I.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Respiration is necessary because all living cells of the body requireoxygen and produce carbon dioxide. The respiration system assists in gasexchange and performs other formation as well our body needs a constants u p p l y o f o x y g e n t o s u p p o r t m e t a b o l i s m . T h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m b r i n g s oxygen through the airways of lungs into the alveoli, where it diffuses intothe blood for transport to the tissue, this process is so vital that difficult in breathing is expected as a threat to life in self. The respiratory system allows oxygen from the air to enter the blood and carbon dioxide to leave the bloodand enter the air. The cardiovascular system transport oxygen from the lungsto the cells of the body and carbon dioxide. Without healthy respiratory andcardiovascular system, the capacity to carry out normal activity is reduced,and without adequate respiratory and cardiovascular sy stem friction, lifeitself is possible. NoseThe term nose refers to the visible structure that forms a prominentfeature of the face. Most of the nose is composed of cartilage, although thebridge of the nose consists of bone the bone and cartilage and covered byconnective tissue and shin. Nasal cavityThe nasal extends from the noses to the choane the nares orn o s t r i l s a r e t h e e x t e r n a l o p e n i n g o f t h e n o s e a n d t h e c h o a n e a r e t h e openings to the pharynx. The nose is formed from both bone and cartilage. The nasal bone forms the bridge and the remainder of the nose is composedof cartilage and connective tissue. Each opening of the nose to the face leadsto the cavity. The vestibule is lined anteriorly to the skin and hair that filterforeign objects and prevent from being inhaled. The posterior vestibule islined with a mucous membrane, composed of columnar epithelial cells and,g o b l e t s c e l l s t h a t s e c r e t e m u c o u s . T h e mucous membrane extendsthroughout the ai rways and cilia propel mucous to the phary n x f o r elimination by swallowing or coughing. The portion of mucous membrane thatis located at the top of the nasal cavity, just beneath the cribriform plate of t h e e t h m o i d b o n e , i s s p e c i a l i z e d e p i t h e l i u m ; w i t c h p r o v i d e s t h e s e n s e o f smell.

Along the side of the vestibule are turbinate, mucous membrane coveredprojections that contain a rich blood supply from the internal and externalcarotid arteries. They warm and humidify inspired air. Paranasal sinuses - open areas within the skull are named for the bones inwitch they lie: frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid and maxillary. Passageway fromparanasal sinuses drain into the nasal cavity . The nasolacrimal duct, witch drain tears from the surface of the eyes, also drains the nasal cavity. Pharynxit is a funnel-shaped tube that extends from the nose to the larynx.It is the common passageway of both the respiratory and digestive system. Itcan be divided into three regions:a.Nasopharynx- is located above the margin of the soft palate and receives air from the nasal cavity. From the ear, the Eustachiantubes open into the nasopharynx. The pharyngeal tonsils arelocated on the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.b . O r o p h a r y n x - s e r v e s b o t h r e s p i r a t i o n a n d d i g e s t i o n . I t r e c e i v e s air from the nasopharynx and food from the oral cavity. Palatinetonsils are located along the sides of the posterior mouth, and the lingual tonsils are located at the base of the tongue.

c.Laryngopharynx- located below the base of the t o n g u e , i s t h e most inferior portion of the pharynx. It connects to the larynxand serves both the respiration and digestion. Larynxis commonly called the voice box. It connects the u p p e r a n d lower airway. It lies just anterior to the upper esophagus. Nine cartilagesf o r m t h e l a r y n x : e p i g l o t t i s , t h y r o i d , c r i c o i d , a r y t h e n o i d , c o r n i c u l a t e , cuneiform. The cartilage are attach to the hyoid bone above and below the trachea by muscles and ligaments. The slit the vocal cords forms theglottis. The epiglottis, a leaf shaped structure immediately posterior to thebase of the tongue. The thyroid cartilage protrudes in front of the larynxforming the Adams apple. Tracheaextends from the larynx to the level of the seventh thoracicvertebrae, where it divides into two main bronchi. The point at witch thetrachea divides is called carina. The trachea is a flexible, muscular, 12cmlong air passage with C-shaped cartilaginous ring. Lungsit lie within the thoracic cavity on either side of the heart. Theyare cone-shaped, with the apex above the first rib and the base resting onthe diaphragm. Each lung is divided into superior and inferior lobes by anoblique fissure. The right lung is further divide by a horizontal fissure, witch bounds a middle lobe. The right lung therefore has three lobes. Thelung contains gas, blood, and thin alveolar wall and support structure. Thealveolar walls contain elastic and collagen fibers. These fibers are capableof stretching when the pulling force is exerted on then from outside of thebody or whey they are inflated from within. Alveolithe lungs parenchyma, consists of millions of alveolar units, isthe working area of the lung tissue it birth a person has approximately 24million alveoli, by the age 8 yrs a person 300 million. The total workingalveolar surface are is the approximately 750 to 860 square feet. Oxygenand CO 2 are exchange through the respiratory membrane about 0.2 mmt h i c k ( T h e a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r o f t h e p u l m o n a r y c a p i l l a r y o n l y a b o u t 5 mins). Thorax

- provides protection for the lungs, heart and great vessels. Theouter shell of the thorax is made up of 12 pairs of ribs. The ribs connectsp o s t e r i o r t o t h e t r a n s v e r s e p r o c e s s e s o f t h e t h o racic vertebrae of the Respiratory System, in anatomy and physiology, comprises of organs that deliver oxygen to the circulatory system for transport to all body cells. Oxygen is essential for cells, which use this vital substance to liberate the energy needed for cellular activities. Inaddition to supplying oxygen, the respiratory system aids in removing of carbon dioxide, preventing the lethal buildup of this waste product in body tissues. Day-in and day-out,w i t h o u t t h e p r o m p t o f c o n s c i o u s t h o u g h t , t h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m c a r r i e s o u t i t s l i f e - sustaining activities. If the respiratory systems tasks are interrupted for more than a fewminutes, serious, irreversible damage to tissues occurs, followed by the failure of all bodysystems, and ultimately, death. While the intake of oxygen and removal of carbon dioxide are the primaryfunctions of the respiratory system, it play s o t h e r i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n t h e b o d y . T h e respiratory system helps regulate the balance of acid and base in tissues, a process crucialfor the normal functioning of cells. It protects the body against disease-causing organismsand toxic substances inhaled with air. The respiratory system also houses the cells that detect smell, and assists in the production of sounds for speech.The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to deliver oxygen to cellsand remove carbon dioxide in a two -phase process called respiration. The first phase of respiration begins with breathing in, or inhalation. Inhalation brings air from outside the body into the lungs. Oxygen in the air moves from the lungs through blood vessels to theheart, which pumps the oxygen-rich blood to all parts of the body. Oxygen then movesfrom the bloodstream into cells, which completes the first phase of respiration. In thecells, oxygen is used in a separate energy-producing process called cellular respiration,which produces carbon dioxide as a byproduct. The second phase of respiration beginswith the movement of carbon dioxide from the cells to the bloodstream. The bloodstreamcarries carbon dioxide to the heart, which pumps the carbon dioxide-laden blood to thelungs. In the lungs, breathing out,

or exhalation, removes carbon dioxide from the body,thus completing the respiration cycle. II. Structure The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to the lungs and aredivided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose and the pharynx, or throat. The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, or voice box; the trachea, or windpipe, which splits into two main branches called bronchi tiny branches of the bronchi called bronchioles; and the lungs, a pair of saclike, spongyorgans. The nose, pharynx, larynx , trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles conduct air to andfrom the lungs. The lungs interact with the circulatory system to deliver oxygen andremove carbon dioxide. A. Nasal Passages Anatomy of the NoseThe uppermost portion of the human respiratory system, the nose is a hollow air passage that functions in breathing and in the sense of smell. The nasal cavity moistensand warms incoming air, while small hairs and mucus filter out harmful particles andmicroorganisms.The flow of air from outside of the body to the lungs begins with the nose, whichi s d i v i d e d i n t o t h e l e f t and right nasal passages. The nasal passages are lined with a membrane composed primarily of one layer of flat, closely packed cells called epithelialc e l l s . E a c h e p i t h e l i a l c e l l i s d e n s e l y f r i n g e d w i t h t h ousands of microscopic cilia fingerlike extensions of the cells. Interspersed among the epithelial cells are goblet cells,specialized cells that produce mucus, a sticky, thick, moist fluid that coats the epithelialc e l l s a n d t h e c i l i a . N u m e r o u s t i n y b l o o d v e s s e l s c a l l e d c a p i l l a r i e s l i e j u s t u n d e r t h e mucous membrane, near the surface of the nasal passages. While transporting air to the p h a r y n x , t h e n a s a l p a s s a g e s p l a y t w o c r i t i c a l r o l e s : t h e y f i l t e r t h e a i r t o r e m o v e potentially disease causing particles; and they moisten and warm the air to protect thestructures in the respiratory system.Filtering prevents airborne bacteria, viruses, other potentially diseasecausings u b s t a n c e s f r o m e n t e r i n g t h e l u n g s , w h e r e t h e y m a y cause infection. Filtering alsoeliminates smog and dust par t i c l e s , w h i c h m a y c l o g t h e n a r r o w a i r p a s s a g e s i n t h e smallest bronchioles. Coarse hairs found just inside the nostrils of the nose trap

airborne particles as they are inhaled. The particles drop down onto the mucous membrane liningt h e n a s a l p a s s a g e s . T h e c i l i a e m b e d d e d i n t h e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e w a v e c o n s t a n t l y , creating a current of mucus that propels the particles out of the nose or downward to the pharynx. In the pharynx, the mucus is swallowed and pa ssed to the stomach, where the particles are destroyed by stomach acid. If more particles are in the nasal passages thant h e c i l i a c a n h a n d l e , t h e p a r t i c l e s b u i l d u p o n t h e m u c u s a n d i r r i t a t e t h e m e m b r a n e beneath it. This irritation triggers a reflex that produces a sneeze to get rid of the pollutedair.The nasal passages also moisten and warm air to prevent it from damaging thedelicate membranes of the lung. The mucous membranes of the nasal passages releasewater vapor, which moistens the air as it passes over the membranes. As air moves over the extensive capillaries in the nasal passages, it is warmed by the blood in the capillaries. If the nose is blocked or stuffy due to a cold or allergies, a person is forced to breath through the mouth. This can be potentially harmful to the respiratory system membranes,since the mouth does not filter, warm, or moisten air.In addition to their role in the respiratory system, the nasal passages house cellscalled olfactory receptors, which are involved in the sense of s mell. When chemicals enter the nasal passages, they contact the olfactory receptors. This triggers the receptorsto send a signal to the brain, which creates the perception of smell. B. Pharynx Air leaves the nasal passages and flows to the pharynx, a short, funnel-shapedtube about 13 cm (5 in) long that transports air to the larynx. Like the nasal passages, the p h a r y n x i s l i n e d w i t h a p r o t e c t i v e m u c o u s m e m b r a n e a n d c i l i a t e d c e l l s t h a t r e m o v e impurities from the air. In addition to serving as an air passage, t he pharynx houses thetonsils, lymphatic tissues that contain white blood cells. The white blood cells attack anydisease-causing organisms that escape the hairs, cilia, and mucus of the nasal passagesa n d p h a r y n x . T h e t o n s i l s a r e s t r a t e g i c a l l y l o c a t e d t o p r e v e n t t h e s e o r g a n i s m s f r o m moving further into the body. One tonsil, called the adenoids, is found high in the rear wall of the pharynx. A pair of tonsils, the palatine tonsils, is located at the back of the pharynx on either side of the tongue. Another pair , the lingual tonsils, is found deep in the pharynx at the base of the tongue. In their battles with disease-causing organisms, thetonsils sometimes

become swollen with infection. When the adenoids are swollen, they block the flow of air from the nasal pass ages to the pharynx, and a person must breathe through the mouth C. Larynx Air moves from the pharynx to the larynx, a structure a b o u t 5 c m ( 2 i n ) l o n g located approximately in the middle of the neck. Several layers of cartilage, a tough andf l e x i b l e t i s s u e , c o m p r i s e m o s t of the larynx. A protrusion in the cartilage called t h e Adams apple sometimes enlarges in males during puberty, creating a prominent bulge visible on the neck.While the primary role of the larynx is to transport air to the trachea, it also servesother functions. It plays a primary role in producing sound; it prevents food and fluidfrom entering the air passage to cause choking; and its mucous membranes and cilia- bearing cells help filter air. The cilia in the larynx waft airborne particles u p toward the pharynx to be swallowed Food and fluids from the pharynx usually are prevented from entering the larynx by the epiglottis, a thin, leaflike tissue. The stem of the leaf attaches to the front and topof the larynx. When a person is breathing, the epiglottis is held in a vertical position, likean open trap door. When a person swallows, however, a reflex causes the larynx and theepiglottis to move toward each other, forming a protective seal, and food and fluids are routed to the esophagus.I f a p e r s o n i s e a t i n g o r d r i n k i n g t o o r a p i d l y , o r l a u g h s w h i l e s w a l l o w i n g , t h e swallowing reflex may not work, and food or fluid can enter the larynx. Food, fluid, or other substances in the larynx initiate a cough reflex as the body attempts to clear thelarynx of the obstruction. If the cough reflex does not work, a person can choke, a life -30

threatening situation. The Heimlich maneuver is a t e c h n i q u e u s e d t o c l e a r a b l o c k e d larynx (see First Aid). A surgical procedure called a tracheotomy is used to bypass thelarynx and get air to the trachea in extreme cases of chokin threatening situation. The Heimlich maneuver is a t e c h n i q u e u s e d t o c l e a r a b l o c k e d larynx (see First Aid). A surgical procedure called a tracheotomy is used to bypass the larynx and get air to the trachea in extreme cases of choking. D. Trachea, Bronchi, and Bronchioles Air passes from the larynx into the trachea, a tube about 12 to 15 cm (about 5 to 6in) long located just below the larynx. The trachea is formed of 15 to 20 C-shaped ringsof cartilage. The sturdy cartilage rings hold the trachea open, enabling air to pass freely atall times. The open part of the C-shaped cartilage lies at the back of the trachea, and theends of the C are connected by muscle tissue.The base of the trachea is located a little below where the neck meets the trunk of the body. Here the trachea branches into two tubes, the left and right bronchi, whichdeliver air to the left and right lungs, respectively. Within

the lungs, the bronchi branch into smaller tubes called bronchioles. The trachea, bronchi, and the first few bronchioles ontribute to the cleansing function of the respiratory system, for they, too, are lined withmucous membranes and ciliated cells that move mucus upward to the pharynx. E. Alveoli The bronchioles divide many more times in the lungs to create an impressive treewith smaller and smaller branches, some no larger than 0.5 mm (0.02 in) in diameter.These branches dead -end into tiny air sacs called alveoli. The alveoli deliver oxygen tothe circulatory system and remove carbon dioxide. Interspersed among the alveoli arenumerous macrophages, large white blood cells that patrol the alveoli and remove foreignsubstances that have not been filtered out earlier. The macrophages are the last line of d e f e n s e o f t h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m ; t h e i r p r e s e n c e h e l p s e n s u r e t h a t t h e a l v e o l i a r e protected from infection so that they can carry out their vital role Human LungsThough the right lung has three lobes, the left lung, with a cleft to accommodatethe heart, has only two. The two branches of the trachea, called bronchi, subdivide withinhe lobes into smaller and smaller air vessels. They terminate in alveoli, tiny air sacssurrounded by capillaries. When the alveoli inflate with inhaled air, oxygen diffuses intothe blood in the capillaries to be pumped by the heart to the tissues of the body, andcarbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood into the lungs, where it is exhaled.The alveoli number about 150 million per lung and comprise most of the lung tissue. Alveoli resemble tiny, collapsed balloons with thin elastic walls that expand as air flows into them and collapse when the air is exhaled. Alveoli are arranged in grapelikeclusters, and each cluster is surrounded by a dense hairnet of tiny, thinwalled capillaries.The alveoli and capillaries are arranged in such a way that air in the wall of the alveoli isonly about 0.1 to 0.2 microns from the blood in the capillary. Since the concentration of oxygen is much higher in the alveoli than in the capillaries, the oxygen diffuses from thealveoli to the capillaries. The oxygen flows through the capillaries to larger vessels, which carry the oxygenated blood to the heart, where it is pumped to the rest of the body.Carbon dioxide that has been dumped into the bloodstream as a waste productfrom cells throughout the body flows through the bloodstream to the heart, and then tothe alveolar capillaries. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the capillaries is muchhigher

than in the alveoli, causing carbon dioxide to diffuse into th e alveoli. Exhalation forces the carbon dioxide back through the respiratory passages and then to the outside of the body. III. Regulation The flow of air in and out of the lungs is controlled by the nervous system, whichensures that humans breathe in a regular pattern and at a regular rate. Breathing is carried33 out day and night by an unconscious process. It begins with a cluster of nerve cells in the brain stem called the respiratory center. These cells send simultaneous signals to thediaphragm and rib muscles, the muscles involved in inhalation. The diaphragm is a large,dome-shaped muscle that lies just under the lungs. When the diaphragm is stimulated bya nervous impulse, it flattens. The downward movement of the diaphragm expands thevolume of the cavity that contains the lungs, the thoracic cavity. When the rib musclesare stimulated, they also contract, pulling the rib cage up and out like the handle of a pail.This movement also expands the thoracic cavity. The increased volume of the thoraciccavity causes air to rush into the lungs. The nervous stimulation is brief, and when itc e a s e s , t h e d i a p h r a g m a n d r i b m u s c l e s r e l a x a n d e x h a l a t i o n o c c u r s . U n d e r n o r m a l conditions, the respiratory center emits signals 12 to 20 times a minute, causing a persont o take 12 to 20 breaths a minute. Newborns breathe at a f a s t e r r a t e , a b o u t 3 0 t o 5 0 breaths a minute.The rhythm set by the respiratory center can be altered by conscious control. The breathing pattern changes when a person sings or wh istles, for example. A person alsocan alter the breathing pattern by holding the breath. The cerebral cortex, the part of the b r a i n i n v o l v e d i n t h i n k i n g , can send signals to the diaphragm and rib muscles t h a t temporarily override the signals from the respir atory center. The ability to hold ones b r e a t h h a s s u r v i v a l v a l u e . I f a p e r s o n e n c o u n t e r s n o x i o u s f u m e s , f o r e x a m p l e , i t i s possible to avoid inhaling the fumes.A person cannot hold the breath indefinitely, however. If exhal ation does noto c c u r , c a r b o n d i o x i d e a c c u m u l a t e s i n t h e blood, which, in turn, causes the blood to become more acidic. Increased acidity interferes with th e a c t i o n o f e n z y m e s , t h e 34

specialized proteins that participate in virtually all biochemical reaction in the body. To prevent the blood from becoming too acidic, the blood is monitored by special receptorscalled chemoreceptors, located in the brainstem and in the blood vessels of the neck. If acid builds up in the blood, the chemoreceptors send nervous signals to the respiratory center, which overrides the signals from the cerebral cortex and causes a person to exhaleand then resume breathing. These exhalations expel the carbon dioxide and bring the blood acid level back to normal.A person can exert some degree of control over the amoun t of air inhaled, with some limitations. To prevent the lungs from bursting from overinflation, specialized cellsin the lungs called stretch receptors measure the volume of air in the lungs. When thevolume reaches an unsafe threshold, the stretch receptors send signals to the respiratorycenter, which shuts down the muscles of inhalation and halts the intake of air As the diaphragm contracts and moves downward, the pectoralis minor and intercostalmuscles pull the rib cage outward. The chest cavity expands, and air rushes into the lungst h r o u g h t h e t r a c h e a t o f i l l t h e r e s u l t i n g v a c u u m . W h e n t h e d i a p h r a g m r e l a x e s t o i t s normal, upwardly curving position, the lungs contract, and air is forced out

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Respiration is essential to all living things because all of the living cells in the body need adequate oxygenation and produces carbon dioxide. Respiratory System, in anatomy and physiology, comprises of organs that deliver oxygen to the circulatory system for transport to all body cells. Oxygen is essential for cells, which use this vital substance to liberate the energy needed for cellular activities. T h e r e s p i r a t o r y s y s t e m b r i n g s oxygen through the airways of lungs into the alveo li, where it diffuses into the blood for transport to the tissue, this process is so vital that difficult inbreathing is expected as a threat to life in self. The respiratory system allows oxygen from the air to enter the blood and carbon dioxide to leave the blood and enter the air. The cardiovascular system transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body and carbon dioxide. Without healthy respiratory and cardiovascular system, the capacity to carry out normal activity is reduced,and without adequate respiratory and cardiovascular system friction, life itself is possible. II. Structure The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to the lungs and are divided into the upper and lower respiratory tracts. The upper respiratory tract consists of the nose and the pharynx, or throat. The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, or voice box; the trachea, or windpipe, which splits into two main branches called bronchi, tiny branches of the bronchi called bronchioles; and the lungs, a pair of saclike, spongy organs. The nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles conduct air to and from the lungs. The lungs interact with the circulatory system to deliver oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.