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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Cells and Organelles

After studying this section, you will be able to:
Distinguish between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells in terms of their structure and ultrastructure Describe the ultrastructure of an animal (eukaryotic) cell (nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, centrioles, lysosomes, and Golgi apparatus) and recognise these organelles from EM images Explain the role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER) and the Golgi apparatus in protein transport within cells and including its role in formation of extracellular enzymes

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Living things are made of cells which contain organelles such as the cell membrane and ribosomes sub-cellular structures that carry out specific functions. Some living things are made of only one cell (unicellular e.g. cholera bacterium and amoeba) whilst many others are made of many cells (multicellular e.g. humans and most plants). All living organisms can be divided into two types: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic organisms. Prokaryotic organisms are simple, one celled organisms with a primitive (pro) nucleus (karyote) which is not surrounded by a membrane. Their cells are also smaller; they lack membranebound organelles like mitochondria and ER, have circular DNA, and have smaller ribosomes. Prokaryotic cells are bacteria. Eukaryotic organisms are made of one or more eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than prokaryotic ones, have a true nucleus (Eukaryote) surrounded by a nuclear envelope and containing linear DNA, as well as other membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, ER (endoplasmic reticulum) and Golgi apparatus. The ultrastructure refers to the structure of the cell as seen under a powerful microscope like an EM. The diagram on the next page shows the ultrastructure of an animal cell. We need to know the structure in relation to the function of the following organelles:

1-nucleus, 2-nucleolus, 3-ribosomes, 4-rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, 5-mitochondria, 6 centrioles, 7-lysosomes, and 8-Golgi apparatus.
1. PowerPoint presentation on ultrastructure of animal cells; 2. Look at the diagram overleaf and/or poster; 3. Annotate diagram provided.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Learning Objective(s)

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

Mo Idriss, Quick Revision Notes

Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Mitochondrion Surrounded by double membrane. Inner membrane folded into cristae around a central matrix. Matrix contains DNA & ribosomes. Site of aerobic respiration, therefore abundant in active cells.

Golgi Apparatus Cytoplasm

Smooth ER

Nucleus

------------ ER Nucleolus

----------------------

Lysosome

Plasma Membrane -----------------------Two hollow cylinders arranged at right angles to each other. Involved in spindle formation during cell division

Ultrastructure of animal cell. Complete the annotation make some notes about structure and function of each organelle you may draw a diagram to help your explanation

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Make sure you can recognise the different organelles from the electron microscope images for (A) Nucleus. Nucleoli are observed inside the nucleus. (B) Rough endoplasmic reticulum. Numerous ribosomes (dark spots) bind to the surface. (C) Golgi body. The top is the cis side and the bottom is the trans side. (D) Lysosome. Material being degraded is observed on the inside of this organelle. (E) Peroxisome. A crystalline, dark region is observed at the centre. (F) Mitochondria. The dark granules contain calcium. (G) Chloroplast. Grana are the membrane structures observed in the dark

Protein Modification and transport in Eukaryotes

The two organelles involved in this are the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and the Golgi body. ER is classified into rough ER and smooth ER depending on its structure. The rough ER with attached ribosomes are where protein synthesis occurs. Newly synthesised proteins are also stored here. Some initial processing of proteins may also occur here for example addition of

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

carbohydrates. Eventually the proteins are pinched off in vesicles from the end of the Rough ER and moved to the Golgi for modification into other products that the cell needs. The Golgi body (also called Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus) is an organelle shaped like stacks of several layers of flat smooth ER (Fig. 11-8C). The function of the Golgi apparatus is to further process proteins received from the Rough ER into products depending on the needs of the cell, and then send them on to their destinations.

The cis side of the Golgi is the face that receives proteins from Rough ER and the trans side is where they are shipped off from. Some of the modifications of proteins within the Golgi include formation of lysosomes, which contain digestive enzymes that are used to recycle cell organelles inside cells or for export/secretion out of the cells. Modifications may also be by addition of polysaccharides, phosphate groups or sulphate groups to the proteins. The smooth ER is involved in various functions such as the synthesis of steroids, lipids & phospholipids, glycogen metabolism, calcium ion regulation, and intracellular digestion.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Differences between Plant and Animal cells

We have already outlined the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Plant and animal cells as well as fungal cells are eukaryotic cells. The organelles we have described in the section above are for animal cells. Plant cells are eukaryotic and share most of the features/organelles described; however there are some differences between plant and animal cells which we will now discuss in the form of the table below.

1. Label the plant cell on the right. 2. How does it differ from the animal cell described on page 3 above? 3. In the form of a table (below), describe the structure and function of the following plant organelles: cell wall, chloroplasts, amyloplasts, vacuole, tonoplast, plasmodesmata, pits and middle lamella

A generalised plant cell

Organelle
Cell Wall

Structure

Function

Chloroplast

Rigid layer of cellulose and other polysaccharides, proteins and sometime lignin on the outside of the plasma membrane of a plant cell. Divided into 1ry - deposited while a cell is growing; typically extensible & 2ry - innermost layer, deposited after cell enlargement has ceased, often lignified. Small flat/disc shaped & Site of photosynthesis. Separate surrounded by double membrane enzymes are located on grana and in and filled with gel called the stroma stroma. Inside are thylakoid membranes which are stacked in places to form grana. Grana are linked together by lamellae.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Organelle
Plasmodesmata

Structure
Small, cylindrical channels in the cell walls of plants. They form when parts of the endoplasmic reticulum of a parent cell (during cell division) get caught in the cell wall of the resulting daughter cells.

Function
Act as bridges connecting the cytoplasm of cells; important for communication among cells. Allow free movement of the contents and can contract or dilate to allow different sized molecules through. Stores large amounts of starch, but no chlorophyll, specialized for storage. Abounds in storage tissues e.g. potato

Amyloplast

Tonoplast Single membrane which envelops the central vacuole in plant cells. It is relatively impermeable to solutes but highly permeable to water. Vacuole Large water filled and surrounded For storage of metabolic wastes. May by a single membrane (tonoplast). also contain pigments that are water soluble & phenolic compounds that function in plant defense. Pit

A region where the secondary cell wall is absent, but the primary cell wall is present.

Middle Lamella

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

This diagram represents prokaryotic (bacterial cell).

How does this cell differ from eukaryotic (plant and animal) cells?

Feature
Nucleus with envelope Membrane bound organelles DNA found as Flagella Cell wall Relative cell size

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic Cell
Animal Cell Plant Cell

How Prokaryotic cells differ from Eukaryotic cells

Differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (Please complete) Feature
Size Capsule (protection) Cell wall

Prokaryotic (bacteria)
Small cells - 5m Present Present (peptidoglycan)

Eukaryotic (plant/animal/fungi)
Large cells - 50m Absent In fungi (chitin) In plants (cellulose) NOT in animals Present _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

Plasma membrane

Present _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

Membrane bound organelles (indicate with examples whether present or absent)

Nucleus - Nuclear envelope - Nucleoli - Nature of DNA Centriole (for mitosis)

Absent \ Absent \ Absent _________________________ Absent

Present \ Present \ Present ____________________________ Only in animal cells

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

Cellular Organisation
Multicellular organisms have many cells but these cells are not randomly arranged. They are specialised to carry out specific functions and grouped into tissues. Structurally, cells of multicellular organisms are organized into four levels: Cells Organs Tissues Organ systems

A tissue is a group of similar cells, that develop from the same kind of cells and which work together to perform a common function; such as muscle tissue. Some examples of animal tissues are seen in the diagram on the right. They include: 1. Connective tissue supporting tissue like bone and cartilage. 2. Epithelial tissue lines surfaces both inside and outside the body e.g. the skin is made mainly of stratified epithelium. 3. Muscle tissue contracts to aid movement 4. Nervous tissue in brain, spinal cord and nerves. Transmits electrical messages around the body Some examples of plant tissues are collenchyma and schlerenchyma tissues which are for support as well as vascular/conductive tissue (xylem & phloem) which are for transporting water and dissolved minerals/food. Tissues are organised into organs the heart in humans; the root and leaf in plants are examples of organs. Organs are groups of tissue collected into a structure to work together effectively.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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Unit 2: Developments, Plants and the Environment

Topic 3: The voice of the Genome

The diagram shows a section through the plant organ, the Leaf. Label it to show the different tissues it has.

In animals, many organs are then grouped together into systems to carry out a large scale function. A good example of an organ system is the digestive system which consists of many organs (stomach, liver, oesophagus, small intestine, pancreas e.t.c) which in turn consist of many combinations of tissues.

Edexcel AS Biology (8BIO 1)

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