17 Combustible Precast Plank and Cementitious Wood Fiber Structural wood fiberboards come both as flat planks and tiles. The material consists of organic fibers held together with various binders. The plank is tongue-and-grooved on the long edges, and fastened to supporting members by special clips and/or nails. Tiles may be step-cut at two edges. They are laid in rail shaped steel members and topped with gypsum concrete or lightweight, Portland cement concrete. Surface combustibility varies from nearly noncombustible to rapid burning. Because of the variation in combustibility, each product must be evaluated on an individual basis.

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Construction Systems
FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data Sheets

Similar planks use a mixture of mineral and organic fibers. These are generally of low combustibility. Special nails are required for some combustible precast planks. Roof covering is generally placed with the first felts nailed to the plank, although some planks are supplied with the base felt factory-applied. C.18 Stressed-Skin Plywood Stressed-skin plywood is a prefabricated construction system. Plywood sheets are applied to the topside or both sides of a frame of wood joists. The joists are approximately 16 in. (0.41 m) on center. Connections are made by gluing and nailing. Each joist and portions of top and bottom skins act as I-beams, providing greater strength than the joist alone. Spans range from 6 to 30 ft (1.8 to 9.1 m); thickness varies from 2 to 12 in. (51 to 305 mm). Stressed-skin plywood can be used for roofs, floors, or walls. Buildings with stressed-skin plywood floor or roof decks are equivalent to boards-on-joists construction. If the plywood is on the top of the joists, the construction may be further defined as open joist (otherwise hollow joist) construction. If the building is open joist construction and the plywood and framing are of FM Approved fire retardent impregnated lumber, it may qualify as noncombustible construction for limited application. C.19 Stressed-Skin Particle Board A form of construction similar to stressed-skin plywood uses particle board. This produces weaker panels, but they can be properly engineered for specific spans and loads. It has been proposed to use the enclosed assemblies as air handling plenums. This would present an extreme fire hazard since sprinklers might not be effective in the plenums. Buildings with stressed-skin board roofs are equivalent to board-on-joist construction. If the particle board is on only the top of the joists, the construction may be further defined as open joist; otherwise, it is hollow joist. C.20 Glued Laminated Timbers Heavy framing timbers which must be carefully cut from selected logs have largely been replaced by more economical glued, laminated timbers. These are built up from planks which are glued together with a resin. The built-up timbers are combustible but slow burning. Buildings with glued, laminated timbers can be of plank-on-timber, boards-on-joists, or noncombustible construction depending on the subframing and decking. C.21 Air-Inflated Enclosures Fabric enclosures supported only by air pressure are becoming more numerous. They are used for storage, athletic facilities, and public assembly. According to the current manufacturers code, pressures of less than one inch (25 mm) of water (0.25 kPa) (2.5 m bar) will stabilize the enclosures during a fastest-mile wind of 60 mph (97 km/hr). Losses have occurred largely by the loss of electric power (for blowers) during moderate winds, rubbing of the skin on building contents, deformation under snow load, or by very high winds alone. The enclosure is usually purchased for temporary use. However, the temporary period tends to lengthen. C.22 Space Frames With the advent of the computer, it has become relatively easy to design three dimensional space frames. Framing material is generally steel in the form of pipe, rectangular tubing, or structural shapes, but precast concrete is also used. Joints are usually rigid connections. Lightweight panels of metal, plastic or wood have been used to enclose the structures. Space-frame buildings can be of any type of construction except wood frame.

FM Engr. Comm. June 1977

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