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ENGLISH LITERATURE
FROM THE NORMAN CONQUEST TO CHAUCER
Crown
Svo.
English Literature from the Beginning to the Norman Conquest. By Stopford A. Brooke, M.A.
English Literature from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer. By W. H. Schofield, Ph.D.
Chaucer.
[In p-efaration.
Edmund
Gosse, M.A.
ENGLISH
LITERATURE
BY
Ph.D.
HARVARD
Out of olde feldes, as men seith, Cometh al this newe corn fro yeer to
yere
And
out of olde bokes, in good feith, Cometh al this newe science that men
lere.
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goi'fe
CO.. LTD.
reserved
Cr.S. bt.
Copyright, igo6,
By
TO
Professor
IN
PREFACE
This
is
the
first
down
and the
In treating
ment which
differs
in a history of in histories
Middle English
literature,
not
uncommon
of contemporaneous
bringing
all
works
Old French
that,
namely,
of
writings of
Chaucer
tion,
it
seemed
to
me
to
be
tlie
as
in the
anonymous
in composition,
impersonal
type
and
static in
wherefore
later
their
relations
to
any
Naturally,
the second
ENGLISH LITERATURE
volume
will follow
a different plan
after a
it
broad consideration of
of the
and
will
emphasise their
themes.
In
this first
volume,
it
will
be seen, nearly
all
of Chaucer's
documents of
Chaucer
similar kind
but no attempt
is
made
to describe
art.
The
position of Troilus
is
and
indicated here,
where
is
and, consequently,
irrelevant facts
on
of the
poem
it
as a literary creation
when
to view
in that regard.
Not only
ventured to
tively
all
in
have
differ
from
my
no matter
similar
in
what
language,
and
by comparing
I
them with
Con-
tinental productions.
have tried
peculiar historical
conditions which
make
familiarity with
Old
French
literature necessary to
chronological table of
documents mentioned
is
as accurate a statement as
now
The
and transformation,
PREFACE
that in
many
cases
it
is
extremely
difficult, in
some
cases quite
composition.
this respect,
in
fact that
it
is
the form of medieeval thought that ing to us now, such details are of
is
much
importance, even to
;
and the
average reader
may
neglect
may
respectively,
which assistance
would
my
Old French
literature.
It
Professor Child,
whom
it
all
in loving
memory.
help
And
of
my
Professor
Klttredge,
whose
keen
intelligence,
and unfailing
Professor
best.
my
friends have
done me the
ENGLISH LITERATURE
favour to read portions of the
valuable
publicly
criticisms
book
in proof,
upon
it.
To
thefn,
one and
offer
my
hearty thanks.
Finally,
may
come from
that high-minded
and
brilliant scholar,
whom
was
at first assigned,
it
by
ill-health
from treating
W. H.
S.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Introduction
I
PAGE
I
CHAPTER n
Anglo- Latin Literature
26
CHAPTER
ni
III
CHAPTER
The English Language
IV
140
Romance
1.
....
CHAPTER V
{a)
145
146 159
2.
159
179
201
xu
ENGLISH LITERATURE
(Contd.)
(tt)
Romance
(^)
(/) (^)
(h)
The Cycle of Gawain, Guinglain, ceval, AND YWAIN The Cycle of Lancelot The Quest of the Holy Grail The Cycle of Merlin The Death of Arthur
.
Per-
214
234
240
248 253 258 282
282
295
3.
4.
5.
298
6.
Other Romances Byzantine and Early French Reminiscent Legendary and Historical; "The Nine Worthies"
;
35
CHAPTER
Tales
I.
VI
320
Oriental Tales
Fabliaux
Pious Tales
Fables, Beast-Epics,
321
2.
323
3-
326
4.
5.
and Bestiaries
330
337
Collections
CHAPTER
Historical
1.
VII
349 349
.
Works
Chronicles
Political Poems and Satires
2.
363
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
Religious
1.
VIII
PAGE
.
Works
.374
.
2.
3.
Homilies
Visions
4.
5.
374
379
389
397
403
CHAPTER
Didactic
1.
IX
. .
Works.
.418
.
2.
3.
......
. . .
418 424
430
CHAPTER X
Songs and Lyrics
.
. . .
.435
CHAPTER
Conclusion
.
. .
XI
.
.451
APPENDICES
1.
2.
INDEX
.......
....
.
. .
458
466
487
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
I
The Norman
Conquest inaugurated a
distinctly
new epoch
in
Anglo-
Saxon authors were then as suddenly and as permanently displaced as Anglo-Saxon kings. The literature afterwards read and
written by
as completely transformed as
Clearly reflecting
new
its
national character,
growth.
The
down.
Little
their leaders,
common
new
folk
At
by
first
little,
men's religious
ritual.
and
Roman
definitely replaced
Germanic
courtiers,
Likewise, the
first
the Conquest
and were
native
deliberately fostered
forms.
for
No
effective
thought
centuries
to
come was largely fashioned in the Throughout the whole period that here
artistic
forms of
expression as well as of
control.
acknowledged a Latin
IE
INTRODUCTION
Nevertheless, though there was httle independence in letters
now
it is
that so
many
literary
it was not distinctively English as we from being the dull and barren stretch If under historians would have us believe.
far
Anglo-Norman rule compositions in the English vernacular were fiw and of slight account, this was certainly not occasioned
by the people's
improperly given.
inertia
or
distress, as the
impression
is
often
Much
interests
was one of
new
awakened
in
and tradition. Englishmen were in a state of growth and development when writing was inevitable, when some way of satisfying
the
for
demands of
the
many
alert
be contrived, when
abuses called for a
patriotic
demanded
expression,
pen
to denounce,
and abounding
What would have become of English literature had the foreign dominion not been established, no amount of speculation The fact is too often ignored that before will ever determine.
1066 the Anglo-Saxons had a body of native
superior to any which the
literature distinctly
Normans
It
time
in
was unparalleled
and power
mind how
how
they in
than
England, produced
still
much
read with
delight.
interest in literature
the
Normans came
stimulus
;
when they
then
greatly
rife
needed an
all
external
for
ignorance was
in
parts,
learning
inanition,
and
darkness
The Conquest
effected a
wholesome
INTRODUCTION
awakening of national
hope.
life.
The
future.
They united
in a
common
Sooner than
is
its initial
hostility to the
and
From
came a generation of increased power. From the incitement of opportunity came impulses to work. Capable and eager, the
youth of the country strove
yielded richly to those
Success,
it
for distinction
who had
the
wisdom
aright.
was evident, lay not in harking back to a past from which the people was definitely severed, but in seizing the advan-
and reaching forward to those seemingly still more abundant in store. As a result of the Battle of Hastings, England was finally removed from isolation, and impelled into
tages of the present
life.
The Anglo-Normans,
skill,
fellow-countrymen
but profit by the
to
like
achievement.
new sense
The Conquerors
and
chroniclers to record
victories, or sing of
memorable
celebrate
adventure and
and a
following.
The most
obvious change
England.
The Conquest,
and the
which
use.
led
to
the
reinvigoration
of the monasteries
its
Rome, determined
as a
more extensive
more important,
castle,
it
court
and
The
clergy insisted
on the use
INTRODUCTION
of Latin, the nobility on the use of French
saw the
utility
of
EngUsh
as a
and
appeared
Those, meanwhile,
who
dom,
welfare
fought
its
battles,
its
administered
laws,
organised
for
its
its
churches,
founded
all
schools,
and worked
otherwise
stamp of English
was
incalculably changed.
When
it
supreme
in
England,
In process
of time the foreign types, like the foreign words in the vocabulary,
To
new trend of
began soon
early
after the
Western
Europe.
hegemony
trials
the intellectual
literary production.
new
birth
of new
In every departure France seems to have anticipated the slower thought of other nations and dissuccesses.
and new
She and by it all were measured. Surpassing any degree of influence to which she has since attained, her dominion was widespread and unquestioned. Fortunately, it was at this period, when the
it
best to tread.
She
effectively to
that
England was
all
in
By
contemporary thought.
rest of
Their reading
of
Europe.
arbiter
France
was
thus
the
supreme
European
INTRODUCTION
literary
styles,
it
was
in
part
at
least
because
the
French
writers
provincial in
sympathy or inhospitable
his peers
;
to
others' ideas.
They
this
had
Charlemagne and
and
it
was,
it
and
long.
Greece
so transformed these as to
win
still
greater acclaim.
is
One
literature
the
presented
French
of
The
medium
French
redactions,
to
all
Europe and
welcomed with
ance.
rejoicing wherever
;
found
its
contribution of France
it
The
but imitated
them,
far
The
There was a general harmony of poetic impulse. Men everysang under the same inspiration, and enjoyed one Their themes being usually such as came from another's song.
where
an
indistinct past
;
race than another, nation did not rise up against nation to assert
exclusive
claims.
In
all
of
acknowledged
in
this
right,
Yet
thus,
made themselves
INTRODUCTION
and in course of time so fixed themselves upon the outcome of human thought that they assumed an appearance
manifest,
of their own,
consent.
and were
recognised as
peculiar
by common
Europe
them.
safe
The interdependence of the different literatures of mediaeval is a matter of much moment in the study of any one of
It
judgment.
essential to
well underit
stood without
familiarity with
the
sources
from which
drew and some acquaintance with the history of the themes it favoured. It but echoes in the main the sentiments and tastes
of an international society centralised in France.
Another
worth
general anonymjty.
Of the many
history
is
who
wrote, the
Nor
this
a simple accident.
In case either of a
all
that
attracted
fault.
attention.
Originality
was
lines
And even
least
at
prudent author
powerful
inventions
patron
in
or fathered his
But the
last
on some ancient worthy who could not deny them. thing he would have deemed wise would have been
to copyright
them
as his own.
most composition was impersonal. Rarely do popular mediaeval works seem to have been called forth by the
Necessarily, then,
inner,
They
indicate
prevailing ideals, tastes, or needs, but seldom the peculiar aspirations of an individual.
We
scrutinise
to
INTRODUCTION
discover the
types
;
genius of particular
men
as the
development of
not so
much
II
If
now we
any epoch
?
Who
is
are the
best exponents of
its
its
and
ideals
who most
notably reflect
chiefly with
conditions
we
representatives of
The
literature.
They
cance
in
ated tradition.
illiterate,
much
and
by such
sang,
They
we know,
of Hereward, the
who strove against oppression. They sang of private griefs. we may be sure, without ever ceasing, though historical From records but rarely note their festival or funeral chants.
heroes
And
this,
after,
the
com-
The
Battle of
in the
same mood
the Battle of
Maldon
(991).
"After many
days,'' says
Simple and sincere, the ballads of the people kept issuing forth
from the living well-springs of poetic impulse, but for the most
INTRODUCTION
part only to vanish again, like " the snows of yester year," leaving
no definite trace. Literature as literature (except for the ballads) owes only a slight debt to the peasants, and we dismiss them from our more particular heed.
One
fact,
however,
the
deserves
emphasis here,
namely, that
of society
in former
times
tastes
same
in a
ruder form.
When
of
versions
prepared by
they were
men
humble
stripped
made
not of
straightforward
and
The
of proverbs
narrative to
rather
than
laboured conceits.
folklore
preferred
disquisition,
to science.
They They
and noble
ideals.
ladies
homely
Popular
tongue assumed a
definite,
demo-
cratic attitude
and a rugged
of
its
its
When
its
richness
and took an
interest in
it
had passed
in the large
control,
The
said,
as
amount of
if
lasting worth.
The
in
didactic
the
and religious works favoured main far less original and less
lays
valuable
than
the
and romances
especially
INTRODUCTION
prepared
for
knights
and
ladies.
Still,
ecclesiastical
alike.
and
read
by both classes
The
nobles
and dense.
castles,
and the
employ.
Most
tried
writers,
moreover,
made
a general appeal.
The monks
to
rival secular
poems
in popularity.
The
found
it
tales.
number
side of
one another
of the land.
the feudal
By
the time of
barons were so
and
it
was
arranged
by the
treaty
of
be destroyed
the need
of constant
entertainment,
to invigorating stories of
war and
as provoked unrestrained
delighted
The
their influence to
force,
and exerted
their conceptions,
to gain a
means of
endure when war called their husbands and lovers away. Religious foundations likewise prospered abundantly
in the
new
era.
If in
Pope Gregory's time Christian monks had gone threescore and ten persons," the Lord had made
the stars of heaven for multitude.''
Unlike,
God
of Israel
whom
they worshipped in
Steadily,
"
INTRODUCTION
therefore, they
chap.
From
the time
Henry III. (1216), according to Tanner, no less than 476 abbeys and priories were founded, besides 81 alien priories. Each of these was more
of William the Conqueror to the accession of
or less a place of learning,
many
youths
and theology, and studied minutely the writings of the past. The chief reproach of the monks, apart from their sensuality, was that they had too much of the "knowledge that puffeth
scholars prosecuted advanced inquiries in history
up,"
and too
little
of "the
charity that
edifieth."
It
was to
renew the
principles
Church
in earnest foundation.
But each
in turn departed
of
its
builders,
neglected
Francis,
and each emulating the other strove in his own way for the purification of the ministry and the The Dominican friars came to uplifting of his fellow-men.
England
tions,
marvellously successful at
adherents
some of
the
William of Ockham.
Yet once again success occasioned danger, and power to be exerted acted as a magnetic attraction to selfThe friars, it is well known, soon degenerated seeking men. sadly, and by Chaucer's time their name even was a title to
scorn.
Throughout
this
whole
period,
however,
despite
the
architecture,
and
Never,
INTRODUCTION
wholly unfaithful to the ideals they professed.
of the lax
Always alongside
in heart
to
and
undefiled in deed.
The amazing
its
as everywhere
who renounced
became
guides, those
who broke
Outside of the
cloisters,
Simple parish
priests
taught
nobly by both
did any
of the
in
precept
class,
occasionally
literary
work.
Only
one instance,
of Richard
RoUe,
as
in
the
fourteenth
century,
do we
large
find
a hermit
prolific
an author.
are
most important
sole,
consider because
literature.
The Church
of
almost the
means of gaining
all
advancement.
ranks.
It
included individuals
nobles of thoughtful
astical preferment.
stations
Ambitious
spirit
The poor
from
to
free
themselves
clerks
manual
numbers of
who
wrote.
Many
of
them had
no great education, but they knew more of the world than most From wide travel and long sojourning in of their fellows.
literary centres,
and were an important factor in public progress. At its worldParis was the Mecca of the mediaeval clerk. regions, remote from students renowned university assembled
and there and
lived together in broadening, if
sometimes tumultuous
sorry, conditions.
The
"nations,"
men from
definite districts
by themselves
in habitation,
meeting.
city,
The English " nation " was one of the largest in the and harboured students from Scandinavia and Germany.
t2
INTRODUCTION
stimulation,
France had inherited the best traditions of antiquity. "This our books have taught us,'' he says, "that of chivalry and of clergy [i.e. learning] Greece had the highest praise.
that
Afterwards to
Rome came
to
chivalry;
clergy,
it
France.
it
God
grant
that
here
may never
others
neither
depart the
lent
it
To
said
God had
more nor
is
for of
less;
of
them
mention
ceased,
and
extinguished
With conscious
dignity the
had,
they
thought,
fallen
upon them.
past,
but also
knowledge of the
people.
benefit
own
The widespread
flowering time.
and a genuine renaissance But the Church retarded True learning and illumination yielded to
The
University
of Paris
becamedispute,
and sententious
still
in English
mother of
INTRODUCTION
Considerably
later,
13
in
1345,
of
the
renowned
indulged
bibliophile
in
Richard
panegyric
of
Bury,
Bishop
Durham,
like
in Sion, wliat a
we had
leisure to visit
world, and to linger there, where the days seemed ever few for the greatness
of our love
But Richard had new conditions to remark that were important for English development.
Alas
!
he exclaims, by the same disease which we are deploring [the we see that the Palladium of Paris has been
carried off in these sad times of ours, wherein the zeal of that noble university,
whose rays once shed light into every corner of the world, has grown lukewarm, nay, is all but frozen. There the pen of every scribe is now at rest generations of books no longer succeed each other ; and there is none who They wrap up their doctrines in unbegins to take place as a new author. skilled discourse, and are losing all propriety of logic, except that our English
subtleties,
vigils.
in public,
to
all
to
end mightily,
may
.
man-
We
see that she has already visited the Indians, the Babylonians, the
. .
Now she
has passed
by
Paris,
to Britain, the
most noble of
islands, nay,
rather a microcosm in
that she
Greeks and
to the barbarians.
is
may show herself a debtor both to the At which wondrous sight it is conceived by now lukewarm
in
is
unmanned and
languishing.
It was no longer There was much to warrant this boast. Englishmen to cross the Channel for a good Oxford meanwhile and Cambridge had grown from education.
necessary for
rivals.
In England, in
fact, early in
found the
intellectual
men
of independence and
Our concern
here, however,
less
14
INTRODUCTION
men
of
letters.
chap.
positions simply
for their
than as
Some
in petty
ofificial
happily with
higher patronage.
satirical,
Others, as
pens,
were
wielded
caustic
and frankly denounced or ridiculed whomsoever they would. The most cultivated of the clerks, men of the type of Crestien de
Troyes and
his fellow trouveres, strove deliberately for distinction
style. They craved an audience, and works as accessible as they could to " gentle readers."
made
their
The The
author
known
his
to have
done with
and
his compositions.
knight's
priest
under
fellows.
cloistered
monks perhaps
their
to
their
mistresses while
Romance
mission.
be
gone
through in
art.
Wide
its
popularity a
poem was
difficulties of
fruit
manuscript reproduction.
The
scriptorium yielded
reluctantly.
works they desired, and even the rich and powerful had but a
small
number
in their possession.
it
added
to,
generation to another.
The
between 1330 and 1340, serves admirably to illustrate what such a volume might have been, how miscellaneous was the production of Middle English poetry, what sort of works were once
INTRODUCTION
pieces,
15
many
In
disordered juxtaposition
may
there be found a
number
texts,
of legends
didactic
treatise
and the
"
respecting
How
between a Thrush and a Nightingale women, and a fraf,ment in their praise, a lone fabliau Merchant did his Wife betray," a chronicle of the kings
list
of England, a
of names of
romance, and
is
this
of every
Norman barons, and two satires on Edward II. But the bulk is provenience. The Carlovingian cycle
poems oi Roland and Vernagu and Otuel; Le Freine, Sir Orfeo, Sir Degare, and the romances of Sir Tristratn and Arthur and Merlin English traditions by those of Guy of Warwick and his son Eei7ibrun, by Beves of Hampton and Horn Child; the matter
represented by the
the Arthurian by the Breton lays of
;
and Blanchefiour ; together with the legendary romance of Amis and Amiloun and the Oriental collection of Surely such a manutales known as the Seven Wise Masters.
story of Ftores
script
men
in
Uterary predilection.
by a Yorkshireman, Robert Thornton, almost exactly a century later, which contains an equally miscellaneous but quite different collection of documents
dealing with history,
romance,
prominent.
religion,
religion
is
the most
At a time when the library of the University of Oxford is said to have contained no more than two or three hundred chained books, a folio volume which could afford amusement in hall, instruction at other times, religious
information, and perhaps consolation to the sick, and with
all
be produced as
ill
"
that flesh
is
heir
to,''
was not
to
be
all
I&
INTRODUCTION
These two manuscripts seem
to have
been
carefully prepared
They contain, commonplace productions by minstrel rhymers, works by careful trouveres, composed with the thrill of conthe written repertoires of professional reciters.
scious
art.
The
may be
its
cult.
But he was so
The
style of writer,
however,
whom
them
if
we would
Ill
and Danish
race,
Among
all,
tinguished.
The noblest aspired to win fame in this way, and kings deemed musical skill their finest ornament. In the AngloSaxon realm also, music and song were worthy pursuits. Even
bishops, such as St.
Aldhelm of Salisbury
(t 709)
and
St.
Dunstan
The Scandinavian
and
thulir were
men
to obscurity,
and
sort.
We
are not
number of
jugglers, tumblers,
and mountebanks who congregated at places of assembly and entertained spectators by circus tricks ; but rather
INTRODUCTION
17
to reciting legends,
romances, and
tales.
links
of
all
classes of society.
They were
and
Some
classes,
some
to
the lower.
Some
revelled in a free,
Bohemian
to another.
Some
enjoyed so
occupy
estates of their
they amassed.
place, the ale-house, or the kitchen of the manor, for a charitable pittance.
Some were as
careless in style
and unreliable
in statement
and
exact.
The
and esteem as organ-grinders and street singers to-day from orchestral players and opera stars, or as the performers
cheap variety shows from the accomplished actors of our stage. They formed a class of society far more important than any that
in
partly corresponds to
them now,
all
for
combined.
The
best amongst
They wrote
;
flattering
for
who
display.
The
and
What
attitude
From the earliest days of the was a troublesome question. were under grave suspicion. -makers era, mirth Christian St. Augusagainst them. directed enactments were Repeatedly
tine
Alcuin
And
such warnings
i8
INTRODUCTION
became more manifest. But their popularity never diminished, and the clergy in England saw fit to make distinctions in favour
of the better
sort,
baser.
and
yet,
to minstrelsy
He
loved
much
For man's wit it maketh sharp. Next his chamber, beside his study. His harper's chamber was fast thereby.
Many
times,
He
When
why he held
The
met the attacks upon them by the relamembers of their class had been openly favoured by the Holy Virgin, whose cult they zealously
minstrels themselves
tion of
many
instances in which
Of a harper of Rochester, for example, they related when once blown from a bridge by the wind, he called to Mary for aid. Without danger, ever playing his harp, he was borne in the lap of the waves gently ashore. Even so in Herodotus' story the harper Arion of Methymna was saved by a dolphin when obliged to leap from his ship. We are
maintained. a pious legend how,
reminded likewise of what is said to have been the practice of both St. Aldhelm and St. Francis of Assisi, when in gleemen's attire
they stood on bridges and sang carmina trivialia to attract the
attention
of passers-by, to
whom
The
mined
clergy
changed
their tactics
when they found that open ineffective. They deterIn a French collec-
meet them on
their
own ground.
INTRODUCTION
Li
19
home de
jolift6
Ki
Ke
U
En
Tes escriz ne sunt a defend re, Car grant sens i poet I'en aprendre,
De
curteisie e
de
saveir.
to hold
poems of
this
much esteem
as to neglect
more pious
subjects, such
ecclesias-
to treat.
That much
to the
tical literature
was produced
in
contemplation
is
a fact
It
deserves
consideration, moreover, in
wore
numbers
and
at every
they
accompanied monarchs
spectacles
plays,
to every one.
Apparently
expressed
it
that
Adam Davy
(ti3i2)
Merry
it
is
in hall to
The
And
it
(as
now concerning
the stage)
INTRODUCTION
how
to control
all,
the vicious
Langland,
aware of
And for love of their lords list to them at feasts Much more me thinketh rich men ought Have beggars before them, which be God's minstrels.
Chaucer
But
in the
let his
many
man
gave to the
maner of minstrales
And
and undoubtedly,
in such society.
as a typical
man
his
more prominent
fellow-writers of the
Lawrence
Barbour
glorified
Robert Bruce
It
doomed.
it
and
out of date.
significant
words
When
of doors.
:
sure, minstrel-singing
it
be
INTRODUCTION
regarded seriously as
art,
zeal
How
alluring the
company
fire
with his
No
thought
Normans
at Hastings,
common
by
All sorts
made happier by the minstrels and their mirth. The minstrel-poets of mediseval England unified
by providing them with a
sort
of information, a
basis
common
communicated
manifested in
religious belief. They did more. They them the best sentiment of other nations as their conceptions of heroes and saints. They
of
to
the Church, to
make
the whole
world
kin.
IV
In a famous picture
forces
by Giorgione
the
chief
stimulating
of
all
On
high
sits
Liberalis
and
similar noble
mien.
The
clad in resplendent
armour and supporting the banner of the Cross, depicts the glory of chivalry ; the other, in the sober costume of a monk, but with earnest eyes and pleading hands that speak out exhorta-
INTRODUCTION
and self-sacrificing zeal, depicts the ecstasy of the faith. Between yet above them, gazing with tenderness and sweet joy on her babe, the Redeemer of the world, sits the Holy Mother
tion
in
serenity.
She
is
the mistress,
Love
for her,
all
and
trust in her
Son,
who
at the
endeavour.
life
we
see,
Chivalry and
faith,
the
common
the glory
of chivalry,
as
Both witness
life
to the lofty
spiritual
in actual
minded
is
men have
when
not desolate
prominent by
common
consent,
when
it is
admitted by
where they
lead.
it
In architecture,
is
clear,
its
faith,
The
artists
result
less
satisfying only
because
less finished.
The
were
is
Their work
for perfect
comeliness.
It
is
gruities, to repetitions
and
irrelevancies.
And
yet
it
is
so fired
Why, we
INTRODUCTION
cathedrals are
23
so finished
and fine?
men
so
did
many
ways
of
imaginative
achievement.
Intellectual
giants devoted
abundant energy
to the
construction of systems
of vast enterprises,
to
the
harmonious control
of masses of men.
making
also
worked
The
of rapid reading,
Scribes,
we know,
interpolated,
combined, transformed
original design
was obscured.
a
clear
many
had
narrative,
thought.
Had we
we
all
different.
Gawain and
artistic
the
Green Knight,
acci-
the
and disorder
utilitarian
that
the
numerous
didactic
have
has
left
on the
superficial inquirer.
strictures
The
Beowulf
modified
critical
poetic
Edda
And
is
satisfaction
preservation
but
just estimate
of mediaeval literature
now
impossible.
We
generalise as best
we can from
insuflScient evidence.
far astray.
We
may perhaps
that
men
They were
24 occupations,
in general
INTRODUCTION
and all else that went to make them men, were no more different from ours than in particular ours
The
the
services of certain
critics
in
Middle
fantastic ideas of
The
romance and
or relieved. pangs.
death.
miracle.
traveller,
A few who
Church
suffered
lives
no
torture-
Occasionally
men
humdrum
from birth to
Middle Ages.
We
no brighter or
gated fabric as
duller,
it
than we ourselves.
now
is
a varie-
was then.
differ,
and the
than
constant
loom
is
a complicated machine.
More
called,
poetic,
indeed,
its
may be
because of
freedom.
it
reflects,
moreover, the
But
it
reveals
men
human
by
To most men,
as
is
"an
all-
embracing confusion."
however,
shows one
century
From
transformed into
Only gradually are rude warriors chivalrous knights, and ladies exalted in influence.
refine manners, travel
broaden
enlightenment
accompany progress
little
in
science
and
by
little
in the
same
course.
INTRODUCTION
from those of the fourteenth and
the
fifteenth.
25
The Romance of
Rose
is
a far
cry
from
tales
characterise
ignorant treat
one is wise enough them by a phrase or a formula. Only the them as all alike. Mediaeval literature, though
AVithin the scope of
No
mainly
persistent
modes
of style,
it
reflects
successive generations,
light of their day.
who
In the present work, the chronological method of presentation has been adopted within
strict limits.
and
First
after another,
will
evolution.
be treated Anglo-Latin, then Anglo-French, producall extant English works within our
These
but,
is
by themselves,
interest.
so far
as space will
often lend
them
their
main
CHAPTER
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURK
Whatever might be
the following
mark
And
lived
and bold.
We
It is true, as
still
defied the
Romans
as of old.
Pope
says, that
learning flourished most in France " ; but it is also true that then some of the greatest " critics " of France were born
critic
"
almost too
strictly
heeded
but
in the
development of English
advantageous
perhaps
Deference
to
" foreign
;
laws "
it
was
to
English civilisation
hundred
years.
The reckoning
the Conqueror's
rich reward.
of
Rome
to
was keen.
Alexander
II.
justified
claim
As a
result
the
political
increased
in
power of the Holy Church militant was vastly England, and her sway over both public and
private opinion
more
This was
CHAP.
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
moment
in
its
27
a condition of great
effect
upon
the
develop-
ment of English
literature.
it
was regarded as
clerical
knowledge
in familiar speech.
But
Those of the
and devoted themselves to more scholarly production. Here and there, to be sure, the Chronicle was maintained
but the foreign primates, wishing to
by conservative patriots;
eradicate the enthusiasm for old England which they saw was
and rewarded those only who furthered the ambitions of the World Church. Rome had constituted herself definitely into a nation apart, a nation without barriers of language or race, numbering her subjects everywhere, and making confident claim to
their
supreme regard.
of
sentiment and
service
throughout
Christendom.
is
Thanks
largely to
poUtan of English
our learning."
if
more than an oblique view of the culture of medieval England, and understand adequately the circumstances then potent in
literary incentive,
those,
namely, in Latin.
Such
prominent writers of the nineteenth century as Carlyle, Arnold, Ruskin, Pater, Newman, as well as Darwin, Spencer, Huxley,
Mill,
and others of
their class,
had they
lived
in the twelfth or
men
in
Their serious
28
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
studies
classics
would all have been of Latin books, and the Latin would have been more familiar to them than writings
of their
land.
vernaculars of the
differ markedly from those in the same epoch in point of form, subject, and authorship. A\Tiile Anglo-French and Middle -English works are for the most part in verse, the bulk of Anglo-Latin literature is prose. While the most interesting documents in both ver-
Anglo -Latin
writings
no
truly
significant
criticism,
work
or
of theology,
natural
philosophy,
history,
law,
literary
science
was
first
composed
worthily conspicuous
is
pride.
The
steady
are
;
literature
of every people
is
a growth, more or
less
but
its
more
likely to
to form
an estimate of mediaeval
more
careful con-
We
must
seek,
Middle Ages,
style.
and
finally yielded, as
a compromise, our
modern English
To
may be
divided into
and fourteenth
centuries,
apparent
the
ages, if
one
will
Monmouth, John of
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Grosseteste,
29
Wycliffe.
The
twelfth
century
is
the
period
of
original Anglo-l^tin
no one of
of the
station
latter
England had
comparative disuse.
The
.4>t^A^S-iXi''/r
Cfiroiiidc,
that
great
monument
after the
of our
Peterborough
for
nearly a
hundred years
words
sjieak
.tbout
whom we
wns a
ver)-
more
to the
diijiiifietl
He
was
the
railil
and over
measure severe to
him
gainsaid his will. On that same stead on which God granted he might subline England, he rearetl .1 noble monastery, and there placed monks, and well endow txl it. In his days was the noble monaster)- at
men who
that
many
others over
all
England.
This land
was
and they
And
was such
ihat everj-
man
who would
administratioii of
bound
also to speak.
in this time,
He
The
he
they
rich complained,
recketl
and the poor murmured ; but he was so stunly They must follow wholly the king's will, nought of them.
have land, or proj^rty, or even his peace.
that
if
would
live, or
30
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
is
chap.
The author
certain
monk
it
Leofric,
who
youth, that
was
his
English
"omnes
ex
fideli relatione,
ad edificationem audientium."
lost,
Leofric's works,
We
body of popular
lyrics
and
warriors.
example,
it is
related
that
all
might attentively
how, further, in
memory
When
Row,
Merry sang the monks in Ely Cnut the King rowed by.
knights, near the land,
And
Which poem,
wise,
when he wrote
in
remembered
in proverbs."
Like-
we
learn
King Henry of Germany, in 1036, were commemorated long afterwards by plain people singing " in the highways." The Latin
to
Lives of
Edward the
Confessor,
From
Anglo-Norman poems
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
31
Hampton, perhaps Tristram, and other heroes of manly character. These tales of native warriors were perpetuated by the Normans for the same reason that they preserved the chansons de geste of Charlemagne and his peers, because they were stimulating to " Above all courage and piety, as well as conducive to mirth.
men," says Thomas Stephens, " the Norman was an imitator and
therefore an improver
least rigid,
;
and
it
and accommodating of mortals, became the civiliser and ruler wherever he was thrown. Wherever his neighbours invented or possessed anything worthy of admiration, the sharp, inquisitive Norman poked his
most supple,
plastic,
that he
. . .
aquiline
nose.
practical
intellect
plagiarist.
the
march of
advanced,
Norman
in the van."
In the Norman era the two great moving impulses were war
and
religion,
The
lives of saints.
SingleIt
By virtue of the monks' labour, it was also an age of record. Then were written by native scribes precious manuscripts of
earlier works,
in their
own
Cow), the Book of Leinster, and the Book of Hymns. The English were looking backward when they sadly continued the
Dun
Normans
and Icelanders, in preparing the Doomsday Book (1086) and the 11 10), were inspired by Landnd?iiab6k (Book of Settlements, The new guides of culture in a glowing vision of the future.
1:.
32
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
With Lanfranc, who was anointed Archbishop of Canterbury Churchmen who after the Conquest wielded immense power in that see. An Italian of noble
in 1070, begins the line of great
birth, early trained in the
Church, a
man
of acumen, eloquence,
and
learning, he
was in his
time one of the most learned scholars, and one of the most
capable prelates, in Europe.
of scholarship in England.
He
as
had previously
wide
existed.
He
stiffened
their
discipline,
of their
parochialism,
affairs,
stimulated
their
knowledge
of
and
incited
beautiful books.
them to fondness for fine architecture and He assumed his office with the sincere desire
foreigner,
to benefit England,
countrymen as a
" our island " to
queror,
and though he was' always viewed by his he himself wrote " we English " and
abroad.
men
He
was as
patriotic as the
Conan
equally energetic
and
keen,
similarly
strong
as
after,
William Rufus,
to
fill
much
Anselm
his
Anselm had been Lanfranc's pupil at Bee and had succeeded him there as prior in 1063. He had been Abbot of Bee some fifteen years when he unwillingly accepted the English archbishopric and entered upon a period of anxious, but yet, as he deemed, necessary dispute. Both as a man and as a thinker Anselm was Lanfranc's superior. In character more spiritual and humble, he was in intellect more " Penitus sanctus, anxie doctus," penetrating and profound. William of Malmesbury called him in Dante's Vision he occupied a place in paradise " among the spirits of light and power in the
Also a well-born
;
an early thinker,
We
have a book
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
letters, certain
33
of his
St.
Paul,
and a body of
decreta
Benedictine
monks
we know
also that
he took pains
been sadly
disfigured.
his
his that
renown was
Liber Sciiitillarum,
De
Corpora
to
Sanguitie
Domini
England
oppose the
Of
his
three
most
important treatises only one, the Cur Dens Homo, was undertaken (in 1089) in England, and
it
was finished
in Italy.
The
is
were composed
in
to
and the Abbot of Bee, prove the necessity of the Redemption. The
attributes.
and
a single deduction.
is
ex;
credam
he
hundred years
His method
which
it,
In applying
him
man
of genius.
His
controversial treatises on the Trinity, the Holy Ghost, Original Sin, the Contempt of Temporal Things, and the like, evince
unusual
skill
in dialectics.
letters
the
human
It
tenderness and
fervour of an
uplifted
nature.
34
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
sixteen years a
man
The styles of most distinguished metaphysicians of Europe. religious and didactic literature which he and Lanfranc adopted,
were cultivated with varying emphasis and success by
astics
all
ecclesi-
who
Among
translated
into
other writers
native of Canterbury,
several
;
of the same period were Osbern, a and superior of the monastery there, who lives of English saints from Anglo-Saxon
Latin
Doomsday
also
Hagiothen
common
and
It
Yet,
since
to
England
political history
amounted
much
contemporary conditions.
of Eadmer, a
is
so, for
(^f c.
monk
life
of Canterbury
whom we
are
indebted for a
lives
for the
most part
He
was a man of
good
the absurd in
and deserves commendation for legend and miracle, as well of thought and his transparent style.
sense,
II
Chronicles, however, were throughout the Middle Ages the most valuable product of the monasteries, and as such it will not be amiss to consider them here together, especially sincfe they
are closely connected with
part of their
contents
and the
conventionality of their
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
They hardly deserve
to
JS
method.
evidence of large
perspective, careful
philosophic
generalisation.
They
peer.
lack
the
for
high
distinction
of Bede's
turies
Ecclesiastical
History,
which
over
three cen-
some
of them
to
perpetuate
and
fables
of
great
significance
the
student of poetry.
is
The
documents
sometimes
strikingly diverse.
The
while,
on the
Among
century
may be mentioned
known.
Florence (t
1 1
18)
monk
Marianus Scotus, which ends with 1082, gathering other material from Bede, Asser, and some lost version of the Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle.
and
is
to 1295.
His work was afterwards twice continued, to 1141 Simeon's book (written between 1104 and 1108)
its style,
The son
mandy an
lariy
but for information elsewhere inaccessible. of a married priest, and a native of Shropshire,
Ordericus Vitalis (1075-^. IT42) wrote at St Evroult in Norextensive Ecclesiastical History from the year i a.d.
its
is
particu-
important for
its
account of
events
more abundant
truly significant
change of view
priest,
1155), produced
36
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
an Historia Anglorum (beginning 55 B.C.), which was five times revised between 1130 and 1154, and, though neither very accurate
nor
original,
up
in the
and young noblemen in the charge of his and there developed a talent for writing secular verse, in which he attained considerable distinction. His natural tastes
ciated with princes patron,
Likewise a
St.
priest's son,
and
His chief
historical
Cuthbert
homilies,
and
St.
Edward the
and
Confessor.
treatises,
He
also wrote
many
epistles,
religious
among them
a dialogue
De
by Cicero.
More
by reason of
1
facts,
and
William of Malmesbury
is
De
Gestis
Regum Anglorum
NoveUae (1125-1142), several lives of English bishops and saints, and a history of Glastonbury. Green ranks William as "the
leader of a
new
historic school
who
treat
and emulate
models by a
William was
their materials."
in the
upbuilding of the
it
new
con-
nation.
tains,
His History
is
literary form.
sternly scientific.
He
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
37
popular songs.
lie was ever ready to make use of With the "idle tales of the Britons" regarding
Arthur he was
familiar,
but in true
William
after
tells
pile annals
the
manner of the
No
arid state!
no dull pages of mere unembellished record He and men of his type aimed at something more profound and
ments
for him,
England.
Roman
historians as models,
they
and elegance,
The
unwisely revived.
And
to these they
histories, they
faults.
True,
to discriminate
and organise
but even the best were too respectful of authority, too timid in
rejecting unsubstantiated tradition, too fond of popular etymology
and
classical quotations,
pretations of physical
phenomena, too
cause and
effect.
of their time.
So
historiographers that
contribution of each.
all
But
one
works
who wrote
after 11
For the
treated
who
theme rehed more or less confidently on the disclosures of one of the most brilliant of literary impostors, Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose Historia Eegum Britanniae was by far the most
permanently
Llandaff.
influential
literary
Geoffrey
Monmouth and
by William
I.
reared in
At
all
nobles,
them.
38
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
but was not made a priest until a few days prior to his appoint-
ment
visit his
see before
His History appeared about 1156, with 1154. a dedication to Robert, Earl of Gloucester, a natural son of
his death, in
Previously he had and the Maecenas of the time. on the Prophecies of Merlin. Gifted with keen intelligence and wit, Geoffrey was alert to divine the public desire, and executed with surprising success a daring scheme, which it required a master mind even to plan.
Henry
I.,
Aware of the
curiosity of the
past of the
but
The
the
For the
hard to
Archdeacon of Oxford
deception we find
it
all dignity,
There
when
drove out the giant aborigines of the land to the era of the Saxon
invasions.
Arthur,
to
Most knowingly he traced the career of the illustrious and with such convincing power, that he may truly be said have contributed more than any other individual to making
but
their
protests
passed unheeded.
Geoffrey pictured
it
the
history of the
to be,
and they
cherished
; ;
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
History
talk.
39
won immediate
It
fame.
It
became a subject of
Its
sorts of learned
documents.
many
this
on
literature
and on
would
stories
life.
Without
also Merlin
have been
far less
potent a
name
to conjure with,
and the
The
best
poetic
is
history
of Britain
it.
in
the vernacular,
first
Layamon's Brut,
but a redaction of
If,
as he
planned,
lead.
The way
in
by the enlightened of
by the witty
tale of
Barri,
better
known
as Giraldus Cambrensis.
Melerius,
writes
certain
Gerald,
having
always
an
extraordinary
by seeing them, knowing them, talking with proper name, was enabled through their assist-
his presence,
for
liar.
tongue of the
St.
any one spoke falsely in were leaping and exulting on the oppressed him too mucli, the Gospel of
John was laid on his bosom, when like birds they immediately vanished away. But when that book was removed, and the History of the Britons by
Geoffrey
its
stead, tliey
upon
his entire
numbers and for a much longer time than body but on the book that was placed upon it.
justified
!
remarks about his own works would have been more prophetic " They will be read by if applied to these fables he scorned
:
men
at
now,
will
be profitable
fiery,
and
original,
handsome,
delight
well-informed,
in
took
struggle
pass.
40
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
to the princes of
chap.
Born about 1147, at the Castle of Manorbier, Pembrokeshire (which was in his opinion "the pleasantest spot in Wales "), given his first education by the Bishop of
baron.
St.
Norman
studies,
literature.
In
1 1
72 he returned to England
and
set to
in Wales.
work with an unconquerable will to improve conditions His chief hope was to become Bishop of St. David's,
j
office
by the canons,
his election
kings,
who
In
Henry
to
II.
of his chaplains,
and
in
fruitless
He
justiciar,
Ranulph de
attended
Glanville,
King Henry
in
at his decease.
When
William
Richard
made
to
de
Longchamp, Bishop
Yet,
Ely,
kingdom.
much coveted
distinction,
and he had reason in later years to speak with resentment of the way his superiors had rewarded his service. He died,
about 1223, after a period of great quiet in contrast with his
earlier years of dispute
and
litigation.
"
Many
we Welshmen waged with England, but none so great and fierce as he who fought the King and the Archbishop, and withstood the might of the whole clergy and
people of England, for the honour of Wales."
Gerald's
interest.
works are of various kinds, but all of genuine His Topography of Ireland and History of the Conquest
own wide-eyed
travel
there,
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Though
41
of quick observation.
and
frank.
useful
information
concerning
still
be
in
1187
in
unique
on three
them
a sumptuous
feast
on the
first
on the
and the
of the place.
He
nothing
of
antiquity,
comparable
having
ever
naive.
been In
witnessed in
England.
tells
Gerald's
ostentation
was
one place he
"charmed by
the sweetness of his voice, the beauty of his language, and the
force of his arguments.''
He He
thought
it
poems,
and
prefaces.
Wales
and a Geiniiia Ecdesiastica, or book of instruction for the Welsh clergy, both of them vigorous and entertaining. The latter, the author's favourite work, he presented to Pope
Innocent
III.
It is
A
in
special
mark of enlightenment
in
Latin
;
course, to write in
English)
and
shows exceptional
from
He
as
was a wholly
been
different person
facts.
Though
monasteries, the twelfth
truly
chronicles,
said,
remain throughout
literary
work of the
writing
in
of
the
best
historical
century
not
due to monks.
Then,
indeed,
42
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
life.
chap.
Notable
a writer
Welsh
trio,
Geoffrey, Gerald,
and keenest of
all,
of
whom we
Walter
Map
all
archdeacons,
brilliant secular
much-travelled, open-minded,
It
was of no
the
associates
history
themselves engaged
in
making
of their age.
expression
of opinion, which,
In the last quarter of the century flourished several historians deserving mention, such as " Benedict of Peterborough," William
of
Newburgh
of
(f
c.
1198),
(t
^-
Roger
of
Hoveden
chronicle
(t 1201),
and
to
to
Ralph
Diceto
1202).
The
ascribed
11 70
Benedict (tii93)
1
deals
primarily with
events
from
192,
and
is
Henry
II.'s
reign.
The
papers,
value.
shire,
is
author had access to public records and State and often reproduced them, gives his book peculiar
William,
Canon of
Newburgh, Yorkhis
specially exalted
sensible discrimination
"the father of
historical
A
and
wipe out
the blots on the Britons, weaving together ridiculous figments about them,
raising tliem with impudent vanity high above the virtue of the Macedonians and the Romans. This man is named Geoffrey, and has the by-name of Arthur, because, laying on the colour of Latin speech, he
name
more righteous, because more necessary, than that of historians to-day. Roger of Hoveden (Howden, Yorkshire) was another layman who profited by his
William's indignation against Geoffrey was
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
life.
43
secular
He
I.,
II.
and Richard
1
in
189.
What he wrote
value.
independent
Roger
at
began
at
St.
732.
But
still
more
Dean
was
willing
his
to
start
the
epoch
Imagines,
or
of
History, followed
the
to his
own
now
valueless.
happened
Brakeland,
at
1203) of the
home during his absence; the Chronica (1173Abbey of Bury St. Edmund's, by Jocelyn of which throws much light on the interests and
it
will
be remembered,
and
superstitions,
121
1,
for the
entertainment of the
of Henry
II.'s
IV. (a descendant
These
century,
writers
deteriorate in style
when monastic annalists are again supreme, and gradually and importance. For clearness, we follow
Henceforth the abbeys afford
chronicles
the
best
of
the
realm, the
and
above
all
the
old
Benedictine' houses.
Among
only the Cistercian Ralph of Coggeshall (t c. 1227) is prominent; and only a few friars, such as the Oxford teachers Trivet (t 1328) and Eccleston (7?. 1260), ever gained eminence in
this
(i 135-1307),
history of the
44
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
to 1250.
chap.
Of monastic
writers,
some confined
more ambitious,
St.
strove to
compass
all
the move-
was at
A genuine
attention
meriting
special
because
its
product
offers
1200 to 1450.
scriptorium at
St.
Lanfranc had
definitely
established
the
manuscripts to copy.
graphy that
this
abbey
St.
its
finally
surpassed that of
to
Denis in France
position
was due to
all
its
nearness
London, and
as
to
travel,
well as to
library
on one of the great highroads of the custom that had established itself of
valuable
State
making
its
a ,special repository of
Roger of VVendover
(t 1236)
which follows the course of events from the Creation to 1235, and, though not aiming at originality, in its later parts has much
merit.
This work was revised and continued to 1259 by Roger's of the St. Albans, perhaps of all early
English, historiographers
Matthew
Paris,
who
is
still
highly
esteemed
judgment.
for
his
picturesque
and sane
local,
or
He dealt with large politics, and was survey. He buttressed his opinions by the
evidence of definite enactment, and introduced into his book many papal bulls, royal letters, and other documents of great
historical
value.
Henry
III.
He was himself on intimate terms with and an eye-witness of various important events of
Yet
his attitude
is
which he
tells.
usually impartial,
and he has
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
45
it
abbey
by
Trokelowe
1324, finally by
Thomas
of
1422.
Walsingham
treats
and the
Lollards, with
whom
he had no
Oxford,
at the attitude of
heretics.
in
From
him, however,
we
get
by
Yorkshire
(t
c.
London
{\
1347);
1366).
and
Mary's,
Leicester
Duke
form
and
in this
period.
is one of the most valuable histories of the For our present purpose the Latin chronicles of the
We
take
leave
of
the
historians
Chester (t
^.
1364).
This "chronicle
It
is
annals.
sum
history,
and science
a whole
it
Although
compendium
ished
at
its
and one
is
not aston-
surpassing popularity.
It
circulated
in
hundreds
it
as the
first
historical
accessible in
1387, and
once again,
printed
John of Treves'
14S2,
and
this
long
46
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
this
dull,
chap.
extensive
historical
production,
Latin,
and
all
in
commonplace
sagas
with
the
wonderful
of
contem-
The
twelfth
age of Old Norse prose, and Iceland was then as preeminent for
history as
England
for the
drama
in
In
works
Norse
Here
style
is
;
no
but
affectation,
all is vivid,
women, whose
grows at the
individuality
made
plain,
literary
power
their
authors display.
sad to
felt
obliged
a foreign tongue.
It
made Anglo-Saxon
men.
prose
so admirable.
dignified
And
all
medium
The
Ill
The
large
travel,
twelfth century
rivalries,
of stimulating activity
independent,
trouthe,
aristocratic
and curteisye
"
age the
an
age of "fredom
Of
n
romances and
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
art-lyrics
47
works
would be
With
their
refined artistry
had come
;
Now
subtleties of expression
;
were favoured
con-
acknowledged.
by
their
pens
bishops and
letters.
and
religious houses.
demand.
feudally to
All
authors, whether
or secular, wrote
with
some person or
Even
as troubadours
disciples,
under direction.
The Yet most appear astonishingly free from subserviency. majority seem to have submitted themselves to none but voluntary yokes.
in the air.
More than
were
writ.
men of the world and acquainted with other than holy The twelfth century was an age of humanism. To understand the humanistic revival of the times, one must know somewhat of the educational institutions then prominent
in
Western Europe.
the
monasteries.
In
England
Conquest the schools of Canterbury, Glastonbury, Abingdon, Winchester, Worcester, and York had at one time or another gained celebrity under distinguished guidance, and, though the era of their European renown was long past before
the coming of the Normans, they and other abbeys maintained,
mediaeval
period,
seminaries
in
of
some
connection with
was
different,
however, on
48
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURK
chap.
advanced education.
In
Norman
Normandy,
centres of learning.
many
of fame in
Paris,
Genevifeve at
distinction,
and
Their organisation prepared the way for the univerdefinitely about the close of
the century.
The fame
this or that
vidual teachers.
renowned
different
branches of research.
came
to be noted for
its
canon or
civil
law
but Paris
faculty of
offered
no instruction
in civil law,
Originally the
term universitas
Gradually
might
it
was
While
at
Bologna
was the
latter, at
Paris
it
The
seat of learning, as
called a studium,
opposed to the organisation, was at first and not until well on in the Middle Ages did
Special univer-
" university
sity
",
buildings were at
dnknown.
The
assembled
The
English "colleges," modelled after them, did not rise before the
in
the fifteenth.
If for
The
migratory
some reason a
it
came
moved
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
to a
49
away
new abode.
its
The
first
when Henry
11.,
then in dispute
with Becket and suspecting that the clerks abroad were partisans
of his foe, ordered
to return
all
of them
who possessed
their revenues."
And Cambridge was established through a migration from Oxford in 1209. The studies in the mediseval schools proceeded along the old
home, "as they loved
traditional lines of the irivitim
and music).
law,
Based on them
divinity,
and
and metaphysics.
" in
The
philosophers
tions of the
mind
alone were
Science,
real.
To
Madame
la
Haute
and
deemed of fundamental importance. for The text-books at first most commonly used were for rhetoric and dialectic, grammar, Priscian and Donatus
the study of logic
scholars
:
like
The Marriage of
treatises like
The Arts and Discipline of Liberal Learning, by Cassiodorus ; for history, the Origins of Isidore of Seville, and the compend of
Orosius
j
for
metre,
chronology,
chronography,
etc.,
various
Boethius was Bede and Alcuin. an authority on mathematics and music, as well as on philosophy. Through his translations, students generally became acquainted
didactic works like those of
with Aristotle
for
Greek was
in
completely unknown.
But the
so
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
The
:
classical reading of a
summed up
by Dr. Reginald Lane Poole as follows " John of Salisbury seems to have been ignorant of Plautus, Lucretius, and perhaps Catullus
;
If he had read little and a number of later poets. of Cicero's Orations, he knew his philosophical works intimately and he was well acquainted with Seneca, Quintilian, and the two Plinies. With historians he was more poorly supplied. Caesar and Tacitus were names to him, and Livy he cites but once ; but
Persius,
Sallust, Suetonius, Justinus, and, more than all, Valerius Maximus were constantly at his hand. No doubt his resources made him dependent to a great extent upon the later classical writers
Gellius,
MacTobius, Apuleius,
etc.
but the
it
was
present day.
most professed Latinists of the Such learning was without question unique in the
;
twelfth century
was possible
is
mass of Latin
than
is
literature in attainable
commonly supposed."
classical learning such men as John of Salisbury put to and they strove to write with elegance and precision. Accomplished Latinists were thought necessary in the employ of
Their
daily use,
their
hands
all official
correspondence
and,
among men of
(f
affairs as well as
John of Salisbury
apostle of classical
active diplomat,
putes.
culture,
But he was
also an
dis-
and a
versatile participant in
interest.
contemporary
The
course of his
we
1
him
136,
when he
first
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
;
51
Robert of Melun,
for
example, and
la Celle at
to
England
Chambecome a member
of Clairvaux. of Theobald's
whom he had been recommended by Bernard He soon proved himself the most accomplished
helpers,
in
many kinds
of official business,
some
tact.
Pope, with
whom
he
is
from
whom
Con-
He
five
who went
of Becket.
of the
new Archbishop.
difficulty
Though he did
and
exile,
faithfully supported him in and was with him when he was murdered.
He
as he
this
time successfully.
He
of
radiis
remained in England
Chartres.
illustratus"
"Vir
magnae
religionis
so
he
lies.
Some
His
two great prose works are the Polycraticus and the Aletalogicus. The former, "The Statesman's Book," which has a descriptive
sub-title,
De Nugis
Curialium
et
Vestigiis
Philosophorum, con-
men
It is
52
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
the Middle
logicus,
Ages and rich in interest even to-day. In the MetaJohn defended thoroughly the study of logic, and con.
veyed to
Organon.
whom
reference
has just been made, were the most famous French theologians
of the
first
Abelard's
name
is
now inseparable
him, as revealed
tragic results
for
had such
his
scientific
In these respects he
rises superior to
Bernard, who, on
Further
be called a
man
of "know-
ledge "
which, according to a Welsh triad, has three embellishing names, " paths of truth, hand of reason, and strength of genius "
and
Bernard a
man
same
The one
a speculative schoolman,
views of dogma.
circulate,
One can
trace
little
;
direct
on Middle English
writers
while
few of those
who
by the
greater,
in the twelfth
century
who
besides
John of Salisbury were Abelard's disciples. Of these one of the most conspicuous was John of Salisbury's own master, Robert of Melun, who had a famous school at Paris, and
afterwards at Melun, from about 11 30 to 11 60.
At Mont
St.
"
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
work "on the nature of God, the
state, his disposition
S3
leader's great
angels,
and man,
all
on the
soul,
man's
and
Summa
Theologiae,
which above
Robert's most
whom
he
was
closely connected
to
was appointed
and through whose favour he the see of Hereford, a position which he held at
his
life,
at Paris
was
Adam du Petit Pont, who died in 1180, Bishop of St. Asaph's. He was a pupil of Peter Lombard (tii6o), whose Sententiae had enormous vogue. In his Eulogium Adam defends the
theological doctrines of his master concerning the humanity of
1170).
Adam
him with
It is
and quibbling.
remarkable, indeed,
at this period
for
and a member of the household of Theobald of Canterbury, who from 1 18 1 to IT 93 was Archbishop of Lyons; Ralph of Sarr in Thanet, another Canterbury clerk, who was Dean of Rheims from 1 1 76 to II 94; Robert Pullus, Chancellor of the Holy Roman Church (1145-46), who taught
at
Thomas By exchange,
various prominent Frenchmen received preThus Gerard la Pucelle, noted as a teacher ferment in England. at Paris and Cologne, was chosen by Becket to be Bishop of
Coventry (f
{fl. 1
1 1
84).
Still
more
interesting
190).
gained experience of
men
and
royal ambassador.
An
aristocrat himself,
and
prelates.
own
favour of
Henry
II.,
54
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
Archdeacon of London
he had
Still
nothing
very high.
Though
superbly vain,
in
reality
very distinguished
qualities as a scholar.
which he collected
tells us,
at the request
of the King.
youth, he
abandoned
Lucan and
said of
I fear lest
when
you die
it
may be
you in reproach
Where
whom
trust ?
And
again,
trying
to
dissuade a friend
studies,
he pleads
with these
to be
. . .
false vanities
and
follies ?
What
con-
an organ of truth, with the fabulous loves of You have spent your days until old age in the
and
finally in civil
all
who
from
In one
letter to
a correspondent abroad, he
he
says, in the
house of
my
men
among whom
found
all
rectitude of
justice, all
and
AH
kingdom
are referred to
vyhich, being
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
without
strife
55
in his turn
On
another occasion, in a
:
letter to the
Archbishop of Palermo,
he writes as follows
Your king
is
is
far
better
know
the ability
Sicily
You
King of
was
my
and
composition
the
from
me
but as
soon as
I left
kingdom he threw away his books and took to the easycourt. But with the King of England there is school every
This is a situation that should be remembered. The court Henry of II. and Eleanor of Aquitaine was a centre of learned men and poets, as well as of warriors and knights. Distinguished writers of every kind found a welcome at London, one of the The domains of the largest French-speaking cities in Europe. English king comprised about two-thirds of what is now " An illiterate France, and he stood second to none in power. This king is a crowned ass," Henry Beauclerc once said. Henry II. also believed. He had himself been a student under
William de Conches, and surpassed his father
of his patronage.
in the generosity
realm one must keep in mind that they were steadily engaged in
conflicts of
war and
of
wit, that
the
proceedings
chivalrous
and
listened
with
exploits.
We
read of
young
soldier -statesman,
unhorsing
one of the
in single encounter,
and
later,
When
it
he travelled
is
to France
said
that
extrava-
The
figure
S6
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
to
chap.
Conquest
prominent
occupy so high an
office)
will
always
appear
in the
men
of his time, not for any important works that he himself wrote,
He
gathered about
him a
body of admirers and he aroused the ire of as many opponents. Whether right or wrong in the controversies
faithful
he obstinately waged,
respect for letters
he deserves
credit
for
his
attitude
of
and
his disposition to
advance
men
of note.
his
In Becket's
(t
1 1 86),
Foliot,
teacher
Foliot,
to the bishopric of
Hereford; Gilbert
cated,
hate bitterly, and twice excommunihim gently "the forerunner of Antichrist and
all
the
exciter
of
the
in
king's
malice "
Bartholomew, chosen
contrary, Becket
Bishop of Exeter
Baldwin,
1
1160,
whom, on the
and
was elected in These were all men of learning, and wrote books which gave them honour in their time, but which
who,
after
considerable opposition,
190 to Thomas's
see:
it is
Much more
Henry
II.'s
is
a study
of the
Map
a clerk of
at Paris
John of Salisbury's, a
ambassador
Map's
Rome
1197,
in
11 79,
Archdeacon of Oxford
chief work
is
in
and died
12 10.
a book of "Courtier's
Triflings,''
of exceeding
refreshment to one
burrows.
delving in theological
He
evidently, took
De
Nugis
Curialium
from John of Salisbury's Polycraticus, but only to enforce the His volume was no systematic difference of his purpose.
arraignment of his age and appeal to the guidance of antiquity,
but a commentary on contemporary events, which he believed
that
it
would be useful
for
future generations to
his
read.
The
courtiers of
Henry
II.
and
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
own
importance.
57
their
They were
knowledge of that
document,
historical
Map
was urged to
tell
the high society with which he was familiar, and this he undertook, not without reluctance, for he lived a busy
life,
but with
Map makes
writes to
modest parade of
poem
"how can
"
How," he
one
me, the
"
But we must
favourite.
not take over seriously his diatribes against the court, for he
evidently relished his
life
there
Nor need we
scrappy
are
his
apologies),
of
temperament,
the
not
of
intelligence.
Without worry,
to
he
left
more
and
serious- minded
professors
push
their
dialectics
fine
distinction
arrangement the
results of their
to
whom
he had heard.
He
was no withdrawn
no
dull
moralist,
Map
of
it
began
1 1
his 88,
De Nugis
form
it
Chaucer than any man of his age. about 11 80, and made public
it
part
about
In
final
shape
till
about
II 93.
this final
Map
himself,
and Rufinus a
hoped to rescue from the The disaster of marriage by painting it in gloomy colours. sentiments of this very popular treatise were applauded by
the solicitous
whom
author
S8
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
scholar
in
chap.
many another
mediaeval
times
besides
the
fifth
To Map
of this view
Holy
exceedingly
Doubt
authorship of
much
means of
was
on
ecclesiastical
conditions.
The name
Golias
renjiniscent
the gullet.
gigantic
in
and suggested derivation from gula, Characteristically, then, this bishop was pictured as Philistinism and abominable in gluttony and lust.
of
Goliath,
.
He
clergy,
Langland's "goliardeis"
applied the term to the
"
And
that
was
Con-
seems,
had
an Apocalypse
and made a
to
Map.
In the former, Pythagoras appears to the dreamer, resting one hot summer's day under an oak, and guides him into a strange land, where are many
distinguished writers of antiquity, in various attitudes, variously occupied.
He
is
observing them,
when
him
in spirit
England.
another
and shows him the mysteries of the seven churches in Intently he gazes on a book with seven chapters and seals, con-
Church.
As one
part after
the guide writes upon his brain, and them he remembers, though what he afterwards sees in the third heaven of God's mysteries he straightway forgets,
shrift
for sins
life
;
of
he has
resist the
his
his belly.
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Meum
Vinuin
est
sit
59
appositum morientis
ori,
Ut dicant cum venerint angeloriim chori, " Deus sit propitiiis huic potatori."
These, the
best-known
lines
of the
The numerous Goliardic poems written during and after Map's time in England, as Thomas Wright justly observes,
are
man
against
an
of the
English
civil
is
nation
tyranny.
against
the
spirit
encroachments of
which gave
from
rise
ecclesiastical
and
of
The
with
to
them,
and which
pictured
remarkable interest in
in
the
Chronicle
reign of
III.,
Henry
II.
full
was
activity
the
Henry
during a
Lost sight of
it
under Edward
III.,
exhibited itself in
satire
WycIifTe,
and
after
dormant
for a
period,
Giraldus
Cambrensis
relates
:
rebuked by a holy
man
as follows
and
be in favour with
God"
thus
Pride to
to the White."
seed, a seed hidden between stones, and withheld from contact with
the earth, by
which alone
secular
Plainly
the contempt
of the
clergy
the
monastic
orders at the close of the twelfth century was very great, and
much
ticular
of
it
found expression
in
writing.
6o
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Even monks did not
that
refrain
chap.
from
pointing
out
the
corruption
had taken
root
amongst
themselves.
One
and a close
friend of William de
Longchamp, Bishop of
Ely, the
The hero
points out to
tells
is
who thinks his tail too short, and how it can be lengthened. The latter
him his folly, shows him that he is as well off as any one, and him the storyof the two cows Brunetta and Bicomis, whose tails once
ice,
tail
and escaped,
lingered a
Brunetta
in
little
thawed
still
out,
to rejoice
long
her
wisdom.
recipe
tail,
Thither the ass goes, but have it filled. upon by designing merchants and monks. Half Then he repairs of his tail is bitten off by dogs, and all his goods are lost. to Paris to become a scholar, and joins the English " nation " ; but he is too No one of the orders stupid to excel, and he decides to become a monk. satisfying him, he determines to form a new one combining (he laxities He tries to win Galen to his order. But his career is suddenly of all.
to Salerno to
on the way
by the arrival of his old master Bernard, who claims him as and degrades him to the position for which he was first and best fitted.
interrupted
his,
This poem
of the time.
is
it
throws on actual
duced.
told Brunei
when on
his
way
to
Paris, of a
himself on a priest's son for a slight the latter had done him.
Next to the verses of " Daun Burnel the Asse," the most
striking
is
satire
Hauteville.
on English conditions of the period (c. 1184) Norman, Jean de is dedicated to Walter de Coutances, Archbishop
of
Rouen
in
who occupied
and Richard
I.,
high political
with both of
ofifices
II.
whom
he was intimate.
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
The "chronic grumbler"
6i
him
with.
He
comes
first
to the palace of
Venus, and inflames the hearts of her damsels, the most beautiful of
whom
of the
he describes minutely
tastes of the
tells
gourmands of
day
where he observes the poor condition of the students (their mean dress, bad fare, wretched lodgings, and hard work). lie laments the vanities of the
learned, but bewails the fact that the rich will not give over their luxuries
and professors
;
observes
mankind
and
finally
meets
Dame
Nature
in
She gives
and
sufficient
counsel on married
Satire,
and
all
alert society,
twelfth century
when from
and
Independence, intelligence, and high ideals are everyin the frank denunciation of developing dangers.
where apparent
And, amid the temptations of so diverting an age, it required steady purpose to steer a wise course. Should Philocosmia, love of worldly enjoyment, or Philosophia, be the mistress chosen by an
whom the arms of both were open wide, was a many besides Athelard of Bath. But which troubled question
ambitious youth to
the host who, like that devoted student of natural science at the
achievement.
Richard
In September 1157, the story runs, were born on the same night I. at Windsor and Alexander Neckhara at St. Albans,
latter's
mother,
own
child the
became a
tale,
brilliant warrior,
whether true or
not,
may be
situation in
England
at that
time
62
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
men
chap.
nurture most
life.
The
emprise.
exemplifies
a type
of universal
scholar which
became
about to
more frequent
theologian, grammarian,
like the friars
man
one,
more
whom
he was.
Neckham
wrote
many
Vita
De
;
but the
on various aspects of the universe, De Naturis Eerum, fact and fable strangely meet and true knowledge is
in the reign of Stephen,
At Oxford
an
Italian,
Master Vacarius,
Henry
saw
Ranulph de Glanville
treatise
the preparation
of,
an admirable
et
about them.
The now
famous work,
De
Legibus
systematic treatment of
and potent in influence. On it was based the more comprehensive and important lawbook of Henry de Bracton (or Bratton), who died. Dean of the Cathedral Church of Exeter, in 1268.
enactment since
times,
Roman
Two
at
life
Being, as William of
I.
Newburgh
relates,
the
table
of
Richard
the
mob.
190,
by Marseilles to
and was
The presence
of large numbers of
Jews
in
many
distinguished
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
63
men were
of consequence for English learning and literature. It was through Jewish scholars that much Arabic lore was made
accessible in the West,
at large
with
Oriental
civilisation,
extensively revealed to
them by the
procured.
Crusades,
hardly inferior in
it
The
As
practice
of travel
all
had begun
early in
England, and
students journeyed in
early as 1102, a
directions in pursuit of
visited the
new knowledge.
Saxon Saswulf
an account of
mentioned,
to
of
Bath,
already
exhausting
the
supply of
information
accessible
sought more in
him in France, and still insatiate, Bagdad and various other places in the East.
the value of which he himself
in the
defended
Naturaks, written
form of a
Evora
in Spain,
and helped
intellectual
to translate the
Koran
?)
in 1143.
left
"a
His own
treatises
show
large in-
Thus
the extensive
was
clearly anticipated.
The
reign of
Henry
II.
London.
Whereas, says Mr. Joseph Jacobs, in the thirteenth century we know only of an insignificant poet, Meir of Norwich; a codifier of Jewish ritual,
and a
legal authority,
64
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Bristol,
chap.
which was followed by a still more extensive work on The Onyx Book, by Moses Ben Isaac of London. The chief Anglo -Jewish writer of the twelfth century, however, was Berachyah Nakdan, known as Benedict le Puncteur of Oxford, whose Fox
by Samuel of
Fables resemble those of Marie de France, and were probably derived from
was also the translator into Hebrew of Adelard's and a French work on Mineralogy, and a ComOutmentary on Job by him is still extant in manuscript at Cambridge. side Spain no such important works were produced by any European Jews at this period, and it is therefore not to be wondered at that Abraham Ibn Ezra, the most distinguished author of his time and the original of Browning's Rabbi Ben Ezra, visited England in 1158.
the
same
source.
He
Quaestiones
Nattirales
The
up
to
Their learned
men were
IV
The Anglo-Latin
religious
or occasional
on
on the other
events.
To
those
already mentioned
may be added
the
Normans
is
The
best, perhaps,
Godfrey, Prior of
Winchester
(t 1107),
a native
of Cambrai, the author of a considerable body of Proverbia, or epigrams, in the style of Martial. The " Marcial " from whom
Gower
eulogies
several
times quotes
is
no other than
he.
Numerous
by him of English princes and princesses, bishops, abbots, and monks are couched in a " familiar and sweet style "
which his contemporaries warmly commended. Reginald of Canterbury {\ c. 1136), a friend of Anselm's, likewise wrote
many
short poems,
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
65
Saint Malchus.
latter
To
of copies of this
tions.
church
Encomiums,
great extrava-
many
poets.
Some
are
marked by
;
others
seem
is
sincere,
Becket
praised,
Lawrence, Prior of
Durham and
Stephen's reign.
is
an
Flypogtiosticon, nine
books of Scripture
is
in
elegiacs.
in
interspersed
with
prose
his
pro Morte Amid, modelled oij further credited with a poem on the
in the
In old annals of
Durham he
is
described as " a
skilled in
law,
man
grounded
in the
About
Visio
Animam
Henry of Saltrey (Sawtrey in Huntingdonshire), a Cistercian monk, composed his version of The Purgatory of St. Patrick-^
embodiments of two of the most familiar religious themes Familiar in England as well as on the Conin early England. tinent, we may note in passing, must also have been the wonderfine
ful
Adam
of
St.
Victor, Hildebert of
Tours, and Bernard of Cluny, as well as the Dies Irae attributed AVe to Thomas of Celano, all of this period or a little after.
still
sing,
"The
world
is
very
evil,"
" For thee, O dear, dear country," etc., in solemn service ; and " O day of wrath, O dreadful day," a notable translation of which
appears in The
in
66
ANGLO-LATtN LITERATURE
The
chap.
composed
c.
1184
in flowing
hexameters, was
first
fact.
He
have
said to
accompanied King Richard to Syria. Of another epic by him, on the siege of Antioch, only an interesting short passage, exalting
the flos regum Arthurus, appears to exist.
attributed to Geoffrey of
The
Vita Merlini
Monmouth, an
elegant
poem
of over
1500 hexameter
the light
it
lines, is
By an
which
will
now be regarded
as
lucky,
we
of the Abbot of
temporarily
copes from
they were
St.
still
Albans
but a
fire
in his keeping,
and
This
the
was a circumstance of
sufficient
note to
record in
became abbot.
and
it
It is clear that
became
regular,
was
London.
"
London," he
writes,
" in lieu of the ancient shews of the theatre and the entertain-
either
by holy
and
sufferings in
Nor
are
we
altogether in
the
About the
middle of the century, an Englishman named Hilarius wrote in France three plays adapted to ecclesiastical use, the earliest
specimens of the kind extant
:
a mystery
of the
raising
of
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
67
more
first
is
He
seems
to
austerity.
in
rhyming
verse, with
French occasionally
persons
to
interspersed,
to
various
of
his
acquaintance.
maiden
an English
Of
similar
character,
no doubt, were the ntigae aviatoriae of Henry of Huntingdon, Peter of Blois, and other learned Latinists, which
sedately
it
they
deplore
having
written
in
days
of
frivolity.
Milton,
" vain "
will
and " amatorious," and counted his own youthful verse of small worth in comparison with his great religious epic.
Unfortunately, with regard to
many
that
mediaeval poets,
we must
"vain,
be content
amatorious
"
to
take
their
word
their
temper
solely
by heavy
they been
fasting.
fruits
Had
commit
to
posterity the
of their impulse as
to
justify better
we might be
able
by
The
show
metres,
English
art,
dis-
in Provence, namely,
and
in
The
relations of
close,
1
Provence to England
were very
Poitou, in
uncrowned Henry
well
II.,
by which
;
and these
relations lasted
till
on
end of the
68
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
It is well
chap.
troubadours.
known
Bernard
de Ventadour
(i
and resided at her court. "Long did he dwell there, singing many a good song of her. And he loved her, and she him likewise." The satirist Macabru {c. 1 140- 1 185) is also said to have resided in England for a while on special missions. The politician, Bertran de Born {fl. c. 1180), whom Dante put
in
hell as
a begetter of
strife, and. yet applauded as " a great most closely connected with the English
its
peace.
exhibited in one or two complaints for his nicknamed Richard " Yea and Nay.'' Richard himself was a troubadour of no mean skill, "like his friend Alphonso II., the powerful King of Aragon, both of whom were generous in
patronage to fellow-poets.
monk
of Montaldon, as well as the sophisticated Arnaut Daniel. In an elegy on Richard, Gaucelm Faidit proclaimed him the " ideal
and and the honourable founder of tourneys, arms, and festivals." Savaric de Mauleon (i 200-1 230) took an active part
hero of chivalry, comparable to Alexander, Charlemagne,
Arthur,
King John. " Above all men did he delight in bounty and gallantry, and love and jousts and singing and playing, and poetry and feasting and spending." John was severely reproached in a sirventes by the younger Bertran de Born for his " supineness " in dealing with his foes. And Henry III. was denounced by Sordello (1225-1250) for not attempting to recover his Continental domains. Numerous Provengals visited England in the thirteenth century as a result of the favour shown by Henry III. to the relatives of his queen
in the struggles
against
Eleanor.
The
and
is
of
three kinds,
satires,
on secular and
religious lyrics,
on
political
working
poems
n
sirventes,
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
and the
tenso
69
or joe partit.
is
It
appears
to
have
manifested
itself earlier
than
not always,
if
perhaps
chiefly,
by way of France.
of
The Norman
tomb of
to have
Thomas,
is
Archbishop
York,
Anselm's
in elegiacs inscribed
on the
Conqueror),
said by William
of
Malmesbury
composed
si
religious
jongleurs ("
These songs
of
certainly were
not Anglo-Saxon.
None contemporaneous
a sort
fitted for
Most prob-
ably they were of the type that had developed in Provence out
of Latin Church poetry and were therefore easily readapted to liturgical use. Reginald of Canterbury was born at " Fagia," in
the south of France (perhaps Tiffauges in the north of Poitou),
where
his
Lord Aimeric
Just as, solely
lived,
methods
on the
we should be
we must
believe from
the confessions
of the clerks,
how
they persistently
indulged
lyric
enamored of southern
lyrics,
modes.
Latin, Anglo-French,
both religious
and
secular.
The
to have
waxed strong
early as
his familiarity
in
Monmouth
the
at that
with
them,
perhaps
earlier,
for
grandfather
first
prominent troubadour,
knight
in
was
valiant
warfare,
to sing
and and to
make
William of Malmesbury,
though he deplored
70
his irreverence,
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
paid a tribute to his
wit.
chap.
In iioi
he led
and wrote a poem on the first Crusade. Apparently he was the patron of Bleheris (Bledhericus), the Welsh fabulator, to whom Giraldus Cambrensis refers, and whom Thomas, the author of Tristan,
an unsuccessful expedition to the Holy Land,
recognised as
an authority
in
should be noted, dedicated his poem to "lovers," and expected them to get comfort from it " encuntre tuz engins
Thomas,
it
d'amurs."
And all this was before the flourishing of Marie de France and Crestien de Troyes, whose works presuppose general
after
Only
this
atmosphere
poem on
Holy
social,
or didactic,
in-
fluential to
an astonishing degree.
to spite his
of this kind
prison.
We
have
still
John,
written
by subjects
disgust at
Some
seem
to betray a
southern mould.
more manifest is the influence of Provengal style, on the " debates " of various kinds which were popular in England and France towards the end of the twelfth and at the beginning of the thirteenth century. We have Latin disputes Inter Aquam et Vinum, Inter Cor et Oculiim,
Still
directly or indirfectly,
De Mauro
the elegant
et Zoilo,
De
all,
and charming
De
Norman,
ascribed.
not, however,
Walter Map, to
a
whom
_
it
As an Elizabethan
containing
translation
explains, this
" a
sweet poem,
civil
contention
of
two amorous
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
(both virgins and princesses), the
?i
ladies
one devoted
and,
to
in
her
both to
women)
commend
and reprove
they can allege, whether the scholar or the soldier were the
more allowable of his profession in .women's minds, and aptest They and worthiest to be best accepted in ladies' favours.'' call on the God of Love to decide, and naturally (considering the authorship of the poem) he decides in favour of the clerk.
One
line of the
poem
reads
in the disputes
In
this
class fall
one of the
earliest
Anglo-French debates, and and best of Middle English poems. The Owl
certain
and
the
Latin,
French, and English are here rivals in the same domain, and
English
it
more
than holds
its
is
own.
The
Owl and
the
Nightingale,
may be remarked,
There
is
no French element
it
in his vocabulary.
He
and
wrote in
English,
would seem,
to
for
view opposed
that
of
foreign
courtiers,
much
at
Roman
clergy
of the people.
writing
is
The awkward
rusticity of
men
fact
than those
in their age,
prevailingly dull.
early
distinction
Middle English prose, the Ancren Riwle, is graced by of style because it was the work of a cultivated
scholar, written,
some
by one
72
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
In Wales during
this
chap.
much
as in
Provence.
more
personalities or
The
more Normans
followers
fruitful
of good results.
The
who were
Rh^s ap Tewdyr,
FitzGeralds
Stephens.
;
by Stephen, Castellan of
of the
letters,
Fitz-
was
her son by
Barri.
Henry
I.
and
later Llewellyn
David ab Owen Gwynedd married a sister of Henry II. ab lorwerth married Joan, daughter of King
John.
The
princes
of
favourites
at
the
Owen
author
poems
for his
of the century.
indifference
about
Crusade.
Yet
the
Archbishop
The
Welsh
Normans no one will question. Inmany a stream of myth and fable to swell the river of British romance. But it is not yet clear how much the Welsh influenced Anglo-Latin styles. One is tempted
to the assimilative
to
And
much
in
common ?
original
In any case,
it
Gerald, and
Geoffrey,
Like the
The
religious
and didaptic
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
73
monks.
From Layamon
at the
neighbourhood
to Wales.
The
the
of Horn,
home.
emphasis.
England
Not only in Ireland and the Western Isles, but also in Wales and England, the Norsemen had made settlements. " Sodor and Man," the Faroes and Orkneys, together with Iceland and Greenland, were controlled
It
was Nicholas
When,
II. in
England
After he
made peace
cathedral of
Trondhjem
an Anglo-Norman
style.
Many
and
Norsemen
Thomas
of Canterbury,
Englishmen
Geoffrey
the
close
of
the
twelfth
century,
Paris,
the
first
im-
Yet Matthew
just
after
who
dwelt in
the great
of Sturla,
the
death of
lifetime
Snorri
Sturluson,
and during
the
most famous successor, was not uninfluenced by their mode It was not till the time of King Hakon of saga-narrative. Hakonsson (1 217-1262) that the floodgates were opened wide in
Norway
to
was
thereby discouraged.
The
reigns of
Henry
II.
and Richard
I.
74
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
sounds that
is
still fill
the
air.
The
literature of the
not merely prospective, but culminative and definitive in value. not only the stories of Britain, France, and the North, but
Then
also those of
literature.
Germany and
Spain, were
made
part of universal
final
Then
flourished
also
German
and romance.
It is significant that
much
same period
the subject
The
oldest versified
by an Englishman
1
is
that of the
discusses.
171), who illustrates by examples each metre he Whole poems are introduced into the Ars Rhythmica of John of Garland, an English-born professor of grammar at Paris, and a prolific maker of manuals and didactic poems. On
Wilton
(c.
cated to Innocent
of
III.), the
which
he
"
Veneris
to
lacrimosa dies
sidus
amarum
"
in the
Evi-
dently Chaucer did not take very seriously the work of this " dear,
whom
the poet's
contemporaries esteemed.
is
moment
it
composed for a similar purpose at about the same time in Wales and Iceland, the Mabinogion and the Edda, the former anonyrtious, and containing in its extant redaction material of uneven date (1080-1260), the latter the individual
the invaluable works
production of that distinguished writer already mentioned, Snorri Sturluson (11241). The so-called "Four Branches" of the
advantage of the
to
"mabinogs"
or bardic apprentices,
and supplied
them some,
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
75
With
to
novitiate
Champion of
and of Arthur "Flower of Knighthood," the whole forming a unique volume of fascinating narrative.
itself
means
and
in
is
correctly
the British
title,
"Elder" attached.
Mabinogion,
is
The
a manual, and
the
Gylfaginning, a
book of mythological
knowledge of which
was necessary
and a
writer.
Bede
performed
the (so far as we are concerned) thankless task of compiling an Ars Metrica of antique mould. Would that he had not thought
it
his
Would
that to
in
the
twelfth
fit
specimens
of the
native
English
then extant,
we might not be forced to mere surmise as to what sort and Gerald, in his Description of Wales, what amount existed! alliteration in his day, remarks of commenting on the use
that
:
So much do the English and Welsh nations employ this ornament of words that no sentence is esteemed to be elegantly
it
be
with the
file
of this figure.
We
alliterative
The
fact that in so
many
76
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
movement towards
But
this
chap.
conscious
principle.
is
certain
that
the English poets, as well as the bards, the skalds, the troubadours,
and
the
minnesinger
are not
and
meistersinger
of
the
later
thirteenth century,
The most
interesting
corruptions of the reigns of John and Henry III., the avarice and tyranny of the ecclesiastics, the pride and luxury of the nobles, and the failure of justice.
Finally, before leaving our study of the literary tendencies of
thirteenth,
it
is
men
already
how many writers of that age Chaucer was He knew not only the chief works of his countrymentioned, Geoffrey of Monmouth, Walter Map,
De
Contemptu
many of Continental authorship, such as the Mundi of Pope Innocent III., the Aurora of Peter
de Riga, Canon of Rheims, the Historia Scholastica of the omniverous Peter Comestor of Troyes, and the De Planctu Naturae
and Antidaudiantis of the Cistercian Alain de I'lsle. These were all famous books. The first, on the " Misery of Human Life," which Chaucer says that he himself translated, contributed much
to RoUe's Prick of Conscience.
narrative,
The
second, a
poem
of Biblical
was
the
freely
source
of
used by Gower.
a great
religious
history.
And
deal
of material
from Alain
still
de de
risle,
Consolatio
Philosophiae of the
justly
Meung
Roman
de la Rose.
Add
to these the
De Gemmis
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
77
gave hiin knowledge of Alexander the Great, together with other works of varied character, and one will find it necessary to assess high the debt of our greatest medieval poet, as well as of his
Apart from the Gesta Romanoritm, an anonymous collection of tales, and the Speculum Historiale, an immense and very erudite history of the world and man, by the Dominican friar Vincent
to have been little served by the Latin treatises of Englishmen or Frenchmen of the thirteenth
Then, however, the Italians Guido delle Colonne, Jacobus de Voragine (Varaggio), Albertano of Brescia, and somewhat later Boccaccio, contributed Latin works on the Trojan war, lives of saints, an allegory of Meliboeus, and biographies of
noted
The
It
thirteenth century
the
age of scholasticism
was
less
ment of
parliamentary government,
architecture
as
and
artistic
achievements.
But the
literature then
produced was
It
in the
main
and organisation of
controversial age
to academicism,
facts
the age
and
a
;
practical,
industrious,
utilitarian,
of science.
Then humanism
yielded
Instead
debate.
To
belles letires
little
78
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
abundance.
In England, in no one of the three languages there spoken,
did poetry attain to any height.
The
had
had ceased to be literary centres ; political minds of the people. Towards the close of the century numerous documents began to be written in the Middle EngEnglish vernacular, but almost none were original.
their courts
lish
made
for
had been
French
Even
come
to
so the plebeian
it
Edward
arrayed themselves, as
had
and these
their
"
The
Empire;
century.
If the
curia.
Church was a
was
in
Roman
If Christianity
became a more
example of the
was
in
spite of the
Greed and
all
avarice, bigotry
and narrow-
uncharitableness, memorialise
influence in
there
champions more distraught by the course of her policy. Never did England contribute so much money to the Popes yet never did English ecclesiastics more openly and firmly condemn their acts. The century opened with the great Innocent III. in power at Rome, carrying everything before him with a master hand. It
;
England greater
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
79
Albigenses,
forced
John
to
acknowledge
II.,
his
authority,
King
of Sicily, as
Roman
Empire.
It
was he who
than at any other time, the Church was supreme over the State.
Yet Innocent's
efforts
were not
justified
by
spiritual results.
With
who
Jerusalem turn
grief
home
With
he observed
how
lead to the
brutal massacre of
With anger he protested against the way in which Stephen Langton, his nominee to the archbishopric of Canterbury, supAnd we can ported the hostile barons against his vassal John. imagine that his discomfiture would have been complete had he
lived to see his
ward Frederick
it
defiantly opposing
Rome
in so
she finally
Frederick
II.,
great Barbarossa (t 1190), was known among his contemporaries as " the marvel of the world," and he unquestionably surpassed
Much
might be said to
his discredit,
but, as
even
his
particular foe
knowledge and of perfect imagination." He maintained a brilliant court in Sicily, to which he invited men of learning and men of
letters
He
practice of poetry,
and the advance of architecture and other arts. He founded the University of Naples, and fostered medicine at Salerno. He visited Jerusalem, and associated on friendly terms
with Saracen rulers.
Much
seminated in Europe.
He
troubadour verse.
Eloquio as follows
his noble son
:
De
Vulgari
and
Manfred, followed
after elegance
8o
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
;
chap.
was mean
all
so that
all
came out
Sicily,
of their court.
the
Sicilian."
born in 1265.
Among scholars in the thirteenth century Paris was known as " the mill where the world's corn is ground, and the oven where its bread is baked." The University is called " the parent of the
sciences
1
''
in
its
magna
by Gregory IX.,
in
association.
to England,
and nearly
all
his
learning
there.
intellectual centre of
Of
and
many years.
Great
rivalries existed in
teachers of the
same subject ;
bitter
;
the orthodox
men
of science.
folly. The College de Sorbonne wgs founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, chaplain of St. Louis, in the interest of secular learning. Before 1300 the quartier latin of Paris had been definitely established on Mont
St.
many
the
Sorbonneplaces
between the universities of the and the more irregular schools of the twelfth was due mainly to new methods of dialectics employed in the
large difference in spirit
The
thirteenth century
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
now for The Organon, or
the
first
8i
time
" Instrument
all
to
reconcile
Aristotelian
dogma.
one
of
Aristotle
Hales (f 1245)
task
was
to
attempt
the
difficult
of
making
orthodox.
the
Italian
The German Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) and Thomas Aquinas (1221-1274) strove to assimilate
where that was
the
great
possible.
his doctrine
of the master,
commentaries of
Mohammedan
dis-
Low down
is
he among the
this regard.
fools
-his
who
affirms
or
contemporaries
its
were
spanned.
all
The
scholastics
accomher-
In their hands
wedded
Phoebus of the schools," "the sun of of gigantic intellect, in whom it pleased Nature
reason she could bestow upon mortality, and
little
whom
.
the
in
the
noble castle
Dante saw him among the great of philosophy, which was entered
" the
Master of
82
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
who know,
all
chap.
those
him,
do him
seated amid the philosophic family ; all regard " People were there with slow and honour.''
;
and with
soft voices."
The enthusiasm
for Aristotle to
among
less
the
amounted
little
than
speculation,
The same
Though
earnest
they
won
better clergy.
Speedily
it
came
to
the high
was
done by them.
Spaniard
friars
offers
remarkable
and outcome.
his
The
was
but
first
purpose of the
Dominic and
disciples
to
achieve general
orthodox
sift
fidelity to Christian
dogma
while
this required
evidence, explain
truth.
conflicts, reconcile
the
old
to
in
accepted
Therefore,
primarily preachers
the
among
The
the learned.
friars.
Albertus
Magnus and
St.
Thomas Aquinas
first
were Dominican
eschewed
in-
tellectual training.
were altogether
physical aid.
They saw no advantage in book-learning, but intent on alleviating human suffering by practical,
one could join
their
No
brotherhood
in full
memMinis-
bership
who was
on the
sick
a large
organisation
and
skilled in
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
it
83
argument;
to provide schools
for their
equipment of
instruments and
Considering the
is
truly strange
that such a
man
as
Roger Bacon should be the most conspicuous Englishman of this Order. To this Order also belonged the great mystic Bonaventura,
of York.
The
first
friars
spiritual
almost
beyond compare
passed before
all
in
any
age.
Little
wanie
(belly),
And
added Langland, "may clothe money and their merchandise go together for since Charity hath been a chapman, and chief confessor of lords, many wonderful things have happened in a Except Holy Church and they hold together better, few years.
of these master
"Many
them
at their
;
own
wo
ye be,
!
ininisfri lualorum
So runs part of a fourteenth-century song. " Freres and feendes ben but lyte a-sonder " was the opinion of Chaucer's Summoner. The friars settled at Oxford and Cambridge almost immediately after their arrival in
The
first
rector of
was appointed
until
and continued
to
occupy
it,
of Lincoln.
At
his
84
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
all
chap.
which had
teste
Grosse-
was a
prolific scholar.
life
The
list
of works attributed to
him
in
It
Pegge's
philosophic essays,
and practical works on such subjects as husbandry. He knew Hebrew, translated from the His letters show him to Greek, and wrote poetry in French. He was a have been intimate with all the leaders of his time. man of humane tastes, fond of music and minstrelsy, and provided
commentaries on
with a large fund of common-sense.
sufficient to
make
him
to
deny the
Rome.
benefices, he
made
inquiry of what
in that way,
more and more money and sums had already been diverted
that alien clerks then
and found
three
times as
much
as the
When,
finally,
nephew
who had no
intention
Lord
see, to which is given by our power, as the Apostle witnesseth, " to edification and not to destruc-
command
make
any attempt
at
such a thing.
For
this
its
to a falling-
by
Filially
and obediently,
oppose, I rebel.
Grosseteste kept up his struggle against papal spoliation to the endy and his dying appeal was to " the nobles of England and the
citizens of
London, and the community of the whole kingdom " (notable words), to arouse them to united resistance to alien
aggression.
And Matthew
Paris,
who
as a
monk
resented Grosse-
; ;
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
85
teste's
manner of
his decease
So
He
away from the exile manor of Buckden, on the night had been an open rebuker of pope and king, the reformer of monks, the instructor of the clergy, the
support of scholars, the preacher of the people, the persecutor of the incontinent, a careful reader of the Scriptures, the
hammer
of the
Romans, whom
;
he despised.
At
;
cheerful, affable
as a
Simon
is
mention of
in
what it his name will serve to recall mind when considering the conditions that then
is
well to keep
affected poetic
production
the
civil
Henry
III.,
of a troublous time
all classes
coming
Simon
was exalted
patriotic song.
He He
is is
called de Montfort
the mount, he
is
the strong
He
This
is
true
and
agree
He
wrong
He
shall
So we read in an Anglo-French Song of the Barons. an Anglo- Latin Song of Leives runs as follows
:
And
part of
They
call
traitor
way
in necessity
They who
fly
The
learned
Adam Marsh
{^
c.
86
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
man
bear witness.
He and
all
renown to-day
far
exceeds theirs
the
He
is
illustrious
Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon was a scholar of astonishingly great (1214-1292). attainments, endowed with a keenness of vision that marks him
as unique
among men
of his age.
now
specially celebrated
he perhaps deserves
higher praise for the universality of his knowledge and the penetra-
He was not only a physicist, a chemist, and a mathematician, but also a linguist, a man of letters, and a philosopher. He wrote a Greek and a Hebrew grammar ; he was
tion of his judgments. familiar with
the
in
science.
Still
are
Bacon's
Some
it
01
some,
is
pos-
unjust
but
all
and
it is
surprising
how
;
modern
critics.
of scholasticism been
more plainly exposed never has the advantage of experiment over mere speculation in scientific study been more strongly set forth seldom has the domain of knowledge been more lucidly descried.
Yet
it is
fruits
of Bacon's thought.
tunity to write.
With
an oppor-
The
him
had been
indiscreet
enough
to enter, viewing his recondite researches with in confinement for several years at Paris,
It
suspicion, kept
and
mand
duce
of
Pope Clement
him
to pro-
The
first
n
incredibly short
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
time of
fifteen
87
summary of
it
with elaboration
Bacon
at
regarded
the
men
as
Albertus
different
Magnus and Thomas Aquinas in a light quite from that which has for so many centuries consecrated
Particularly did they reproach the theologians for
their
memory.
treatises
seemed
to
them destined
to revolutionise the
manner and
sions that
Several centuries of
Bacon and
his
such modern
scientific
men
as
are
without
imagination and
sympathy
whereas the
monuments
still
then in
seem a marvel to metaphysicians. But natural science was its infancy, and we should feel nought but admiration for those with visions clear enough to insist on its importance.
Among
in his
many
His
rise,
own
profit.
spirits
of the
and
this
men
On
this
book
his
Of Bacon's supposed
88
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
Pope
it
talked
it
Thomas
by
his
credited
achievement.
And
" Old
Hodge
who died in 1291, just a year before Bacon, man and much travelled, who was honoured by
and wrote important
scientific
treatises,
II.
appears
A
Him
That when,
Salamanca's cave,
listed his
magic wand
in
to
wave,
The
bells
would ring
Notre
Dame
century (as
appears from
the
works of Gervase of Tilbury, Alexander Neckham, and Vincent de- Beauvais), as well as in the fourteenth and fifteenth
(witness the references in Gower, Lydgate, and. Hawes), the poet
Virgil
tales
was represented
in
as
an
enchanter,
and
many
strange
embodied
explained
prose
romance called
which
how
his marvels
mancy through
One
of the most
Of
it
Gower
When Rome
Virgil,
mirror
set
made by
his clergy,
And
it
Of marble, on
That they
a pillar without.
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
By day and
eek also by night,
89
any were.
in the Oriental collection of in
The
tales
narrative in full
may be found
Sages,
known
this
as
The Seven
Latin,
To
"Roman
gifts
The
poet
Marco Polo, who in 1275 visited the court of Kublai Khan, and greatly whetted the curiosity of
China by the Venetian
Westerners concerning the Orient by what he wrote on his return.
Chaucer's Franklin's Tale also turns on feats of magic.
The
magician of Orleans
to effect
whom
most remarkable
illusions,
necromancer was
Oriental magic,
for all
revelations of
and
represents
Merlin as
making a glassy globe which showed the approach of enemies and discovered treason. Still more interesting is his account of
how
the
He
In the meanetime, througn that false ladie's traine. was surpris'd, and buried under beare.
90
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Ne
So
ever to his worke returned againe
chap.
forbeare,
It will
be noticed
that, like
In the imagination of
Even
in
The
who
first,
denounced the
of the time,
were
stirred to opposition
and second, because they were eagerly not Europeans even then carrying on crusades
City from Saracen control
Prioress
felt,
Holy
the
And was
hearts
it
that
.
in
. .
the
of Jews "our
serpent Sathanas
In 1255 Little
Hugh
of Lincoln
outcome of that event, remarks " The other who shared in the guilt, to the number of 994, were taken Jews to London and imprisoned there-; and if any Christians pitied
description of the
:
rivals the
Caorsines
in
mind the
his
of Iceland
in the
In
London.
the Jews in In 1290 over 16,000 were expelled from the land.
fierce slaughter of
Evidently it seemed to Christian sciolists and zealots that the " higher critics " of the period were striving to subvert the faith.
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
of course,
91
This assumption,
was unwarranted.
modern
critics
equally dull
who
ground
Middle Ages
as an
Grant that
concerning
men
formerly were
in matters
which knowledge had not yet been acquired, they were not more
unenlightened in other regards.
speaks wisely in his Essay on
On
:
this
point Charles
Lamb
IVitc/ies
We
for the
when we
set
down
this
of witchcraft.
But been as rational and shrewd to detect an historic anomaly as ourselves. when once the invisible world was supposed to be opened, and the lawless
agency of bad
fitness, or
spirits
proportion
absurd
could
particular testimony
That maidens pined away, wasting inwardly as their that corn was lodged and cattle lamed before a fire
or
that
spits
and
kettles only
danced a
fearful
kitchen
stirring
. . .
were
There
is
no law
criticised.
Of
the
a constellacioun
And
it
is
hand
in
worth while to remark that while many rogues (like Dousterswivel in The Antiquary) preyed by feigned knowledge on the credulity of simple people (simple people still exist 1),
there was
much
Europe
stars.
in
to receive to
Ihey speedily
came
says Mr. Robert Steele, were among and spread the knowledge of astronomy, and The best known of them all is John of the forefront.
92
exists in
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
innumerable MSS., and ran through sixty editions in the
;
chap;
first
century
of printing
all
But the theoretical to attest the fruitfulness of this period [1270-1340]. astronomy of the day was fundamentally wrong, and had to be proved so by
centuries of toil.
brilliantly
exposes
of the "slidying
science,"
better
than he of the
He
Newe Toun
authority,
(Arnoldus de Villa Nova), a thirteenth-century whose " Rosarie " treated of that theme. He points
that " this science
out
further
and
this
same
Bar-
De
Proprietatibus
Rerum by
tholomseus Anglicus, of which we shall later speak. Roger Bacon thought that astronomy was " the better part " of
medicine.
In the statutes of
New
Being a good
practitioner, the
Doctor
in the
Canterbury
He
Wei knew he
And
and Constantyn
Of these authorities six were Greeks. Aesculapius, god of medicine, was the son of Apollo; Hippocrates (Ypocras), the most illustrious of physicians, lived in the fourth century B.C.
;
Dioscorides,
first
Damascus
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
93
centuries.
at Carthage, and monk of Monte Cassino, was one of the founders of the school of Salerno in the eleventh
century.
But the
last
who
all
wrote
florid titles
Gilbert, of
;
whom
little is
known,
The two
latter
same time (in 13 17 ?). The Doctor's " study was but little on the Bible." Dante put Hippocrates, Dioscorides, Galen, Avicenna, and Averroes in
first circle
limbo, the
lived
who
are
virtuously,
but
without
faith
in
Christ."
in
And we
the
reminded
that
much
scepticism
prevailed
thirteenth
romancers,
sceptical
recall,
the
Middle Ages
throughout
were
disturbed
by
inquiry.
we
this
which appears
striking passage,
that his
win
For into Paradise go none but such folk as I shall tell thee now Thither go these same old priests, and halt old men and maimed, who all day and night cower continually before and such folk as wear old amices and old clouted the altars, and in the crypts frocks, and naked folk and shoeless, and covered with sores, perishing of hunger and thirst, and of cold and of little ease. These be they that go into But into Hell would I fain go ; with them have I nought to do. Paradise
have Nicolete,
my
for into
fall
in
tourneys
men
at arms,
and
all
men
noble.
With
these
would
gladly go.
And
and courteous
that
have two
Thither goes the gold, and the and their lords also thereto. and cloth of vair, and cloth of gris, and harpers, and makers [poets], With these I would gladly go, let me but have and the prince of this world.
lovers, or three,
silver,
with
me
Nicolete,
my
sweetest lady.
94
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
It
chap.
in
Provence,
Later in the
done away
with.
;
and
pagan commentators.
Indeed,
a wonder
why
long delayed.
The
libido sciendi
is
An
attitude of
compromise
Duns Scotus
he was orthodox in
and accepted
soul
that
came
is
:
the mind,
pantheistic view of
history of the
thus
tomb
at
Cologne
;
" Scotia
me
genuit
Anglia
me
suscepit
it
Gallia
me
docuit
Colonia
me
in
tenet."
He
was born,
Scotland,
appears,
about 1265,
at
Dunse
Berwickshire,
and
He
led his
Order
Immaculate Con;
he he
In
his criticism of
wholesome deterrent
to theological one-
sidedness.
His teaching met with immense success both at Oxford and at Paris, and he became the head of a great body of
disciples,
who
result.
Duns
Scotus's death
II
ANGLO-LATIX LITERATURE
In England, as we shall
95
scholasticism.
carried
on
his
work
brilliantly
more turned
to social
and
political
problems of general
interest.
On
degenerated,
casuistry,
passing
into
into
finesse.
sophistry,
keenness
into
and ingenuity
The argumentation
is,
of
in both
for the
most
part,
grasp of
fact,
raised,
is
tecture
and
variously manifested
in a
Recently, Mr. E.
S.
It
its
ex-
decay
in with
The
it
him
to follow
and counterpoise,
His vaults rose higher and higher his poise and strain grew more complicated and
;
daring, until material mass disappeared from his design, and his cathedrals
But
were chain-works of articulated stone pegged to the ground by pinnacles. in the thirteenth century he had a spirit of art that was a power in him
;
showed
how
to
endowment was. Combined they advanced from Notre Dame Beauvais was magnificent, but it leapt Amiens, from Reims to Beauvais.
great the
!
too high
matter.
The
aspiration of design
to assert
itself,
Reason had
artistic.
quenched the
had soared beyond the conditions of it was that the logical motive Experiment had given place to knowledge, and archibut thus
repetition of stereotyped excellences, the stock-in-
became a
The
trasts
architecture of England in the thirteenth century conmarkedly with that of France, and the reasons for the un-
by Mr. Prior in the following paragraph, are of interest to students of the vernacular literature in the two countries during the same period, for in both cases they are the
likeness, as clearly stated
same
96
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
It is the continuance of monastic direction in our English style
chap.
which
really
lie
its
In the
de France
art
stimulus.
Philip
Augustus had united with the communes against the abbots, and the great
cathedrals were built in symbol of the confederation.
artists
school of secular
arose
masons and
whose enormous works the whole Cathedral-building became the passion of the community
sculptors, in
monastic domination.
the
Thus
the great
"
laic,"
but
English remained
continuously
"
the
"
laic
On the Continent and the one borrowed but little from the other. " school, superseding the " monastic," produced those acknowledged
who
But
hardly any-
thing that suggests a consciousness of the great works on the other side of the
Channel.
its
still
Just as at
monasticism carried
native
first
Saxon heritage
that
had come
to
it
British Church.
"
cleric,"
Thirteenth-century vernacular literature in England was also while that of France was " laic " ; and the two were in
the
main unsympathetic.
heroic
There
is
very
little
indeed of Middle
properly be called and pious tales, legends, lives of saints, metrical chronicles, religious and didactic verse, books of edification and instruction. Even the French romances that began to be freely
may not
monastic
translated in
spirit.
the reign of
Edward
I,
were revised
in a religious
From Layamon
at the
in England to correspond to the aristocratic and Philippe de Beaumanoir, to the court minstrel
la Halle, or
Adam
de
Jean de
Meung
(f 1305),
surnamed
We
Dame
The
Land of Cokaygne,
Roman
de
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Rose must await the next century to be translated
97
la
in either
part.
last
The
French
been known among the unrefined of England. was still the force " in our literature.
The monastic
Layamon
Yet
is
this native
an improvement on Wace.
The
Owl and
the Nightingale
Some
of the lyrics
of the period are remarkable for a sweet sincerity and a pleasing spontaneity due to unfettered
parts to the massive
art. Here we have lesser counterNorman-French cathedrals, to the noble
chapter-houses and
and the
their
own.
The one
most perfect
is
the most
and harmonious as no other productions of similar kind. And the Ancren Riivle is as characteristically and sympathetically English, in contrast with such a careful work of the " domaine royale" as the Somme des Vices et des Vertus, composed in 1279
by Friar Lorens
at the
command
characteristically
and sym(1220-82),
Amiens
though the
It
is
latter is
chapter-house of Salisbury were carved realistic figures of the Vices and Virtues (including " the smiler with the knife beneath
his cloak").
The
men
Even
if
and
kings.
As "sermons
in
98
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap.
No
Cimabue (1240-f.
1302),
modern
more
famous frescoes
at Florence.
But English
land before the poetic ideas then current found worthy expression.
Henry III., a monarch of alien taste and temper, Westminster Abbey was erected in the pure French style yet, by reason of its sepulchres, it has become the chief
Under
the direction of
monument
of British glory.
were about the same time established in England, along with forms of earlier use, were and are still conveyed the abiding ideals
of the nation.
VI
Every century
cholic,
in its
humour
The
beat
in
spirit
all
hearts to
minds
to
cohere with a
original under-
common
taking.
and
The muse
Her
The thirteenth century saw nationalistic ideas pullulating among all classes in England, but these only slowly grew strong In John's time and came to fruition in recognised agreement.
the English were ready to accept a French prince as their
sovereign.
By 1300 even
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
intolerable.
99
In the
first
but
the Poitevin Peter des Roches and the Gascon Piers Gaveston
was
intensified to violence
by
The
great con-
Henry
III.
was
his favouritism
Edward
I.
tried to
first
becomes genuinely
managed
art.
And
was
The
Lang-
Chaucer
is
English.
harsh voice
is
courageous Wycliffe.
first
Gower, working
made
his
lord
also
book for King Richard's sake" but before he died he became aware of the new and great light of national achievement that had fully dawned he changed his dedication to " a book for England's sake." Even when writing French, he pro:
"a
"O
gentile
Engleterre, k
toi
j'escrits."
The
There
no need
Europe
rival
in this
new
era, or
the
strife
of the
popes at
the
Hundred
be
And
The
most of them,
it is
had by
this
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
in 1340, and New College (by William of Wykeham) in 1379. At Cambridge, Peterhouse dates from about 1284, Clare from 1326, Pembroke from 1347, Gonville from 1348, Trinity Hall from 1350, and Corpus Christi from 1352. The Universities of Cracow, Heidelberg, and Prague existed in Chaucer's time. At Oxford in the first half of the fourteenth century studied three distinguished pupils of Duns Scotus William of Ockham, William of Ockham Walter Burleigh, and Thomas Bradwardine. (i 270-1349?) was a member of the Franciscan house there, and
his lectures
on
logic at Paris.
and and
to dialectics, both of
fertile
mind.
new development
of nominalism, which
He
was
dogma by
its
was beyond
sphere.
abandonment.
He
of
Roman
errors,
He
XXII.
aloof.
From
matters of state
with
among
and
zealously
promulgated
by a host of
disciples.
Walter Burleigh (1275-1345?) is chiefly famed as a commentator on Aristotle, and his works alone would far more than
little library,
at the head of his bed, preference to " robes riche, or fithele, or gay sautrye " ; for Burleigh is reputed to have written no less than 130 treatises on
" Aristotle
and
and
less
at Paris,
of him
it
his philosophye." He studied at Merton College and was chosen tutor of the Black Prince. Doubtcould be said that "gladly wolde he lerne and gladly
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
teche."
None
frequently printed,
teresting biography
De
Vita et Moribus Philosophorum, full of inand anecdote concerning some 120 poets and
Thomas Bradwardine,
about 1290, and died of the plague in 1349, just after having been consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury. He early attained
eminence
at
Oxford
in
in
and his great work De Causa Dei contra Pelagium was based on lectures given there. This vast treatise was published in 1618 in a folio volume containing nearly
metaphysics and theology
1000 pages.
In
it
merit in
obtaining heavenly
Both these
writers
were
men
scholars.
III.,
accompanied him on
position.
and heard
his confession.
fitted for
We
St.
a like
"
the
any
That
In
this matere,
And
Another Oxford
the same
divine,
subject, differed
Him
too Chaucer
had
in
mind when
thereof"
telling the
Nun's
Priest's
moralitee
From
Holcot's Moralitates,
Nun's
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Archbishop of Armagh (who so powerfully conducted the struggle of the English secular clergy against the mendicants), belonged
to the group that associated with the celebrated Richard of Bury,
Bishop of
learning
Durhama
group of
finely cultivated
men, devoted to
and
Richard of Bury (1287-1345) is now chiefly remembered because of his Philobiblon, one of the most interesting books in He was a son of praise of books that has ever been written.
Sir
Richard Aungerville, a knight whose ancestor had come over He gained distinction at Oxford ; he was
young
prince, afterwards
Edward IH.
positions,
he occupied one
after
another
many
political
abroad
sion,
which required him to journey widely in England and he was the King's ambassador on more than one occatravelled in magnificence
;
and
Durham
;
in
was enthroned
later
in the
months before
his death.
An
than
more books
all
He had
residing so
to stand or
many books lay about his bedchamber that it was hardly possible move without treading upon them. All the time he could spaie
Every from business was devoted either to religious offices or to his books. day while at table he would have a book read to him, unless some special
guests were present, and afterwards would engage in discussion
of the reading.
of
Durham
to
and
to
be waited on
;
in his
and standing
but
De Bury
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
rarities
103
and procured
unscrupulous means.
He
let
it
be known that
his favour
could
gifts
He
own.
hook or by crook.
his
He
He
Europe.
Ever using
The
author's feelings
In books
to
I find
and
style
in
books
I foresee things
come
in
books warlike
laws of peace.
Saturn ceases
all
God had
The
loves to
is
hideousness of vice
is is
who
manner of
vice.
Faith
power of books ; hope is strengthened by their solace. Books delight us when prosperity smiles upon us ; they comfort us inThey lend validity to human separably when stormy fortune frowns on us. Arts compacts, and no serious judgments are propounded without their help. and sciences, all the advantages of which no mind can enumerate, consist in books. How highly must we estimate the wondrous power of books, since through them we survey the utmost bounds of the world and time, and conestablished by the
template the things that are as well as those that are not, as
mirror of eternity.
Finally,
it
were in the
we must
secret
consider
!
there
is
in books,
how
easy,
how
How
we
They
are masters
you come to them they are not asleep ; if you ask and inquire of them they do not withdraw themselves ; they do not chide if you make mistakes ; they do not laugh at you if you are ignorant. O books, who alone are liberal and free, who give to all who ask of you and enfranchise all who serve you
faithfully
I
his
offer the
"
104
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
their
chap.
fuming must of
business of
youthful
intellect
to
the difficulties
of
"Flocks and
fleeces,"
he
writes,
"crops and
granaries, leeks
goblets, are
nowadays the
whom
some
preceded them."
Of
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries form the age of the schoolmen " doctors," the greatest of whom were differentiated by
epithets characteristic of their distinction.
Alexander of Hales
was "
irrefragable,"
Adam Marsh
Magnus
" illustrious,"
Roger Bacon
"subtle,"
"marvellous," Albertus
"angelic,"
"universal,"
Thomas Aquinas
Scotus
Bonaventura
"seraphic,"
Duns
William of
Ockham
and perspicuous."
more celebrated perhaps than any of these, the " evangelical doctor John Wycliffe. Of Wycliffe {c. 1324-84), however, little need be said here, since his achievements will be considered more appropriately in the
Yet
it
is
well to
forces
it
And
was
his
training
at
Oxford, as fellow and master of Balliol, that fitted him later for
that great public usefulness
In
opposed
to the intricacies
in theology,
an
iconoclast, defying
He
was the
last
prominent schoolman.
11
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
much because
ideas,
105
of his philosophical,
or
even
political
as
because he took so
many
own
tracts
and sermons
in English,
and above
all
to pro-
duce our
first
An
earlier
contemporary of
his,
who
likewise,
because he too
promoted the literary use of English, deserves fuller consideration at our hands than many a greater man of the same period, is the hermit Richard RoUe of Hampole. Rolle was born about 1290 at Thornton (Dale) in Yorkshire, and, with the aid of
Thomas de
came
to
Neville,
to
study at Oxford.
By
spirit.
Feeling
stifled
by the
flee to
intellectuality that
surrounded him,
and
kirtles,
it
grey,
and over
and
he
who
mad.
his
where a friend of
worship.
By
he appeared at the church John of Dalton, was wont to singular behaviour and the zeal he evinced in a
Shortly
after,
his
father's,
unsolicited,
he
at
him with a hermitage on his estate, and There, during some four years, he
stages
through
the
various
of
still
mystical
purification,
mourning," conquerAfterwards
he spent a
io6
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
and work."
chap.
believed
to be high altitudes of
spiritual
having come,
saints,
according to his
own
feeling, to
Not being
orders,
and
charity.
way of advancing
productions.
his theories of
he began to
write.
Rhapsodic
first
He
writes
impetuously,
constantly.
life
He
;
seeks
to
win
souls
by
in
God
them
fearful
pictures of death
and
He
denounces the
then,
proud and
selfish
within
not surprising,
considering the state of the clergy at the time, that he met with
ridicule
and supercilious
neglect, that
and persecuted.
But serenity
Richmondshire,
named
who
inspired
him
The
last years
of his
life
Yorkshire,
adviser of a
body of
Cistercian nuns.
to
come
for
we
the
shall
later
examine.
He
died
in
1349,
probably one of
regarded as a patron
life
saint,
an Officium
Legenda of his
and
expected canonisation.
That
due
to the use
made by
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
107
Amongst RoUe's early Latin writings is a Mehim ConiemplaOf the Glory and Perfection of the Saints," a series of postils in praise of the contemplative life a book in combined prose and verse, characterised by the Anglo-Saxon tendency to
tivorum, "
balance
and
alliteration.
This was
followed
by
I?egula
Heremitamin
Scripture
tences.
;
in
prose
together with
style
is
His
extravagance.
His
passion
unrestrained,
his
zeal
is
im-
Two of his ethical works, De Emendacione Viiae and De Incendio Amoris, were englished in 1434-35 by one Richard
mature.
this
dress have
;
The former
is
the
These
of this
works
men
more busy to love God than to know many things." In RoUe's opinion, men burning with love seldom "go outward to worldly business, or take the dignity of worship
ignorant and untaught,
or prelacy."
" Alas
!
for
is
more expert of God's love and less desirous of worldly liking for why, for vanity than is the great divine, whose study is vain he studies, that he glorious may appear, and so be known, that the which a fool, and not wise, rents and dignities he more get
;
:
is
worthy to be holden."
The
love by which he
is
stimulated
is
all
night
is
may
please
him
life,
sweetness to Christ,
this present
is
joined.
How much
is
more with
spouse of
my
soul, in all
that
copes to be
known from
others,
;
And made
io8
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
RoUe he
certainly could not then
chap.
but
Despite
all his
rectly
described in the
been cor-
soul transported
tury,
Gower
work
in the
manner of Ovid.
poem The
this
form and contents, deals with the Peasants' Rising of 1381 but it gives also a general view of social conditions in the
author's time.
is
for
such a theme
clerks in
it
superior dignity.
Perhaps, furthermore,
Gower
felt
denounce abuses
Langland, we
in a
recall,
makes
But
suffer
and
serve.
There was but little Latin, as Chaucer points of the Shipman and his rough comrades.
maw "
The three great fourteenth -century poets of Italy, who are now celebrated particularly for their works in the vernacular, were formerly almost as much applauded for their books in the universal
tongue of scholars.
epistles,
Dante wrote
as well
as his
important treatises
De
j
De
.
Vulgari Eloquio.
Moreover, he
of
is
us
that
wise
men
his
time marvelled
choice of Italian.
Scipio Africanus,
epic
poem on
and
On
the
II
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
Solitary Life,
109
The
True Knowledge,
etc.
on mythology, ancient geography, and the history of famous men and women, were famihar to Chaucer and other Enghsh writers. One of his Latin eclogues inspired the
portant Latin books,
The names of Capgrave and Fortescue Colet Thomas More, Bale, Foxe, and
;
Barclay
Francis
Bacon
and Milton
century.
are
maintained on cultivated
It
men even
to the
the
medium
He
he informs
for
us,
would be hard
him "
it
to
was
"not caring
once
named abroad," he
as
:
British
islands
my
was
world."
chiefly
The
it
bound
to write in Latin. And, indeed, until quite recently most foreigners, like Portia, have had " a poor pennyworth in the English."
and
Italian,
was, in
with
dumb show
? "
No
European scholar
in the
have been expected, even by an Englishman, to know English. The influence of the widespread use of Latin in England during the period from the Norman Conquest to Chaucer is not
to
be estimated only by
its direct,
but also by
its
indirect effect
on
men who
still
The
history
But
quite as obviously that would not have been possible, for the
no
ANGLO-LATIN LITERATURE
chap,
ii
in-
which determined their attitude and style. Without yielding subservience to the power of the Latin Church,
and
profiting
isolated
body of men,
It is
cultivated, with
much
narrower
movements
of the world.
by
this
for this
dominion unquestionably established English civilisation on firmer foundations and made possible more permanent conditions of large national development.
tinental learning,
Uterature,
and
life,
have removed from them the outer stimuli that promoted their
best achievement.
CHAPTER
III
French was spoken by many in England prior to the Conquest. Edward the Confessor, who was reared on the Continent, surrounded himself with Norman favourites, on whom he bestowed rich possessions. As a result, many foreigners made their abode
in the land,
what happened
definitely established in
England
as the ordinary
promote or
to
produce
literary works.
It is well to
remember
after
earliest to
use
to
One
of the
first
acts of the
Conqueror was
in
order
to
make them
intelligible to those
govern.
1362,
when Edward
first
and ordained
for the in
that English
In 1363
but not
English.
Law-
in
of
Henry
III.
The
laws
112
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
chap.
Cromwell did away with French in the courts ; but it was restored by Charles ; and only since the eighteenth century has the use of English been
Latin to the end of the fifteenth century.
obligatory.
Even
to this
are in
common
use by
jurists,
For a time
the
Normans there was naturally who spoke French and those chasm was speedily bridged. By
but,
above
all,
by
ceased to
understood by
to
and both English and French were spoken or men of influence. The Conqueror seems never have desired to uproot the popular speech, and in this he was
exist,
all
:
wise
permit
he had
tried.
to
power
and
that
he
They
it
was natural to
him
French or not
English,
as they pleased,
and they suffered no reproach. But the cause of England gradually came to require insistence on English as the
national
tongue
at
hostility
to
the
French established
for
mutual
sympathy
Englishmen became
the watchword of
important,
then,
to
distinguish
two
periods
in
the
supremacy of French
loss of
in England.
From
between the
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
in
113
Normans had
in to be
It
continued
as
before.
much
the
same
spirit
was learned
convenience in
travel,
documents and state papers, for the amenities of course, and the satisfactions of polite literature.
In the thirteenth century Grosseteste
still
recognised as availin
learning
and French
in
society.
who aped them, strove to acquire some knowledge of the foreign speech as a mark of distinction, as an accomplishment. "For but a man knows French, he is
also the middle classes,
esteemed
but
little,"
said
the
sturdy
Englishman
Robert
Higden, Chaucer's contemporary, declared that even in his time " uplandish men " would liken themselves
of Gloucester.
to
And
gentlemen by busy
efforts
to
speak French.
Gentlemen's
cradles.
children,
French
until
grammar schools, moreover, was given in when one John Cornwall made what was no 1345,
Con-
The advantage
children were
grammar
in
less
time than
do ; the disadvantage, that now children of the grammar schools know no more French than their left heels, and that is harm for them, if they shall pass the sea and travel in strange lands and in many other places. Also gentlemen have now much left for to teach tlieir
wont
to
children French.
At the
1340 were required to speak Latin or French at their meals. At first as pure French was spoken in England as on the
Continent.
for example,
In the
Ypomedon of
Hugh
of Rutland
to
(c.
riSs),
be found.
But as
I
114
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
chap.
The
English
who
home were
kinsmen
not
in
their
Such schools
(to
as those at
Marlborough and
Stratford-
atte-Bowe
which Walter
Continental French.
his
plished a writer as
Gower apologised
on the ground of
that
large
the
foreign
idiom,
nationality.
But
it
should be remembered
numbers of English youth were constantly being educated at Paris, and these, as well as the knights and clergy, who habitually travelled, must be pre-
sumed to have spoken nearly like their friends abroad. The persistent use of French in England had large effect on the national tongue. It made for the obscuration of final It influenced the order syllables and the loss of inflections. of words, accentuated the differences between the dialects, and
favoured the analytical tendency of the language.
the French element
Gradually
vocabulary.
It
is
became more and more noticeable in the estimated that in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
less
from 1086 to
in
Layamon's Brut
in
lines;
as
many
hundred
while Robert
Mannyng
of
Brunne (1303) has a hundred and seventy in an equal number. And the French intermixture is marked not only in such works
as the above, which are based
in allitera-
On
showed the influence of native syntax and In their French poems we observe the employprinciples of metre.
literature
is
ment of Germanic
The French
early
produced
in
England
during
the
Middle Ages
but
it
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
115
employed.
efforts
We
in
the
misdirected
in
of the few
who
the
taste
the fourteenth
a fact of
moment
his fellows
tive
Old French literature comprises two great divisions, and didactic, which are further subdivided for clear
narratreat-
ment.
The
first
the second,
historical,
less apart
religious,
stand
lyrical
utilitarian
works.
It is
More
or
the drama.
the purpose
Normans and Anglo-French in these different styles. Some of the documents here only named will be mQre fully discussed
in later sections.
Romance
The
fact is
romantic people.
had
little
share
in
the pro-
Old French
literature.
and
up
to such unpractical
composition.
cultivated
The Anglo-Normans,
zest
:
however,
seem
to
have
has
through
their
efforts
Isles of
which
we should have no
trace.
this
The
conditions of their
settlement seem
selves
to have brought
about.
Finding them-
in 'daily intercourse
with
fellow-countrymen of unlike
ancestry,
past history,
and
listened
with
attention
to
the
tales
of old
ii6
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
memory by
their descendants
chap.
tales
more interesting and worthy. Becoming speedily naturalised, the Normans adopted as their own the traditions of Britain, of no matter whose inheritance, and thereby developed bonds of sympathy with the composite people whom but a short time since they had
which made the land of
their adoption
dispossessed of power.
writers
to
of station encouraged
record the
in
moment
Wace, and
Monmouth,
which
first
and
his followers,
we
observe,
Arthur's
was composed by an Anglo - Norman, Robert Biquet, and that the most distinguished of all lay-writers, the charming poetess Marie de France, collected and redacted her material
in
II.
Unfortunately we
Tristan of her
to convince us
all
enough
is
left
Arthurian
If the Br^ri to romances, and the work of an Englishman. whom Thomas refers as an authority on " les gestes et les cuntes,
De
de tuz
is
les
(i.e.
Welsh " famosus fabulator " Bledhericus, spoken of by Gerald de Barri, and also with Bleheris, the writer of the source of Wauchier de Denain's continuation of Crestien's Perceval, he probably wrote, a half
Great Britain)
identical with the
heroes.
Tristan,
lines.
Robert de Boron, to
whom we owe
m
much
in the
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
development of the legend of the Holy
Grail,
1?
has
been identified with "a landed knight of Hertfordshire, who in an undated document of 1 177-1203, with his wife Beatrice
and
Cockenhatch to a
II."
cloister,
and about
11 86 received rewards
sure,
from Henry
And
these,
we may be
who were occupied Were in England in reviving the popular lore of the Celts. we in possession of all the facts, had we in our hands the poems irrevocably gone, we should certainly have many more
are but a few of those
names to enrol in this honourable list. There are those who would still deprive the Normans of much but none participation in propagating the " matter of Britain " can deny them the credit of making considerable English tradition
;
et
Horn Guy de Warwick, and Boeve de Hatntone are the work of Normans in England. They also helped to perpetuate other themes. About 1185 an Anglo-Norman, Hugh of Rutland, who lived at Credenhill, near Hereford, and was an acquaintance of Walter Map, compiled his Ypomedon and Frotesilaus, which recall the Romance The famous of Thebes in name, yet seem Arthurian in style.
accessible to the world
:
love-story of
Amadas
et
Cligh,
in
tale
Romeo and
Juliet) existed
an
Anglo-Norman redaction, to which (or to an English translation About the middle of the of it) Gower and other poets refer.
thirteenth century a clerk, Eustace of Kent, wrote of Alexander
in a
Roman
de Toute Chevalerie.
The
life
of Richard Cceur de
Lion and that of the outlaw Fulk Fitz Warren were romantically
recorded in Anglo-French.
Many
scribes,
the popular romances composed on the Continent,- and their manuscripts are still in notable instances the best, sometimes the
?)
England.
The
made
his
Ii8
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
basis of a manuscript belonging to
chap.
romance on the
of
Edward, son
Henry
III.
By way
Tales
Of- the short secular tales current
laity
among
the
Anglo-Norman
we have but
scant knowledge.
;
lated freely in
England
Marie's
Ywpet
fable,
attests their
example-books.
taste,
much
to the
Norman
and
large
numbers were
We
collection of
book of
Manuel
des Pechiis
we
in
shall see,
was translated
by Robert of Brunne
1303.
In the thirteenth
his
century the
Barlaam
et
at
Greek legend
of the tenth.
by
skilful
stories,
instruction, of
various
Oriental
ingeniously
pointed, forms
substance.
Many
tales
who
trious
fourteenth century,
skill.
and a
story-teller
sometimes of considerable
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
119
Historical
Works
The most
torical events.
On
the Continent
little
to provide
but in England
to
many
Doubtless the
fact that
deeper cause.
Even before
Normans had no
spirit
French
the supremacy in
England,
In
an
effort to
upon the
theirs.
utilised
them
as
The French
personage, with
his
whom the conquerors took pains When their jealous rivals tried to
him as one who had been overcome by a cat (Chapalu), which had afterwards invaded England and carried off the king's crown, they retorted with indignant sneers (as we see from Andr^ de Coutances) that this was but a miserable and
in their eyes, picturing
had
victoriously subjugated
the whole realm of France, and held proud court at Paris itself
Appealing to Geoffrey of
Monmouth
the French of the defeat of their king FroUo in the lie de France,
and portrayed this supposed ruler as a contemptible person who in making his testament had left them certain despicable rules of conduct, which had since become their prominent characteristics.
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
Geoffrey's history, in truth,
mere
tissue of fables,
it
was
Geoffrey's
work spread
It speedily
became everywhere a
appearance Alvred of
subject
Soon
after
its
Beverley
tells
that
he
secured a copy.
at
that
he
for his
own
convenience.
it
to
it
His example
to bring Geoffrey
up
to date.
Before
150
it
In
this,
the
first
Roman
down
administration,
the
epochs
too
briefly,
first
the
William
II.
The
by that
still
work of considerable
if
historical interest,
though not so
valuable as
it
embodies
tales of
romantic heroes
saints.
history
Gaimar obtained, he
tells
us,
through the
well-known Yorkshire baron (fuSs), who distinguished himself particularly at the Battle of the Standard in 1138, and was the
founder of several abbeys (Kirkham, Rievaulx, and Wardon).
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
also used as sources other "English,
121
Romance, and Latin some of which are difficult to identify, but among them the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle certainly occupied a conspicuous
books,"
place.
He
Though
in
and a mocking
life
Wace seems
first at
to
Normandy.
in Jersey,
he
left his
;
home
at
then he
many
years
until finally, as a
He himself tells us that he He died probably about 1175. occupied the position of " reading clerk " during the lives of the
first
three Henries,
all
of
whom
and
that
his histories, of
it
which
some
by
He
was,
appears, an author
profit
profession,
for calculated
than from
servile or
inevitable inspiration.
And
yet he was by
no means
dependent in
source
his attitude.
He
whom he had heard in his youth, or taken from the storehouse of popular tradition to which he had access. To Geoffrey's matter he added occasionally, as, for example,
songs of jongleurs
details regarding the
Welsh bard
Taliessin,
the
story of
how
Gormond
set fire
how
the inhabit-
St.
Augustine,
whom
they irreverently
mocked;
ments concerning the foundation of the Round Table. Parts of Geoffrey's book (such as the prophecies of Merlin) he But his chief change omitted as unintelligible or irrelevant. little skill he turned the With no was in the tone of the work.
rhetorical Latin prose of his original into flowing octosyllabic
and subtly transformed it by the infusion of the spirit In his hands the narrative gained in of French romance. Each battle he described as if an eyevividness and realism.
couplets,
122
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
Imagining, for example, Arthur's
chap.
fleet
sailors in
leaders
full
orders
life.
to
the
of
animation and
It
was
at the
command
of
Henry
II. that
Wace undertook
later (between,
1160 and 1174) to write the history of the Dukes of Normandy, usually termed the Roman de Rou, after RoUo
(Hr6Ifr),
the
first
chieftain
of the
Norman
fief in
line,
to
whom
as
911.
Using
chief authorities
the chronicles of
Dudo
of
St.
Quentin,
work of
added
106.
historical as well as
literary
and
linguistic value.
He
own
to
information
in
his
sources
many
a bit of his
gleaning.
1
Wace
who commissioned another to write the history of the duchy. Benoit was the name of the rival who supplanted him as royal
historiographer.
his
He
work incomplete.
is
Although
it
I.;
we are Wace
told,
He
own
judgment or
caprice,
now
adding,
now
significant
change.
This
identified with
the well-known
Roman
now
More
questioned.
His work
is
characterised
less
con-
less
clear-cut, without
in
substance to
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
123
Canon of
The
first
an abridgment of Geoffrey of Monmouth, with a few variations which seem to show acquaintance with
is
work
Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Norman kings down to the death of Henry III. Here he compiles, not always accurately, from various writers, amongst whom he mentions William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Florence
of the of Worcester.
I.,
Langtoft
is
in-
dependent value.
Noteworthy
is
his
hatred of
the
Scotch.
Though
often copied, and formed the basis for a large part of the English
composed
in
rhymed
Alexandrine
introduced.
tirades,
though songs
But
to
historical writing
among
the
comprehensive chronicles.
"
of
He
seems particularly
to
of the romantic episodes in the King's career, and descriptions of hunts and courtly feasts.
learn,
was
and was suited for song. This book the Lady Constance had had transcribed at the cost of a mark of silver and kept by her in her chamber.
written in the style of the chansons de geste,
Originally
it
at the request of
Adelaide of
I.,
in 1135.
own work
(including
is
his
if it
but one
estimate
of
many
bits
of evidence that
to
124
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
Several
chap.
II.
were
The
murder of
Thomas
made
out Europe, and for which the King had so to humble himself,
called forth
several
lives
the
most
monorhymes) being
by Gamier du Pont
octosyllabic
is
couplets),
century,
preserved only in
work
self
is
distinctly the
most remarkable.
as he
tion,
may be
as
essentially
and
Church
that
at the time.
On
the
same
day (July
13,
1174)
Henry
publicly
William the Lion, was defeated and taken prisoner near Alnwick. At Henry's command, a clerk named Jordan Fantosme had accompanied the army as a reporter to take note of the events, and shortly afterwards he wrote these down in lively narrative.
lines,
rhyming
in
learning,
a pupil of
"spiritual
the celebrated
Paris,
and
1 1
7 2 also
occasioned an Anglo-
It was writteh by an anonymous author, who profited by information received from Morice Regan, interpreter of the Irish King Dermod,
Norman poem
accessible to
him apparently
in
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
125
regularly
1225.
to
incomplete,
ill-
it
contains.
In
France
the
best
historical
writing
of the
mediteval
peculiarly
charming way of
which
his
more
austere master,
St.
And
One
the
of
the earliest of
(nearly
11,000 lines)
deals
with
third
his followers,
Ambrose, and
author always
view,
Guerre
'Sainte.
The
pictures
the
struggle
work deserves mention here not only on that it was almost immediately put into Latin Itinerarium Regis Richardi) by a prior of the Church of
and
his
the
Holy Trinity
at
London, named
Richard.
This work,
original,
written after
1230,
now Of
lost.
all
the
Anglo-Norman
and valuable
historiograpical poems,
is
one of the
most
interesting
one of the
latest,
namely, the
during Henry
of eighty.
III.'s
minority,
as this
Inasmuch
life
admirable
12 19 at the
age
so long occupied
a conspicuous position
among
account of his
(over
19,000
based on trustworthy
126
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
is
chap.
contemporary information,
of the social and political
life
of the period.
favourite of
monarchs, a leader
in
important wars,
circumstances,
difficult
life
was of unusual
interest,
and fortunately
told.
at
and comrade.
The
poet's language
work is that of an English scribe. He was probably a writer by profession, perhaps a tourney herald, whose duties had by
that time so
widened as
life
of travel
and constant
association with
It
may
be noted
records.
in
It
common
histories are
more
reliable
than those
the vulgar
tongue.
The
air
him
life
army herald of
Sir
own
eyes
many
Anglo-French.
other
but
one
chronicler
need
is
be mentioned,
namely,
Nicholas
Trivet
was born
in
justice.
He
become
He
and
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
literature,
127
in theological
and
ease.
Many
of his works
published.
The
I.,
who
in 1285.
because of their
known
fourteenth century.
Some
consisting of
little
most popular
freely handled,
but
even recent,
a standard authority.
cronica
Similar in foundation
is
of Sir
Thomas Gray
of Heton, put
by that
at
he was imprisoned
Froissart
we
cuss here.
after Sir
But
it
is
Thomas
is
of absurdities to of
demand
further attention.
French
chronicles
to
preserved.
Numerous
after
political
in
French
the
in
England
the
loss
of Normandy.
taxes
that,
A
with
Song of
the
denounces
the
128
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
III. levied
chap.
Henry
for
on the clergy
praise
one of
throne of
Another
to
{c.
1263) King,
enumerates
with
the
among them
of
Evesham.
the times
dissatisfaction with
The
of a
satirised in
an
amusing
others.
new order emphasising the characteristic sins of all the Sometimes French and Latin were blended in macaronic verse. A Song on the Tailors, thus constructed, denounces the extravagance in dress of Henry III.'s time; another, the taxes Latin, French, and levied by Edward I. for the Flemish War. English, all three appear in a song on the times of- Edward II. Satire flourished among the Normans as among the Norse and Provengal. Even kings were not exempt from sneers, and had to safeguard their reputations by treating generously those in a position to do them harm. For poets did not wait for a grievance to "grow cold, but struck while the iron was hot and
with bold courage.
in conse-
quence.
Ordericus
la
us that
Henry
I.
Luc de
Barre,
to fierce
punishment
for
estrabots holding
11 24
he con-
demned him
wall.
man dashed
head against
his prison
From
we have many
:
Anglo-French
debates,
and the
like,
Often
ill
women were
It is
treated
with
cynical
scorn
all
life
possible
qualities
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
One
writer
129
on La Bontk
des
Femmes even
Eve.
tried
to prove that
Adam
was more
guilty than
He
calls
and without," on
finally
traducers of
women, and
many were
afflicted.
The
French,
(cf.
be
said,
it may La Paix
aux Anglais, La Charte aiix Anglais), getting particular amusement from the way their rivals spoke their common tongue. The English retorted rather more heavily, sneering at the French for their meanness, stinginess, lechery, and lack of honour. The wars between the two nations gave rise to poems vaunting one side at the other's expense. The Votvs of tlie Heron (1338) was written by a partisan of Robert of Artois, to show his master's part in provoking the English monarch to war with
France.
Religious
Works
From the beginning of the twelfth century the Bible was made accessible in parts or as a whole to the Anglo-Normans in their own tongue. The two oldest French versions of the Psalms were then executed in England, one by an Edwin, who was probably a monk of Canterbury. Due also to islanders are
two poetical paraphrases of the Bible,
or monorhymes.
in decasyllabic couplets
duced
for
an English
in
Adelaide of Conde
a
version
(mistress
of
of
Horncastle
Lincolnshire),
of
the
Proverbs
rhymed couplets, accompanied by an interestAn excellent prose version ing commentary in the same metre. of the Books of Samuel and Kings is preserved in a manuscript written in England not long after. An Anglo-French translation
Solomon,
in short
of the Apocalypse of
thirteenth century.
St. John is dated at the beginning of the About 1250 Robert of Gretham (the author
in the
Sunday
service,
and
130
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
to
chap.
added
appears, of a
Robert was the chaplain, it Lord Alein and a Lady Aline, neither of whom
The
had a
was
composed the
it
Miroir.
He
mentioned
his
in
connection with
behalf.
In the
latter
half of the
Nicodemus and other apocryphal matter, such as the legends of the Holy Rood. Verse, moreover, was extensively used for homiletic and theological purposes. Apart from short treatises on the Seven Deadly Sins, the Pains of Hell, the Signs of Judgment, and such dismal themes, we dull find paraphrases of the Creed, Ave Maria, and the like certainly, and useful only in presenting the precepts of the Church in short compass suitable for recitation or chant.
versions
of the
to
they were
lives.
Wace,
its
for ex-
Nicholas because of
St.
peculiar
company
Italy
of
Normans
an
exploit the
Similarly,
mandy.
and taken by them to southern still echoed throughout NorWace wrote of the Immaculate Conception,
in Lycia
fame of which
because the
feast in
memory
first
celebrated
in the
Abbey of Ramsey.
According
Anselm,
this
was due
sailors
favour of
Norman
it
is'
To
us
significant
the
Anglo-Normans
speedily
m
lives.
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
saints,
131
their
Odyssey, of
This poem was written about 1125, on the basis of a Latin prose version by an ecclesiastic named Benedict, at the request of Queen Adelaide.
into the journey of a Christian saint to paradise.
Later, in the thirteenth century,
it
on the Continent.
first
half of that
fifth-century
St.
following, appeared
Irish
the
martyr
Alban,
who
AmphibaL
In French was also perpetuated some of the hagiography of
England.
fell
The
Life of
St.
Edmund,
who
870 in strife with the Danes, was recounted by Denis Pyramus as a work of pious devotion in his old age. Before
in
1 245 a a long
monk of Westminster composed for Eleanor of Provence poem on Edward the Confessor. The Lives of Becket
historical than
Here, however,
may be men-
Hugh
contempt of Christ
An
not long
St.
after,
;
an
Giles
about
1200 Simon de Fresne, a friend of Giraldus Cam brensis,, told of St. George and the Dragon; before 12 16 Chardri, the author of
the
the Sept Dormants, the seven youths of Ephesus, who, having been
after
two hundred
132
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
and
lived long
chap.
years
enough
in 12 12-14,
French verse the Dialogues of Gregory the Great, and added a Life of Gregory. Many other French lives of saints were written later in
England.
They
havfe,
however,
little
was abiding,
and
of the refined.
Didactic
Works
literature,
The
a whole,
chief characteristic of
is its
Anglo-Norman
taken as
All sorts of
treatises of instruction
and
dance
interest
small.
So
greatly,
which
is
The
oldest bit of
is
a Comput, or
11 13
by one Philippe de
London
clerk,
who
first
also wrote
treatise
for
Queen Adelaide,
1 1
25,
a Besttaire,
the
"signification"
perties
of things, also
and other books of pseudo- science and the probecame widely current. Three Anglocivility,
Norman
falconry,
for
manuals
prepared in England
is
much
earlier
than in France.
Noteworthy
de Monchensi
where when
it
suited.
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
appeared numerous
in
133
later
compends
(e.g.
for
instruction,
some of
Petite
them enormous
of
Philosophic,
etc.).
extent
Secret
Za
Peckhani, the
des
Secrets,
Image du Monde,
version
exists
An Anglo-French
of
the
Book of Sidrac
Knowledge.
Book of
the
Fount of
mediaeval
England
the
production of
lyric
love-
much
much
We
have, indeed,
some
an
alle-
gorical
syllables
illustrative
and a
of
suite of erotic
likely
may be merely
is
it
much
it is
But
would seem,
less light-hearted
and
they
facile
When
on worldly
whom
they
endowed with
all
Thus most permanently did the spirit of Provencal Nowhere was the cult of the itself in England. in her honour numerous poems were Virgin more developed composed. We read in verse of her " Five Joys," of her " Comreligious joy.
poetry manifest
life,
some very tender, miracles performed by Here we have pure lyrics, or lyrical narratives, her power. Songs on betokening a fervid zeal and exalted mysticism. Jesus, the Saviour-Knight, reveal the same feudal spirit.
many
wonderful, and
This
spirit
poem
134
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
Castle of
chap.
Love was the fairest ever created. It was established on a and without was of three colours never-fading green at the bottom, Within, it was shining white. beautiful blue above, and rose-red at the top. In the high tower was a throne of white ivory, and a well from which flowed
The
firm rock,
Mary.
There were four small towers, three and seven barbicans. This castle was the body of the sweet maiden The colours of its exterior It relied on the strength of her heart.
belief,
betokened her
her
fair
God
enthroned.
The
small towers
As
we read
in
an English translation
This
is
liss.
Of solace, of succour, of joy, and Of hope, of heal, of sikerness, And full of all -sweetness.
Its
bliss.
In
it
the incarnate
Son sought
shelter against
beset.
His
three foes
flesh,
by which He was
the mighty
Coming are brought out in a colloquy between King of Heaven, His four daughters Mercy, Sooth, Right, and Peace, and His co-equal Son. Mercy pleads for the delivery of the thrall
causes of the Saviour's
The
Man from sad imprisonment ; but Sooth and Right make objection ; whereupon Peace suggests a ransom. The wise Son, to terminate the trouble, offers
to take the thrall's
weeds and
written above
it
all
In symbolic form
lay ears the chief points of the Christian faith, particularly such as
fallen
man.
It
was de-
who had " ne lettrure ne clergie," and was not expected to have much "savour" for a clerk. Yet it was soon turned into Latin and, for such as knew
romance "
for those
;
so
it is
definitely stated
"
for
lewd
men's behoof,"
it
first
part of the
was
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
These are present
135
also in certain
De
Blauncheflour et
and
De
Melior
et Idoine,
as the Latin
is
De
clerk
the
is
more worthy of a
dispute
settled by the
God
of
Love
by
in
is
The
last
stanza
De
poem was
significant
first
an
interesting
is
and perhaps
The who
E
.
Jeo
car prov^
I'ai
This too
is
suggestive.
Who
were the
men who
at
wrote poems
of Vaga-
of this sort?
de Lion and
bondia,
the English.
tidings."
troubadour friends
least clerks
foreign ideas to
Guillaume de
Machaut,
troubadours
ballades,
eternal changes
themes, but of importance to us because in a measure they determined the productions of Chaucer, Gower, and other
136
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
who
at
first
chap.
English writers
style.
From
fifty
Such writings
concern.
Drama
Though a consecutive account of the early history of the drama must be postponed to the second volume of this work, it deserves notice here that the Normans in England helped in
the
formation of
a national stage.
is
The
beginnings of
the
Christian drama, as
tions of the liturgy,
well
to adaptain Latin
on the Continent ; but not have we any trace of " mysteries " or " miracles."
earliest extant
England the
that,
name
:
of
Adam.
This remarkable
work
in
is
composed of three
it is
parts
which
beard
stone.
tables of
man
of
uncommon
the scene of
the seduction of
praise.
especially
won
the
critics'
later date
and much
less value
interest,
if
the Resurrection,
explains to the spectators the arrangement of the stage, with the different " mansions " of the players.
by Englishmen.
Here ends our rapid survey of extant French works produced They have been grouped, it should be observed
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
in the
137
manner
that will
in English,
which we are
is
to
examine.
exists
ended,
will
no
of,
truly
significant
not an imitation
French.
us,
then, that
now
occupies
the
very extraordinary
no doubt, and so
the world
it
seemed
that
"I ween,"
are in
all
no countries At
do not hold
to
their
own speech
In
this
statement, however,
he was hardly
vernacular.
Dante's
in his
ployed
it
encyclopsedic Tresor.
his
Latini said,
"
to
all
The esteem
which
it
England
is
illustrated
ou monde
le fist si
et
quar Dieux
douce
ce
il
amiable princi-
palement a Toneur
Et pour
peut comparer au
Certainly
of
its
of
English
even
the
most
of
the
ardent
supporter
use
could
make no such
different
eulogy.
timid
speech.
In
parts
accents
sounded
were
elements
in
disturbingly
Outside
of
limited
districts
dialect
was scarcely
intelligible,
and
all
were
138
ANGLO-NORMAN AND
chap.
counted as mere gibberish abroad, whereas French was understood not only by
in
all
cultivated
men
it
at
With
with
No wonder
use that the English must have had, the desire of every one to
intelligible
but wise.
remains to dispel a
all,
common
or even largely, of
Norman
descent,
and the works they read peculiarly Norman in character. The army that the Conqueror led at Hastings was by no means composed exclusively of soldiers from his own duchy; and later from almost every part of France, from the lie de France as
well as from Brittany, Maine, Guienne, Gascony, Aquitaine,
and
Poitou
once
artists,
possessions
artisans,
of the
soldiers,
and
traders, to
was
to
rich.
carried
the
tastes
and sentiments
in
And
was
these
are mirrored
all,
the
not,
above
vailed in Caen,
then the paradise of the learned and literary world, that gave
most
delight.
It
as Crestien
de Troyes
was the works of such widely-famed poets (in Champagne), Guillaume de Lorris, and
throughout
the
all
Jean de
Meung
Cultivated
Englishmen
finest
Middle
France.
offers
Ages
were
productions of
The
history of architecture in
England
an instructive
The
architectural achieve-
ments of the medi3eval period are not all in a single mode. Here also we must distinguish between Anglo-Norman and
Anglo-French.
The Anglo-Normans
erected
many handsome
Ill
ANGLO-FRENCH LITERATURE
in
139
edifices
them
the solid
Norman
with
in
popularity to the
more
France.
rhymed
chronicles and
and
saints.
its
extravagance,
and the
of
The works
on a foundation of borrowed
CHAPTER
IV
UNIFORM
exist
literary language,
or anything approaching
it,
did
not
in
in 1400.
From
Conquest,
and even
as
in the thirteenth
and fourteenth
Paris,
was
essentially
the
same
land.
speech
at
acknowledge a
wrote.
common
Even
at
when they
by the variations
please every
in
the vernacular,
and f^u^d
'iit'^f'Ji^rd
to-i
man
And
to
when
the
Art of English
Poesie attributed
definite statement
that
was adhered to by
literary
men.
The
commonly spoken
in
the north
and south from " the usual speech of the court, and that of London within sixty miles, and not much above," the author fully recognised, but he exalted the last because no other was
140
CHAP. IV
141
was then
and
others,"
not by the
common
In
people of every
shire.
in
several
fairly
main the
divisions of
Saxon
in
speech.
district
The
a larger
than the
ancient
Northumbrian.
It
was spoken
in
the
in
Scottish
Lowlands,
Northumberland,
Durham, Yorkshire,
parts
the
north of Lancashire,
of
To
always called
The
The
field
came
to
slightly divergent
London, the
capital of
At the middle of the thirteenth century, England since the time of Henry II.,
southern character, and at the end of
on London English
dialects,
lost its
peculiarities.
The
territory
in general to the
Here
in
too,
one,
somewhat
indefinite in
and
south,
and another
Two
things above
all
are troublesome
;
first,
the trans-
Only
142
chaP.
{e.g.
Ormulum and
we what
worked with great freedom, and not seldom transposed a whole poem from one dialect to another,
of
redactors.
Scribes
making extensive
alterations
even
in
the
rhymes,
which are
often
to original forms.
Poems
who never
to
of
dialect
is
of
to
the
student of
literature.
his
own
well-beloved books
new
are imposed
translators,
we
us,
!
tions,
we become wholly
name of
some wretched stepfather is affixed to names of their true fathers. Ah are ancient are but lately bom, and try
.
. .
how
we who
who
are
are really
fathers, calling us
Indeed,
we have
we
now
sup-
pilferer of
Cadmus,
and we who were but lately born in England, shall to-morrow be born again in Paris, and thence being carried to Bologna, shall obtain an Italian origin,
based upon no
affinity of blood.
Alas
how ye commit
real.
us to treacherous
copyists to be written,
how
Oftentimes
we
have to endure barbarous interpreters, and those who are ignorant of foreign idioms presume to translate us from one language into another ; and thus all
IV
143
is lost and our sense is shamefully mutilated contrary meaning of the author Truly noble would have been the condition of bookat if it had not been for the presumption of the tower of Babel, if but
propriety of speech
to the
race.
mixture of dialects
is
apparent in writers
who
lived
on the
districts, or in
Those who
adhered
Naturally,
rival,
interests,
most
and,
closely to the
of their
own
region.
much advantage
over any
before in Athens,
and
legislative centre
of national speech.
dialect that
Rome, and Paris, the commercial of the realm now again set the standard By good fortune, it was in the London
his
Gower and
who
For centuries
habit, but
men
still
commerce and
far
cultivation.
So
is
as the language of
Middle English
:
is
concerned,
it
early, standard,
and
late,
from
HOC
to
respectively.
unlikeness.
to enable
us to judge
In
much
less
and
In the South,
much more
vocabulary.
a considerable
in the
dialect
144
chap. Iv
inflection of
in
the
Unaccented
this
final e is still
much
Between 1400 and 1500, dialects gradually disappeared from the literature, and inflections approached the forms of modern English. Final unaccented e
speech, even in the North.
common
Scottish at last
came
to
be
distinct
The chronological table appended to this volume will readily show the student when and where were composed the different English works of which mention will be made in the ensuing
pages.
seems to have
What
little
is
remains of English
chiefly
next
;
hundred
years
religious
or
didactic 4n character
and
in literary
It
was
in the
neighbourhood of old
made
itself felt,
and
where
later,
literature,
stirrings of creative impulse are to be seen. had rested over Northumbria since its early literary supremacy in the seventh and eighth centuries was rudely overthrown, it required five hundred years and more
that the
first
The shadow
that
permanently to
dispel.
No
until the
An
the
effort
to discover the
temper of
of
extant
productions
in
has
uncertain
results to
be said of
the
character of writings
the
where conditions
but, in
main,
dialect
is
CHAPTER V
ROMANCE
Without doubt
a broad interpretation,
we
call
romance.
No
literary
productions
and heroines
of bygone days.
words
Ne De
home
entendant,
la grant.
France, et de Bietagne, et de
Kome
And
to
come
be universally accepted
as adequate titles for the leading divi" use the term " matter of France
sions of romance.
to denote
We now
the
Emperor
the
struggles
of French
The
on
traditions
Finally, the
it
"matter of
stories
wonderful
achievements
antiquity.
These
different
146
THE MATTER
we
shall
OF-
FRANCE
order given
chap.
"matters"
discuss
in
the
by
Bodel,
more
of Britain stories of Germanic origin, and from that of those that have their source in the Orient.
Rome
most
;
We
shall deal
speech
but
we
and
to consider
We
its
was transformed into the likeness of romance, and by the time it was treated in English was hardly
inception epic in
distinguishable therefrom.
Obviously, the Carlovingian cycle is " popular " as the other cycles are not. Here is literature that in
composed both
as
for
well
It
.is
the
consciousness.
characterised
by the directness of
their
and
emotions.
The
mediaeval cycles of
Britain
imaginations of individuals
aristocratic
of,
the of
the
deliberate
of
material
material,
more-
to do.
of narrative appear
much
is
the
same
in
the end.
mirrored the
development of
Western Europe.
A version
first
it
inspired
them
to victory in the
ROMANCE
when Harold
was ushered
fell,
147
foreign domination
in.
us,
who died
at
Ronceval."
that in
The proud
of William
no doubt thought
moving against
England they were acting like the old heroes of Northern France, with whose fame they had long been familiar ; their leader was
to
ago,
consideration
fired
more or
of
the
that
legendary
achievements
the
imagination
great
Napoleon,
epic of France.
came
to
England
they preserved
Charlemagne
course of
Arthur,
King of the
rival to
Charlemagne
their lead.
The English, like the Germans and other peoples, revered the memory of Charlemagne, particularly because they regarded
him as the Church the
first
made common
cause.
And
they heard
148
chap.
of Christianity.
is
not surprising
of French
In the
much
for the
douce France
" as in
behalf of
God
this motive.
and foremost
by love of
their land.
The
vassals,
geste.
cycle of
is
poems concerning Charlemagne, his peers and composed in the main of what are called chansons de
in the beginning
They were
people's
they were
private
anonymous and impersonal; they voiced public, not sentiment they echoed and established national opinion.
;
Then,
of real
again,
or deeds
warriors
In course of time,
de geste in
however, the
of the
name chanson
both
its
parts
was changed,
first
fhe
it,
in chorus,
which
bore
poets (^jongleurs) from the eleventh century on, and stamped with
personality.
They were
recited, to the
accompaniment of music,
later, for
by individuals.
public
recital.
Finally,
rewritten
and printed
as chap-books in prose.
The
the
to
poems likewise steadily underwent change. Geste came soon mean an epic poem, or a cycle dealing with an "epic family."
a
further degeneration in England,
it
By
for
tale.
Men
spoke of the
Horn and
"jest-books."
The
They were
ROMANCE
composed
assonance.
in clusters of decasyllabic verses of very
149
unequal extent
After a while,
at first spas-
In the end,
we have
Nowhere
employed
in
an English Charlemagne
romance.
is
only
fitfully
used.
appear,
forms of
four-
tail-rhynie-strophe,
line
rhymed
couplets,
ballad
measure.
exist, different
The most
is
the
army
at
Ronceval,
all
his
and the
traitor
Ganelon
disgrace.
The
foundation.
of Charles's
The
life,
campaign
in Spain, were set upon and destroyed by a body of Gascon mountaineers, and in the struggle Roland, the "Count of the Marches of Brittany," with other French leaders, lost their
lives.
presentation.
These incidents were amazingly modified in later literary In the era of the Crusades, it was natural to picture
the Basques, who opposed the French, as heathen Saracens. They were represented as having a force enormously superior to
the
Christians,
and
their
attack
of the
treasonable
Ganelon, for
Iscariot
mean
amongst them.
defeat
The scene
; ;
to
make
more reasonable
the
armament of
ISO
chap.
God
of the patriarchal
Emperor when,
still.
he
inconspicuous in the
battle,
narrative.
He
is
pictured as the
whose
army of
was superinduced.
endured.
Through the
might of his noble sword Durendal and his own strong arm, he
life
He
is
who
is
introduced
at the close,
the encounter.
is
Charlemagne
age.
in
thirty-six
but he
hundred years of
battle,
engages actively in
and has
in
all
the
of majesty.
grave,
silent,
We
see
him
seated
unrelenting
an imposing, grandiose
an arm-chair of gold
determined,
figure.
it
The
seems,
in Brittany,
and
and
later
worked over in Anjou by a Frenchman of In his hands it was infused with a spirit of
The
redactor
worked
despite
great
at will.
His
effort
certain
inconsistencies
art.
style is
Though unadorned and sometimes monotonous, his dignified and impressive. The constant use of formulae
effect
of
his
simple,
Above
all
poem
its
and
its
exalted expression of
nationality.
was shaped
it
fruit
of
French patriotism.
ROMANCE
IS I
a strong and dominant race, yet one easily swayed by noble precept and example.
de
Roland
is
we
to the
Anglo-Normans, ^nd
to their
descendants.
When
nacular in a
is
fragraentarily preserved.
The theme
freely treated
and
it
is
one
very
in
popular favour, or
this earlier
one as
well.
He
had
plainly
little talent,
manner.
place
;
The
infinitely less
no epic
Saracen
women on
to
fact
welcome occasion
if
One
class.
merit as
a national epic,
It is
that
it
men
of
arms.
The
no doubt enjoyed
Primarily for
it;
but
it
was not
written with
them
it
in
mind.
them,^n
the contrary,
was composed,
Apart from
its
it
has
we may
call
specimen
in extant writing of
Pesprit gaulois,
and
and
tion
as
an
illustration of
how
effect
when a
field
The
on the
some
at least of
them condescended
IS2
chap.
people at
St.
once travelled
Holy
City,
which must have aroused as much laughter as the other part The king is pictured as visiting Constantinople on devotion.
his way,
by
his
for
him by God.
:
The
the comic,
it
shown,
We
called
light
have in English
an ancient story
King Arthur and King Cornwall, which seemingly throws sort of material the minstrel adapted to his humorous purpose. It tells how Arthur, being nettled by Guinevere's remark that there is in a place that she knows of but will not
on the
reveal, a
Round Table
in
two nights
where
one place
he sees
it.
With
several
com-
accomplish had
it
not been for a helpful friend (or rather fiend) whose services they
managed
to enlist.
are represented as
Norseman fashion both Arthur's knights and Charlemagne's peers making readily when merry, and lamenting ruefully when sober. Constantinople (a regular name for the Otherworld, where are revolving castles and such wonders) was on the route to Jerusalem, and Charlemagne was pictured as wending his way to the Orient on a double purpose to show his piety in the Holy City, and to test the truth of his wife's ill-advised assertion that Hugo, Emperor of Constantinople, was handsomer The "gabs" that he and his peers make in Hugo's than he.
ROMANCE
hall,
153
no doubt, indulged
in
It
for the
French poem as
it
stands
remarkable to a high degree. It was a tale current among the Anglo-Normans, and relished by them. The unique manuscript
of
it
Englishman who,
it is clear, had inadequate mastery of French. This significant introduction of alien material into the frame-
it
Ralph
of
all.
Collier,
which
is
many seem
make
it fit
It
tales,
known are King Edward III. and the Tanner of Tamworth, and King Henry II. and the Miller of Mansfield. Like the Pilgrimage, it too evinces rough humour and middleclass sentiment.
But
these,
though in some respects the most interesting, were poems dealing with the matter of France that were
current in England.
From
The
set
into
two
and Ferumbras (Fierabras) as titular personages. made up of several poems, one of which {Otuel)
the Auchinleck
entitled
The former
is
is
preserved in
in
MS. The same material was treated Duke Roland and Sir Ottuell of Spain, and
poem
in
another
IS4
chap.
version
except in a
summary made by
Ellis.
French
combat with Roland. During the combat a dove descends from heaven upon him, and
a Saracen knight
fights in single
who
He
marries
the
king's
daughter,
and
fights
Lombardy.
poem,
and The
Siege of Milan.
It
duel between Roland and Vernagu, a black giant forty feet high,
giant,
marked by the picturesque incident that once when the being very tired, is allowed by Roland a period for sleep,
rests
and
aid,
still
and presents Vernagu's head to the The Siege of Milan narrates how, after certain rebuffs, king. the French army takes Milan. Archbishop Turpin is the central figure, and to him is due the honour of the victory. The
is
Roland
victorious,
To the Ferumbras cycle belong the two English poems of The Sowdone {Sultan) of Babylon and Sir Ferumbras. The
former
tells
how
Rome
and carried
off the
how
Charlemagne
in an expedition to Spain.
The most
ROMANCE
Ferumbras
is
iSS
who
is
His
sister (Floripas),
Guy
them
to recover the
Her
father Balan
is
baptized.
That
it
in
England
clear
is
hero
the
difficult
passage
of
Loch Lomond,
to
teinvigorate
their
courage.
Chaucer J and
existed.
this
is is
formerly
All
No poem
more or less free translations from the French (AngloHad we Norman?), but the exact originals are not known. no single one of these English romances, we should still be able
are
to
assert with confidence knowledge of Carlovingian tradition on the part of Chaucer's contemporaries, if only from the references to Charlemagne in literature, his celebration as one of the Nine Worthies, and the numerous pieces of tapestry comBut his fame was most surely permemorating his exploits.
now
examined.
after the printing-press
Not long
was established
in
London,
Caxton presented his English public with " reductions " of two The first dealt with " the long prose romances of this cycle. " right puyssant, vertuous and noble King Charles the Great, and was based on a late transformation of Fierabras into which much
new
but
material
"
The most
part
of this
IS6
chai*.
good and vertuous operacions digne folowyng the good and eschewying
Five years
later,
Caxton
de
fidelity
the romance of
it,
Renaud
Montauban,
or,
sympathy
conduct
is
man," whose
and
Renaud
is
are the
deceit.
advantage gained
by
The
interest
achievements
greatly
famous steed Bayard, who almost as much as Renaud is the hero According to popular tradition, he may still be heard of the tale.
to
neigh
in the
forest
of the
Ardennes.
Even so
Achilles,
This
and
is
In 1598,
for
list
of works
There are
exhibited as a
in
French no
less
usually
weak old
fool
whom
his
barons
despise.
This
of independence
of contemporary
French
to
barons towards their suzerains, which finally caused the disintegration of feudalism.
the
romance.
spirit
Its influence
new
and tone. All was no longer war and struggle. Women became more and more conspicuous. Love-making and magic
ROMANCE
appeared everywhere.
chivalry.
157
New
The new
in
in
Sir
Duke Huon
1534 by Wynkyn de Worde, not like his predecessor Caxton a crude translation of hi own, but as " done into English by
John Bourchier, Lord Berners," the translator of Froissart. Here at last we have an English Charlemagne romance admirable in style and important in influence. Lord Berners wrote very dignified prose, and his Huon was utilised by Spenser in the
Faerie Queene, by Shakspere in
and by Keats
in
Endymion.
Huon
is
most
interesting as a hero
when
his
career
prototypes.
aids his
who
The
fairy
appear
much
Oberon seems of a
But
in reality
different race
all
may have
Oberon
is
If
offspring
cessful in
He
but,
what
is
ages before.
Chaucer
fayerye,"
tells
fulfilled
of
and the statement was in a way true of his own age. Literature in England dealing with this theme has always been
among
the people,
nowhere
is,
else
by the
There
a subject of inspiration.
Even now
doth
shadowy waters " and bid where the air "nimbly and sweetly"
commend
itself
We
follow gladly
iSS
chap.
for the
as enchanting to-day as
it
has ever
been, and
we have
England a
of politics in
the
island.
itself in
songs of
who
fought
land.
about
early
; a genuine national epic it was impossible to develop in England during the epic age because of the heterogeneous
traditions
one another.
The
nearest
effort
approach, of course,
A
him
brilliant
as the national
But the
is
result
fell
far
short
of the aim.
Arthurian
romance
of English nationality.
rested too obviously
on
remain
in discriminating times
Ages
it
no small degree to
unite in a
common
we
we
the founda-
The
;
its
beginning
myth and fable that of France was idealised fact. No one would dream of turning to an Arthurian poem for facts of the historical basis of the epic of Charlemagne is a history
;
When men
felt
they
on the contrary,
stirred
them
to
for battle.
The Carlovingian struggles, action, made them grasp their The popularity and influence
all
ROMANCE
in
Italy.
IS9
But
its
power has
steadily waned.
Descriptions of
necessarily
battles
and
and
in
much
own
and adventure,
infinite
variety
and ever
captivating
by suggestion.
We
stories of King Arthur. Poets, artists, musicians find in them an inspiration to their best efforts. They are ever new. But Charlemagne we have outgrown, and of all his once illustrious paladins hardly one is popularly known among us.
the
The Matter of
Origin
Britain
and Development
In the upbuilding of this
Arthur
marvellous
is
a threefold creation.
figure, materials
romance
There
con-
now
agree,
an
historical Arthur,
who occupied a
Welsh.
appeared with
his
as
noble as
this
come about
Who
was the
historical
Arthur
?
What
occasioned his idealisation by his own and other races ? When and where was he transformed into a picturesque king, and given a worthy following of noble knights? These are the questions We must that will occupy our attention in the present section.
first strive
chronicles
we
shall then
l6o
chap.
finally,
we
him seated
on the
glittering throne
Mon-
mouth and
splendid court.
We
torical
his-
form tp a period earlier than the beginning of the ninth century; but we can safely assert that it occurred in a redaction of that document which
that goes
document
back
in its present
earlier
and there
every reason to
believe that
some of
his
achievements are
referred to in a history
events of his
life.
Arthur
is
first
mentioned by name
This
work has of
has occasioned
much
dispute.
enter.
Suffice
which seem
The
Historia
summary
man
It
St.
brought together.
From
lived
a Latin
until
life
of
627,
made
which an
well constructed
and
attractive.
Its unity,
by Nennius,
finally
shaped by him,
The
by the evidence of the saintly historian Gildas, Arthur's conHis chief work, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae, temporary.
is
a violent denunciation
time,
written
ROMANCE
Roman
citizen.
i6i
Saxon invaders,
victory
in
which "nunc
cives,
finally
ended by a
brilliant
the
Saxons received
such a
crushing defeat that for nearly half a century the British enjoyed
comparative peace.
Now
Nennius
tells
Mount Badon.
And
there
can be
the
same
events,
and
that Arthur
the Britons
who vanquished
in these
The
by Nennius
the Britons
words
" pugnabat
cum
regibus Brittonum,
"
of
Roman
troops,
and was
in
the the
407,
Romans
not ensue.
control was
There was a
left
Roman
hands.
the the
fifth
in
their
Roman
rule.
During the
whom
who seemg, however, to have been only a military commander {givkdig), they gained, not far from the year 500, after a series of successes, a glorious victory at Mount Badon.
leader Arthur,
exalted.
In the
second half of the sixth century, when the Britons again met
with reverses, they must have reverenced as never before the
memory
success.
who had
it
previously brought
them
very
And
drew
l62
chap.
indis-
solubly connected.
The paragraph about Arthur in the Historia Britonum of the it is now believed by scholars, already in
it
the version of the year 679, from which the Nennius redaction. the seventh century this
But there can be no doubt that even in was by no means all that was to be said
of him
tales.
for
Whether
that his
fication or confusion
fact that
been
glorified
by
their devotees,
rowed splendour,
that
it is
impossible to say.
much
the detritus
of early myth.
The
very
first
On
Study of
Celtic Literature,
"is
how
story-teller is pillaging
he
like a
of Halicarnassus or Ephesus
he
builds, but
what he builds
is full
stones
'
show
him
to be truly a
member
;
for
or adventures ascribed to
him
romance of
late
whom
they
had become the supreme hero of the Welsh. After the old religion had disappeared, the primitive stories of the gods were repeated over and over again, but they were no longer viewed in the same
light as in
who
heathen times.
We may
the
Welsh
ROMANCE
who
transferred
163
if at
all,
Even
men and
last
period of pros-
to his being
deities
crowned with
effort
laurels of grateful
were stripped of
glory.
Every
was
In
made
became the
and environment.
The gathering that assembled about Arthur in his hall Ehangwen was totally different from that which was wont to
hold
its
and
modern mind.
We
one foot the whole day, and we wonder what advantage came to What did it profit him that Arthur from such a follower.
Ychdryt Varyvdraws was able to project
over the forty-eight rafters of his hall
?
be had from association with Gwevyl, son of Gwestat, who when he was sad let one of his lips fall below his waist, while the other he put as a hood over his head. And when we read of Gwallgoyc
that
lived, if
though there were a hundred houses in the town where he he happened to lack anything, he did not let sleep close
we come to the If conclusion that he must have been an unwelcome guest. Arthur had many such in his train, he was doubtless as much
the eyes of a single person while he was there,
feared wherever he went as the notorious bearsarks of Scandi-
navian heathendom.
Some
useful.
He
had an
interpreter to
whom
all
i64
chap.
and who could speak with birds and animals. He had a guide who served as well in a country he had not seen as in his own.
He had
all.
There
who would
for,
from
its
whose
feet,
we
when
But her husband's envoy was of a more picturesque character " When he intended to go on a message for his lord,, he never sought to find a path, but, knowing whither he was to go, if his way lay through a wood he went along the During his whole life, a blade of reed grass tops of the trees. bent not beneath his feet, much less did one ever break, so
bearing a message.
:
lightly
did he tread."
as a sort of battering-ram.
obstacles that
feet
like
His mission was to clear aside all impeded the King's progress " The soles of his emitted sparks of fire when they struck upon things hard, When Arthur the heated mass when drawn out of a forge."
:
and
his hosts
came before
summon
when
Osla Gyllellvawr,
across
who had
a short broad
which,
laid
was
in ancient
those, according to the tale of Kulhwych and who in early times gathered about Arthur's board. The celebrated Round Table is a primitive Welsh tradition, based
Such were
Ohven,
on customs which have been traced back to the pan-Celtic age. To Layamon we are indebted for preserving the story of its
foundation, the explanation of
:
its
nature.
It
was
built,
we
learn,
ROMANCE
i6s
jealous
having as good a place as his neighbour, had no occasion for strife. It could seat sixteen hundred men, if necessary,
and
it
easily
on a journey.
In this
all
blathnir,
who
and
its
when not needed would fold up like a cloth and owner's wallet. The Round Table doubtless had
yet
into
the magic
about
it,
satisfied all
by
its sight.
Our conception of
conveyed by early
Arthur, however,
is
very far
from that
to
How
come
so to regard him
it
Surely
in
Welsh
to
traditional
He had
be pictured
the
beau
ideal of noble
chivalry before
he could assume
embodiment of
imitation.
chivalric
The heroes
of
And this was brought The world was waiting for an ideals whom men might glorify by antiquity were too much the product
stern
of unlike conditions.
ascetic
and
real,
too
and devout.
He
unknown
land,
where
roam undisturbed.
mighty
A
was
mist of marvel
his
men
of valour.
Pious enough
at the
same time
and
by
of
disposed ladies
men
of arms.
widely have
France.
It
won
way
England and
career.
166
chap.
important to observe,
we have
the
first
a well-rounded career.
all
In his
new
picture of Arthur
Arthur
is,
many
types.
He now
faith,
defender of the
Fundamentally,
Geoffrey's
account
it
is
based
on
Nennius.
appears in
celebrated as a chieftain
much the same light as before. He is who vanquishes the Saxon invaders
preeminently a brave and victorious
of his. country.
warrior, the
He
is
nation's liberty. But he is now far more than this. To satisfy the natural demands of the Normans for more information regarding so exalted a personage, Geoffrey fashioned for him a suitable career. His parentage an'd youth had, of course, to be remarkable, and the historian was impelled to take hints ready at hand Arthur's birth and boyhood are like those of the typical saga -hero. Like Finn and Mongan and Cormac, and many others, he is represented as begotten out of
champion of a
His father
is
a passion for the beautiful young wife of a jealous old duke, one of his counsellors, swears he shall die
fulfilled,
if
and
manages by
is
deceit,
The
He
he
shows
his prowess.
slain,
He
is
and
generosity.
Immediately he
is
following.
Soldiers flock to
him from
quarters.
He
fall
forms a
his bounty,
and
to
upon the
the very
he may enrich
their wealth.''
ROMANCE
beginning.
167
conduct in the
brilliantly
Mount Badon,
in
The
drawn unquestionably
connected.
in
Nevertheless,
section of his
narrative
he
Throughrelentless
a furious
fighter
and a
life
fre-
The Saxon
as
world -conqueror.
He makes
Scots,
tributes
and unmakes
all
nations.
After
and
he conquers
Ireland, subdues
and accepts
This
the Orkneys.
satisfies his
"hearing with delight how he has become a terror to the kings of other countries, he forms First he subdues a design for the conquest of all Europe." Norway and Denmark; then he spends nine years in Gaul,
of twelve years.
But
at
last,
is
and
later
itself.
new
whereupon ensues There is, a period of great celebrations and brilliant fetes. in times degeneration of however, Arthur recognises, danger for tribute demand the of peace; and so, when he receives determines, on he from the Roman procurator Lucius Tiberius,
to Britain,
i68
chap.
the
begin
warfare
anew.
Not
that
due to him from Rome, inasmuch as his preand kinsmen, Belinus and Constantine, both had gained that imperial throne. Provided with an enormous army ("all together made up 183,200, besides foot which did not easily fall under number " !), the king commits to his
justly
decessors
nepihew
Modred
is
When,
about to pass the Alps, he has news brought him that Modred, "by tyrannical and treasonable practices, has
set the
crown upon
of her
his
that
Queen Guanhumara,
and
in violation
first
He
in
therefore
desists
returns with
speed
a bloody battle, in
twice
After being
routed,
Modred
it
. . .
is
killed.
But
this
all
last
struggle was so
fierce that
to almost
the
and even the renowned King mortally wounded, and being carried thence Arthur himself was cured of his wounds, he gave up of Avalon to be to the Isle his kinsman Constantine, the son of crown of Britain to the Cador, Duke of Cornwall, in the five hundred and second year
commanders and
their forces
of
Our Lord's
incarnation.''
The
Arthur
is
transported to be healed
of his wounds,
From
it,
return
to
cast
off the
yoke of the
of
also
The
Guinevere,
and the
relic
struggle
to
recover her,
without
doubt the
ological
of an
ancient myth.
at
stories
may be
the
We
must
Arthur wields
at
Mount
ROMANCE
Badon a magic sword Caliburn
of Avalon," a spear Ron,
169
and a
Welsh
tradition
supplied
that
to
him
also with a
ship,
and a mantle
the
made
himself,
Geoffrey
refrained
Round
He
is
no longer simply
:
an
historical
dux
bellorum, a
Cormac, or an Alexander
he
is
now
Welsh Odin, a
Celtic Mercury.
is
He
His
Mont
St.
Michel reads
like the
summary
of
roman
d'avenfure,
or like
an incident of an episodic
his
combat with
to fight
on Mount Aravius.
This giant had made himself furs of the beards of kings he had killed, and had sent word to Arthur carefully to cut off his beard and send it to him and then, out of respect to his preeminence over other kings, his
;
But
if
he refused
he challenged him to a duel, with this offer, that the conqueror should have the furs, and also the beard of the vanquished for a trophy In this conflict, therefore, Arthur proved victorious, and of his victory.
do
it,
Given,
description,
indeed,
Geoffrey's
Ritho, the
rescue of Helena, and the winning of a kingdom by single combat with the gigantic FloUo, followed by a coronation scene, a marriage ceremony, a banquet, and a tourney, like those so amazingly pictured by the historian, and we have all the
materials necessary for a biographical
type.
I70
Britain
chap
in
it
such
a pitch
of grandeur, that
abundance
for feats of
far surpassed
other
The
knights
in
it
that were
famous
same colour and fashion and the women also, no less celebrated for their wit, wore all the same kind of apparel, and esteemed none worthy of their love but such as had given a proof of their valour in three several battles. Thus was the valour of the men an encouragement to the women's chastity, and the love of the
clothes and arms all of the
chivalry wore
women
It
Norman
known
kings.
in England.
is
We
the
have here
of
stimulus
warfare;
knights
strive
honour
in
may
In thus
King Arthur
in
He
imitated,
own
considerations.
Arthur's
theirs.
he himself knew
deeds
of his
full
and fabricated with an easy conscience what well was an entirely new narrative of the
embodying, to be
establishing
sure,
hero,
much
but
of
his
nevertheless
impression
Arthur from
any that
an had
prevailed
before.
work there was a great gulf for ever fixed between our Arthur and the hero whom Nennius lauds and Not that the Historid is the chief the Mabinogion depict.
Because of
source of
all
name
of Arthur.
Not
that
the
Far from
record
The
perpetuate
Geoffrey's
ROMANCE
they were dazzled and bewildered.
invincible
tales
171
Arthur's reputation as an
accepted.
monarch they
personal
readily
of his
valour
they
thought
ignore
as
If
inconsistent
with
the
new
position
Welsh warrior, he made possible a new Arthur; he established him for ever as an illustrious monarch with a brilliant court he
;
called
into
literary
British
and
whom
The
did
question
now
arises
If Geoffrey
is
before
Geoffrey's
time
is
now
generally
conceded.
Not
to-
own
narrative,
Giraldus, Wace,
we have the testimony of William of Malmesbury, and many others on this point, though, even
in
knights
were recounted
extravagant fable,
we should
An
certain
that Arthurian
stories
in Italy in the
many
in
have borne
Arthurian
that
names.
And how
else
could
it
an episode
This
Cathedral of
century.?
Modena
extraordinary
with
the
matter
of
the
influence
of
the
French,
in in
among whom
popular
11 13
tales.
Arthur
had
doubtless long
been celebrated
by certain
From an monks of
Laon
in
Brittany to Cornwall,
we not only
that
cripple was ready to fight in a holy sanctuary for his belief that
Arthur
still
lived,
there were
then
in
172
chap.
Cornwall, as there
bore his name, but we discover also that the French and Bretons
of the Continent had previously been accustomed to
dispute
The
on the Continent
in the fifth
in the twelfth
When
and
sixth centuries
they emigrated from South Wales and Cornwall, they took with
them growing
traditions,
altered development.
The Armoricans
There
to
is
no
sufficient
reason to
believe that they ever ceased to have intercourse with their kin
at
home ;
much
from the
Not only did Norman and Breton princes marry and give
marriage
in the
in
among themselves
battles.
by side
same
auxiliaries
received their
after the
share of lands
and possessions
in
Conquest.
From
who were able to make themselves intelligible in either tongue. They were welcomed
borderland travelled minstrels and
story-tellers
and spread abroad among high and low knowledge of the glorious king of their motherland, for whose return they still hoped.
But
it is
about him.
and
his might,
much the actions of vagabond individuals own ends to farther, and who speedily grow cosmopolitan when a good living is thus assured them. Whether the Saxons had heard many Arthurian stories from the people who have
their
ROMANCE
they conquered
but, at
is
173
uncertain.
any rate
after the
Welsh popular
to
their
tales.
The conquerors
the
and fortunes of
their
new
renounced
France.
Many
marriages,
we know, took place between representatives of British and Norman, and when, as was natural, a
mother saw to
it
that her
youth had
fed.
is
men
living side
by side
indeed
though
and
belong to
races traditionally,
or
actually, hostile
stories
without
any
social intercourse
to in early
all
between them
England, whatever
their origin,
however communicated, by
Celts.
fact
inhabitants, Saxons,
Normans, and
Another
seems certain
gress of Arthur.
The
British minstrels
who
listened to their
rotes,
them
their
famous
that gave
The
chief
the only parts that were delivered with the accompaniment of the The rest the minstrel might briefly tell for his hearers' harp.
better understanding of the theme.
In
imagination they saw the scenes of the story vaguely enacted They perceived what they could not repeat. But before them. Inquiry soon interest in the song aroused interest in the story.
elicited
the
in
narrative
in
full.
And
thus
perhaps were
heroes,
dis-
seminated
Europe the
tales
of British
which only
awaited an impulse to be extensively written down. The most pleasing and significant form in which this matter
174
chap.
of Britain
is
that of the
Old French
is
Marie de France
course, the only
now
invariably connected.
Though born
she lived in England, and there was happily inspired to put into rhyme the tales of " the old courteous Britons " that reached her ears. She wisely chose to repeat rather than to invent. Her merit
is
themes of the
refine-
from a
rival
poet,
popularity
All love them
dear,
Applaud
their form,
To
In
They
listen
Though
Her work
of
artistic
presentment.
Yet even
if
back
Arthurian
its
development.
They
much
longer
intricate courtly
poems.
significant in the so-
place,
They
happened
a hero or
some one
else,
be localised in
ROMANCE
reader hardly notices the change.
175
The
he discovers,
that the scene
is
is
be
when
the interest
is
appreciably increased.
the Breton lays and other similar stories, of enriching at the same
fiction,
of providing
new
material
Round Table
of a host of warriors
by
less
famous heroes.
is
in
we observe Guingamor and Graalent, have given up their independent existence and enlisted in his The time for individual knights was past when Arthur service.
Crestien's Erec, the earliest extant Arthurian romance,
that the heroes of other lays, such as
once mustered
his forces.
Thus
he have
won
the world.
He
com-
who were irresistibly drawn to him by the grandeur of his name, and whose own personal exploits shone with brighter lustre when reputed to have been performed
pany of some
less glorious leader,
Romances
these older
sources,
tales.
written
on
artistic
The
though
romances
in verse
embody more
is
primitive material.
:
the
it
more
reveals
a narrative
is,
the greater
of invention.
Of
who have
first
and
m time.
And
176
chap.
the
inexplicable
Crestien was,
indeed, a poet of great talent, and his works have genuine charm.
He
justly
the greatest
whom
France had up to
all
this
time pro-
half of the
Suffice
it
be discussed in
we probably owe
more than
to any
one
By him
they were
whose queen, Eleanor of Poitou, seems to have eagerly propagated them in the north. The old stories that he found ready at hand Crestien used as vehicles of tender sentiment and beautiful
description.
He
pictured in
them the
brilliant life at
the court
Marie.
He
all
when
in perplexing positions,
and
states of mind.
and
mark him
as essentially French.
And
though he has
fails
little
and
therefore often
which he
treats,
he nevertheless brought
it
among the highest classes at home and abroad. In France he had many imitators, some of them of high station for example, the knight Renaud de Beaujeu, who in his charming poem Le Bel Inconnu borrowed from him with easynence, and
made
;
popular
going freedom.
In
is
closely
see later,
ROMANCE
177
some of his poems were also reproduced in English and Norse. Even the AVelsh tales of Peredur, Owain, and Gheraint, preserved in the Red Book of Hergest, are thought by many to be
nothing but free translations from Crestien's French.
The rklame
large
that Geoffrey
won by
his history,
number of floating tales that would otherwise have had no more than a transient existence. Many of these were sooner or later given artistic metrical form. But more were embodied in
the prose romances of the end of the twelfth and the thirteenth
century, which, though in
ones
in verse,
were
still
some measure based on the earlier by no means drawn only from that source
no wonder
themselves, that
they often
present
gross inconsistencies,
and
The
compilers obviously
little dis-
They
sort,
and
an unconnected series of produced a whole that is not a events that could be altered here and there, and everywhere
without disconcerting the reader, and can therefore lay no claim Yet in the huge mosaic to the merit of well-considered design.
find now and then embedded sections of singular beauty, in most cases not the compiler's work. Any one who reads the great prose collections of Arthurian tales without knowing how
we
anthologies of romantic
as
folklore,
will
it
no doubt denounce
manifestly unfair to
them
long-winded and
dull.
But
is
after a
These
people
with
much unoccupied
and rapid
were
not
meant
for
hasty absorbing
forgetting.
On
rare.
in bovver or hall,
by one practised
in
178
chap.
were lived
by the assembly
appears
at
when
same
show to-day, who gather night after night to see Charlemagne and his paladins in lifelike array doing various deeds of valour, men and women of all classes assembled in the Middle Ages to listen to the exploits of Arthur and his knights of the Round
Table.
The
reciter
enough
of the plot.
A prose
The
interrelation
of the
incidents,
is
purely arbitrary.
On
him
be
now Each is given a chance to shine as long as he is likely to please, and each appears regularly In early times Perceval, and in the parts that suit him best.
less
known
to fame.
New
by all odds the favourite figures. But and Lancelot became the most popular in France. Arthur in the prose and even in the metrical romances His appears everywhere rather as looker-on than as participant.
particularly Gawain, were
later Merlin, Tristram,
court
is
be
sure,
but
still
content to leave
his
achievement to others, he
lives serenely
head of
of
his
among Round
companions
Table, until, in
is
course
time,
that
The
will
does not
tales
consist so
much
in its
form
as in
its
spirit.
The Breton
ROMANCE
bespell.
179
By
melody.
We
too love
The forest and enchantments drear, Where more is meant than meets the
ear.
We
the foam,
The
lande aventureuse
is
Such joys
where one
or Occident,
is
Search
Orient
It
and there
is
gave
it
as their own.
We
The
We
all
afterwards
the
its
Death of Arthur,
first
appearance in
final
form
in
Conquest
in English
in hir
dayes
Of diverse aventures maden layes, Rymeyed in hir firste Briton tonge Which layes with hir instiuments they
;
songe.
i8o
IN ENGLISH
plesaunce
;
chap.
redden him
of
for hir I in
And oon
Which
hem have
remembraunce,
I shal
lay
of Arviragus
and
who
plainly aspired
associate
he puts a
tale
The Breton
lays,
As
early as the
end of the
was
twelfth century
we
find a
and fabellae
and the
distinction
justified
by the
different public
for
whom
origin.
In England
for
after the
Conquest
literature
had been
cultivated chiefly
Anglo-Norman
narrative lays
Only
one, the Zai du Cor of Robert Biquet, preserved in a unique manuscript in the Bodleian Library, is clearly the work of an
Anglo-Norman
the island.
but
of their currency in
In the British
Museum
(Harleian 798) containing in their best form the lays of Marie de France, together with the unique prologue, from which we
learn what
little
we know of
;
This
very"
poems were
still
popular
whom
From England,
bouring lands.
assumed
that thence
much
the com-
ROMANCE
niand of
1263.
Hdkon Hakonsson,
The
Aucliinleck
Sir Degare.
MS. contains threeZ Freine, Sir Orfeo, and Lanval was doubtless translated about the same time,
in late disfigured forms {e.g. Sir Lannvell Percy Folio MS.), while the other poems that claim to be
based on lays, namely, Emare, Sir Gowghter, The Earl of Tolousc, and Chaucer's Franklin's Tale, all date from the second half of
the fourteenth century or a
trifle
later.
Nor was
earlier
it
long after
English trans-
Mane's
lays
this
:
lay,
produced
in his
Sir Launfal a
poem
of
greater charm.
These
work of
grouping
in a
when brought
on one another
they
are
found to
to
throw
light
as well as
seen, are
if
on the romances
be
later
tales
It
is,
studied, which, as
similar in scope
we have
but an outgrowth of
and substance,
how
historians
who
different stages of
all
commented
particularly their
generally under-
stood that the good qualities of most are due to the form in which
the matter reached their authors, and not to the artistic insight
The
who
fact
is
much
in
the
such
skill as to
common
them enabled
that those
to drink
poetic form.
The
i82
IN ENGLISH
chap.
old stories never would have fallen into disrepute, nor would the
at,
had they
When,
padded with
commonplace
and deserved.
descriptions,
to
and extended by distracting digressions protest ; and Chaucer's ridicule was timely
however, to ignore
all
its
It is folly,
the wealth of
latest
forms
it
in such
We
of
inquiry
Sir
Thopas was
greater;
written.
for
it
obligation
that
he found broadcast
it
may be
said,
have
we the French
metre found in only two others {Sir Orfeo and Sir Degare),
which
with
it
is
fair
exactness.
in
how
yWas
discarded
strophe
employed
instead.
least,
The change
this case at
by great change
and
matter.
The
The Earl of
be based.
Tolouse,
as faithful reproductions
profess to
The
Franklin's Tale
and
We may
therefore accept
its
it
more confidently
as indicating in
lost original.
we
ferli "
be
in
harping
" treat
ROMANCE
Some be of weal and some of woe. Some of joy and mirth also, And some of treachery and of guile, Of old adventures that fell while
;
183
man
see
be.
In English
we
characteristic than
;
are
combined
and of them
is
This
character.
is
genuine
and
The
heroine
one of those
beautiful, all-powerful
who
and
lavish
upon him
their
bounty without
One
by a
is
musing alone
to
their
river's
She grants the knight her love, gives him rich gifts, and promises to be with him later whenever he desires, imposing but a single condition, that he make no boast of her to any one. He lives for a time supremely happy in his newfound joy, but unfortunately one day in an unguarded moment he forgets the restriction his amie has imposed upon him, and boasts of her to the queen, In so doing he forfeits who, like Potiphar's wife, has offered him her love.
mistress, lying luxuriously in a splendid
his happiness, for
fay, true to
sentenced to death unless he can prove the truth of his assertions concerning his beloved's beauty. .His anguish at being separated from her is keen, but
his prayers are of
no
avail.
Not
in
moment
of respite approaches
Then
preceded by two pairs of matchless maidens, she comes riding on a snowwhite horse to Arthur's court, dazzles the eyes of the bewildered assembly,
lover's release.
Thereupon she
departs to the Isle of Avalon, whither Lanval accompanies her to dwell for
final
i84
IN
ENGLISH
chap.
the court
it
more
are
some
does not lightly regain his lady's love, even after her return.
to
his
persistent
pleadings,
and when
lies
her
still
unforgiving.
But the
in,
Despairingly he plunges
horse,
and
is
relenting helps
blissful land,
him
ashore,
and
lets
to her
of his
it
was
said,
day,
encounter.
spirit
of independent authorship
As
a result, he produced
poem on
and
;
the
harmonious,
with ease
charm.
We know
nothing
and the
ascription to
him of other
in
poems {Octarnan and Libeaus Descotius), likewise produced Kent about the same time, rests upon insufficient evidence.
Otherworld, and they too were
mortals.
known
it
on
had
originally
tale
no
place.
of Orpheus
and Eurydice became a genuine lay of Britain, not simply because it was fashioned by him in the same metre and style as the lays on native themes, but because he transformed it in
spirit
Queen Heurodys one May morning falls asleep under a tree in her garden. When sleeps uncommonly long, but her maidens dare not disturb her. The king is summoned to her finally she awakes, she acts as if possessed.
She
chamber and learns from her the cause of her
grief
and disorder.
While
apparently asleep under the tree, she has in truth been carried off by a king
ROMANCE
i8s
with a great following of gentle knights to a palace of amazing magnificence. He has brought her back again to the garden, but only to give her a chance
to bid farewell
;
him
is
forever.
on the morrow he will return to take her away to live with King Orfeo, determined to prevent her abduction, stations
about the tree the next day hundreds of knights, but nevertheless the queen
" twitched " away, and none know what has become of her.
Her hUsband,
in
despair, immediately gives over his realm to the charge of his steward,
and
For
recognises Heurodys
among many
ladies pro-
and
is
who
Orfeo follows eagerly until he reaches a "fair country, as bright as sun on a summer's day, smooth and plain and all green." In the midst of the plain
rises
Its
its
worst pillar
of burnished gold
laud; it seems like "the proud court of Paradise." Wonder many admit Orfeo because he is a minstrel.
of positions,
the king the sight.
sits
The
folk
porter deigns to
all
he sees in
sorts
among them
his wife,
all
" with
Beside
a queen with clothes so rich that Orfeo's eyes can scarce bear
he kneels before the king, and begs a hearing. He makes music so charming that the monarch grants him in advance whatever boon he may ask. Orfeo demands Heurodys, " lovesome without lack," and though
Down
however, he
steward.
at
first
Finding him
is
great joy
among
live
his
men.
new
on
end of
their days.
Harpers
in
Heard how this marvel And made thereof a lay And named it after the
That lay Orfeo
is
;
began,
of good liking,
king
y-hote,
Good
is
the lay
sweet
is
the note.
From Hades,
has
been
transferred
is
to
fairyland;
the
king of
the
Celtic
Otherworld
Dunbar's
References in
king
the
Chaucer's
of fayerye,"
elrich
and
in in
GoMen Targe
to
"Pluto,
incubus,
cloak of green," attest the familiarity of the medijeval English and Scotch with this new conception of the lord of the dead.
i86
IN ENGLISH
chap.
is
The French lay of Orpheus, from which Orfeo is translated, now lost but we have references enough to it in other works
;
to establish
its
previous existence.
is
One,
in
the
French prose
romance of Lancelot,
of unusual interest.
King Bademagus,
we
beautiful,
lay of
Orpheus
and before him was a harper who played {notott) the and it pleased the king so much to listen that ;
there was
of
unusual
who makes
To
this
and Boon;
Gowghter.
The
be
For becomes evident to one familiar with the ways of romance. three changes, he is aware, are apt to take place nay, almost inevitably do take place in the gradual modernising of the char-
not
these
may be
than
no
less
The
hero's
name should
properly
lost "),
it
in
is
England.
Though not
poem
ROMANCE
one of
distinct merit,
187
and
is
written in a simple
and
straightfor-
ward
style.
(her mother's memorial day) a princess of Little
One day
and beauty,
is dispensing charity. While her companions sleep, a handsome "fairy knight," clad in a robe of scarlet, appears and proffers his love. She is unable to resist his charm. Before his departure, he predicts that she shall
bear a famous son, and leaves her a pointless sword to be given the boy, as a
means of
determines to
" expose
When the child is born, the young mother " him, but provides for his upbringing by whatever;
his lonely cradle.
In
it,
together
with a
sum
lemman
go on no hands but
explaining that he
of gentle
fit.
him
to
will not
hermit discovers the child and takes charge of him. because of his forlorn
state,
He
he
christens
is
him Degare
up.
until
grown
Then
the boy departs, with the gloves in his possession, performs deeds of valour,
Now
to the
the king has issued a decree that the princess shall be given only
could unhorse her father ; and of this Degare learns. He promptly undertakes, and succeeds in, the encounter. His mother swoons when, almost too late, he produces the gloves and bids her try them on. She
confesses
all,
man who
sets out,
While journeying, he comes to a mysterious castle, falls in love with its winsome mistress, and slays her hated suitor, but leaves her for a twelvemonth to continue his search. In the end he meets his
treasured, to discover his father.
father, and- engages with
him
in
combat, but
is
Sir
Gowghter
is
similarly begotten
by an
elfin knight,
who
an orchard.
According
her,
to the story as
we have
fair,
it,
when he has
and predicts
be
fearfully
had
his
way with
he reveals himself as a
fiend,
will
So
it
turns out.
The
all
boy,
whom
he
the mother
dies,
grows up meets
to
wild
and
uncontrollable,
and causes
whom
mourn.
At
last
he
is
by chance made
i88
IN ENGLISH
chap.
origin, wrings
Rome
The Pope imposes upon him these no food except what he takes from a
no word
for
and
good or
ill
he
shall
God
and
He
journeys forth to
his fate,
daughter.
He
marries
her joyfully;
earl
on
his mother.
devil -nature,
and happy
he builds
abbey
for
black monks.
The most
castle
is
by means
her lands.
who
threatens
to
lay waste
Each day he appears differently accoutred, in black, red, and milk-white armour, on steeds of corresponding colour this equipment having been mysteriously provided for him in answer to his prayer (originally, no doubt, by fairy resource) conquers all his opponents, and escapes unknown. Each time the hero is supposed, by all but the princess, to have avoided the battle, and he performs his menial service as if nothing had happened. Great is the surprise when it appears that he is the victor in each conflict; but all declare him worthy of his
reward.
tales,
This episode
is
of frequent
occurrence in popular
and appears
Ypomedon, Lancelot,
and
Scottish,
Gowghter
is
much
simpler
lay,
he
whose early malodorous exploits, due to his demonic and whose conversion to an upright Christian, are recorded
late
in
two
English romances.
The
And
naturally
ROMANCE
enough
so,
189
for
the
Of mortal
By
On
faire
13.
The made
"beautiful young
as the wise
men
clear
to
Vortiger,
nature partly of
please assume
men and partly of angels, and whenever they human shapes and lie with women." It would
explanation of
seem
folk
in- the
-cheek)
why
other
had
children.
Judge
to the contrary
who
will, after
reading
:
wont
to walK'en
was an
elf,
. .
Ther walketh now the limitour himself Wommen may go saufly up and doun ;
In every bush, or under every
tree,
Ther
is
And
he ne wol doon
hem non
dishonour.
The
offspring of marriages
truth, most heroes of ancient romance were born as the fruit of a love -attachment in which at least one of the parties was originally represented as of
In
supernatural
origin.
The
lays
last
treated
pass
briefly
over
progeny.
We
have,
however,
others
that
deal
with
Emare is a good example of a Breton and so overlaid with extraneous matter that
is
tale so rationalised
its
original
meaning
It
too
has been
christianised,
190
IN ENGLISH
"
chap.
Real
efforts
we understand
its
If
we eliminate
lay,
its
certain repetitions,
which detract
thus briefly
substance
may be
boat approach.
it
is
occupied although
live in
He
is
so overcome
by her beauty
that,
origin,
he
at
The two
contrivance of her
mother-in-law,
takes her to
and
set
adrift in a boat,
which
Rome.
There she dwells long with a rich man who finds Meanwhile, her husband, She wins the hearts of all.
who was
lived
nearly frantic
full
when he
" with
heavy "cheer,"
he
Rome
to
to get
penance.
dwelling.
in throne,"
he
is
she
tells
her son
how own
behave
child,
and
when he
lost wife.
is
The two
same
class.
In
it,
too,
an unmanned boat
the journey.
Here
also
one
lasts
of a loving couple,
relative,
i5
set
adrift
carried
Their separation
in sorrow.
But
finally
the lover
is
should be noted,
is
a creature of
no ordinary
type.
She
is
is
of incomparable richness
her bearing
is
of amazing nobility,
distinction,
and charm.
In one place,
for
example,
we read
of
her husband
ROMANCE
The
191
He was
And
For glistening of
in his heart
that
weed
he thought aright
That she was no earthly wight, He saw never none such in leed (on
It
earth).
was because she was "no earthly thing" that the knight's
son's marrying her.
She declared
that
And
In
said, this
" Son,
this is
a fiend
worthy weed
As thou
lovest
my
blessing,
Make
Christ
thee forbid."
To Emare we
famous
tale
in the
of the
and Gower.
Both
as
it
their
version
much
is
of such extra-
ordinary beauty that "alle hir loven that loken on hir face."
Her mother-in-law's
strange creature
''
objection
to
that
she was
"a
the same magic " stereless " boat that carries her on the
sea,
is
set adrift,
to the places
where she
in
should go.
identical.
of the
that
story
indeed
is,
general,
effort
is
made
Rome and
:
the Orient,
its
original
localisation in Britain
persists
to a castle
place in Wales.
Kings or queens of the Otherworld, when they entered into There was relations with mortals, established a sort of taboo.
192
IN ENGLISH
chap.
always
a revelation that
the separa-
command meant
Lohengrin
left
it
because
commands,
as
when Lanval
is
explained
due
the lay
of
Le
on the whole
felicitous translation
with the adventures of a maiden, who, having been " exposed "
of her cruel mother,
is
at the
command
Ash.''
sight,
"The
at
first
great lord
of
because of her
uncommon
castle secretly.
She lives long with him as his mistress, and gains the love and admiration of all the courtly household. But the lord's retainers are impatient to have him get legitimate heirs, and, though unwillingly, he is
forced to yield to their demands.
When
he
tells
murmur
of reproach,
and shows herself so gracious and amiable to the new wife at the weddingfeast that all marvel who see her. As fate will have it, however, her temporary misfortune is the cause of a happy revelation that brings her
joy.
When
the
ash,
she was
she
first
carried
in
away
at
in
was wrapped
in her cradle.
ring
was placed
:
a costly mantle, and a splendid gold These treasures have ever since been pre-
served
the only things the maiden brought to the castle. Thinking the more to honour the bride, The Ash throws the mantle over
they were
When
The
is
She
court,
and as
homage of his
retainers.
at
tale of
we
no such induction
as that in the
ROMANCE
lay,
193
who
So
Griselda being represented as the real daughter of a peasant lived near the lord's castle. The marquis saw her, we learn,
at
when
his
him
to
marry, he
He
comes
to her unexpectedly,
avows
humbly accepted, gives her rich apparel in which to array herself, and conducts her to his dwelling. Then we are told what we might have expected " Unnethe the peple hir knewe for hir fairnesse." She was so uncommonly beautiful and virtuous that she seemed to have been "norished in an
:
eniperoures halle"; she became "so dere and worshipful" to every wight that they concluded she could not be the daughter of the peasant, but "another creature." It is evident that in the
more
ignored by the
The Ash, was only the fosterwho brought her up. This situation was redactors of the story that Chaucer utilised, who
it
wished to inculcate by
Unlyk her worthy elders hem bifore Bountee comth al of God, not of the streen Of which they been engendred and y-bore.
Chaucer,
transformation of Griselda.
in his turn
He
who
it
The
revised
might
intelligibly
We
it is
have occasion
later to
Here
not a being of his or the Italian poet's creation, but simply the
to
some
extent individualised.
reality,
whom
his
powers of
life.
endow with
o
human
194
IN
ENGLISH
chap.
Relations cf love between mortals and immortals were explained, in late remodellings of tradition, naturally, as the result
of fortuitous circumstances.
an ancestry, and
all
sorts of devices
estate.
Emare,
set
who wished
;
Constance was
Degare
love of
utilised
illicit
in
Le Freine
there
is
for this
belief, that
child at a time
is
a sign of
In the
lay,
the duchess,
forth twins
When
afterwards she
one of them
exposed.
Thus was
readily
We
parallels
Man
of
Law and
Clerk told
lays,
tales
of which
we have
versions or
Breton
the
tale,
he himself explains, on
a lay of Britain.
There
he had almost certainly a definite French lay before him, which he followed in all the essentials of
his narrative, though, as
Monmouth,
King
whom
have
utilised a
name
current in
in
South Wales.
with
This
story, of
beautiful
and
virtuous wife.
On
it
was apparently
ROMANCE
based a Breton
lay,
195
written by a
Frenchman on
origin,
the Continent.
Though
also to
relying
on Celtic
seems
to
have
utilised a
tale
(x.
of
5).
unhke
such as
is
be
found
in the
Decameron
He
spirit as
Marie de France.
Her
poem
who
loves
him with
all
AVhile he
who
To
rid
herself of
all
Despair-
ingly he languishes for a time, but then seeks the aid of a magician,
who
her
it
this
marvel.
Thereupon
of Dorigen
to her
She
in
When
Aurelius learns
he
is
ness of his wife, that he frees her at once from the obligations she
with, and sends her back to her husband in joy.
burdened
of
the squire's disappointment, renounces all claim to his promised reward, and
The
tale
ends
you?"
The
names
Celtic features of
the
tale
and the
spirit
of the
narrative,
and
in
its
among
must needs be fulfilled. The magician especially who also was able by his magic to raise castles filled with knights and ladies dancing and beauty, ethereal of revelling on a pleasant sward, and could make them vanish at
rashest sort,
resembles Merlin,
an
eye.
He
it
is
represented
by Geoffrey
as
transporting
by magic enormous
rocks from
Ireland to build
Dance
or
in his trouble.
The
alien
mainly in the
196
THE BRETON
I,AYS IN
ENGLISH
chap.
The Lay
"truth"
idea
is
else
the virtue of
(troth) as
man may
kepe."
This
of the
likewise
another English
poem
Earl of Tolouse.
is
whom
is
the the
Emperor's enemy.
sideration to get
A
him
him be not
insists
let
pass.
view of her, but treacherously betrays so favourable an opportunity to slay The noble lady, however, repudiates such deceit, and
th'at
that
is
The hermit
it
him
He
and cherishes
in the
hope of using
it
later as
has him
upon on
his
way home
the
is
escapes from the crowd that gathers to pursue him, and arrives safely at his
own
She
castle.
Empress
insist
said. This she does even when a word from her would have saved her from grievous reproach and even death. The two knights^ fearing betrayal, accuse her of adultery,
making out a
plausible case
by slaying
in her
whom
he and
all
The Emperor,
dreams an uncanny dream, and hastens back. He is ready to slay himself for grief when he hears the report. A council assembled is about to condemn the Empress to death ; but at the suggestion of a cautious old knight
In companionship
with a merchant he goes to her land, where he stays with an abbot a mile The holy man assures him of the lady's innocence, and he from her castle.
agrees to defend her
if
lips.
So, on
the day appointed for the ordeal, he approaches in monk's weeds, and she confesses to him also, saying that her only offence consisted in giving a ring
ROMANCE
to the Earl of Tolouse.
197
her honour
The
latter vindicates
fire
who
The Emperor sends after Barnard, do him no harm. The two warriors
become
and
after the
The
implies
The
author
gest
"
and a "
chronicled,"
and
this a careful
The
Tristram stories
Barnard,
an actual
Count of Tolouse, who was accused in 830 of too Empress Judith, second wife of Louis le
But both
parts
Debonnair.
in
growth by
Europe.
it,
follow
had we space
to
Into
and
it
would be to
how manifold
Middle Age.
it is
Moreover, though
it is
difficult
whom
it
was
daily food.
The
cannot be
satisfactorily traced
men
dwelt.
be mentioned a
parallel in
theme
the
to Biquet's
Boy and
the Mantle,
The
Mantel MauiaillL
his
court
are assembled
at Carlisle,
when a youth
He
will never
;
amiss.
it
on
but immediately
was
as if torn to
; ;
igS
IN ENGLISH
it
chap.
and
retires to
She throws
and bids her
the
off in a fury,
;
her
room.
Kay summons
his lady
try
and
is
all
men
The
wife of an old
left
on her
The mantle
;
fits
begins to
She confesses
" Seemly of
colour,
Arthur
The queen makes such spiteful remarks that the youth her. Then the youth brings a boar's head, which he
carve.
:
Some rubbed their knives upon a whetstone Some threw them under the table and said they had none.
King Arthur and
Craddock had a
the child stood looking
them upon
He
The
had a morsel.
He
said,
boy had a horn of red gold that rung. " There was no cuckold shall drink of
it
my
horn,
But he should
Some
He that could not hit his mouth put it in his ee (eye) And he that was a cuckold, every man might him see.
Craddock won the horn, and the boar's head His lady won the mantle unto her need
Every such a lovely lady, God send her
will to speed.
languages,
Here we find material extant in many forms, and connected with different characters.
in
various
tale
The
may be used
later,
as a test of
embodied
in
We
among
people
who
Numbers, was an edict which Moses was bidden by the Lord Almighty to communicate to the people of Israel, and who perhaps had even
"the law of jealousies,"
in the fifth chapter of
ROMANCE
199
applied at a
King Arthur gives on the occasion of the visit from the Duke of Gloucester. He and his companions take their afflictions merrily and join in a dance to dull their care. The Holy
Grail,
it
may be
horn of Caradoc.
means of
evident that
many
artistic
form extant
but in
numerous
and
on one another.
gamor,
world by
and
free
from
group the
in station
elfin
and
of form.
Etin) lured a
Elfman's
Fair
Wood and
Lady
carried
When
longing for the presence of a fairy knight, she was soon in his
power. Hardly were her words spoken when he entered her Orpheus was associated by chamber by the high window. Chaucer with the Bret Glascurion of ballad fame, who harped Like Orfeo, at the king's court so that ladies " waxed wod."
King
Estniere,
disguised
as
a minstrel, gained
entrance to
IN ENGLISH
and by
his
appear
and
and
lair."
The
of the lay of
Doon
appears also
the tryst
In Lady Diamond
find the
also, a
ballad influenced
lays
by Boccaccio, we
lover's heart,
which
is
A similar
story
of Courtesy, a ballad-romance founded on the French Chatelain de Coucy. In Proud Lady Margaret a hard-hearted maiden is
admonished by a dead knight to give over her foolish pride, or she shall repent it sore, which reminds us of the moral to the lay
of the Trot, a lay based on the notion of the fairy cavalcade
so prominent in Sir Orfeo,
and
of Rosiphele.
way by which to account for the strange and the lays is to postulate a common source of some sort. Where shall we seek this ? Not
natural
parallelism between the ballads
certainly in the monastery, or hall of the lord, but in the hut of
The most
the peasant
lips,
still
With ballads
The
original
home
of
seldom easy
to discover,
and
They
and
often,
ROMANCE
an old woman
at
in fact, as Professor
Child, once
stories
com-
menting
on "the
:
strange
changes
which
undergo,"
remarked
"
What poor Ophelia says of us human creatures is We know what we are, but know not
:
'
total
of romance.
The
independence of
The
motifs
are
commonplace.
to understand
and appreciate
still
to be studied.
The
It is
Cycle
of Sir Tristram
no legendary cycle
more
manifest.
And, indeed,
Marie de France records an incident in Tristram's life based on an earlier lay, the composition of which is ascribed to the hero
himself.
The good
way
to his longings
and returns
forest
secretly to Cornwall,
where he
carves a
hides
himself in
the
He
message on a piece of wood and puts it in the road where he knows she is to pass. In this he declares that he cannot live without her it is with them as with the honeysuckle and the
:
hazel,
destroying both.
This
lay, written
202
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
TRISTRAM
lyric,
chap.
is
not attached
to Tristram,
Not only have we positive statements that it was current among the English, and put by them into poetic form ; we know also that it was written down in French by
of Tristram's love.
whom we
was born
may have
And
all
it
is
the later
The two
and wrote
in a different spirit.
The
Tristan of
Thomas
presents
us with what has been termed the English, or Germanic, version of the story; that of Beroul, the French, or Breton.
Thus
all
characteristic difference
fact that
King Mark
is
as reigning over
is
Anglo-Norman handwriting) discovered in England, Germany, and Italy some 3000 lines in all only about one-sixth of the
allow a just
estimate
of the author's
The
scope
is
easily deter-
mined from the faithful, if abridged, version made in Old Norse prose in 1226 by a friar Robert for King Hakon, that insatiable Its style is more apparent in the reader of French romance. translation by an admirable German poet, Gottfried von Strassburg,
made
The
last third
some
is
lost.
Nowhere
is
ROMANCE
the story of Tristram so well preserved as
in
this
203
composite
German
Thence Wagner got the inspiration for his noble music-drama on the theme. Towards the end of the
version.
thirteenth century,
edited,
Before 1200 an interesting short poem called La Folic Tristan was composed in England. The author represents the hero,
dressed as a
fool, recalling
fairly
life,
and by
this
device gives a
On
we
then, a lost
poem,
c.
11 80,
in the
and
finally,
conglomerate of
all
and
un-
Crestien's
patronesses
;
and since
light.
may
It
We
Gaston
now
return to
whose words always carry with them the weight of made an illuminating comparison between
contemporary Crestien,
kinds
appeals
to
Thomas and
Genius of
his
as follows
different
us
in
these
two
is
poets.
The
Frenchman endeavours
worldly
that he
amusing
appear
is
intended; he
"social," truly
lets
it
he smiles
at the
is
he strives to give
to his style
a constant
204
THE CYCLE OF
above
all,
SIR TRISTRAM
chap.
elegance, a uniform polish, wherein spaikle here and there words pointed
by wit
of his subject.
The Englishman
his heart
and joys ; he searches the hidden recesses of their souls his style, embarrassed and often obscure when he narrates adventures that do not thoroughly interest him, becomes living and full of nuances when he tries to express the inner feelings, which alone touch him he writes for himself, and for those who have the same emotional needs as he, much more than for a public sensitive above all to the talent of the narrator and
participates in their griefs
; ;
It is
unfortunate that
we cannot
compare the Tristan of Crestien and that of Thomas ; we can at least imagine the difference which the two works would present the poet of Champagne would show us gracefully poised on a brilliant stand, and carved by a skilled and delicate hand, the cup from which the two lovers drank the drink of
:
love
the
it,
and we
feel still
trembling in
Tristram was celebrated in early saga, before he was connected with Arthur, as a hero of extraordinary and varied accomplish-
He
is,
more-
most famous of
is
all
Over and
over again he
music,
so
full
of tenderness
and
It
whom
wounds.
her so skilfully the mysteries of his art that soon her hands
became
power to ravish the senses and fill with delight. So, in words that haunt the memory, Thomas describes Ysolt later in her
loneliness singing to her harp the lay of Guiron
suffered even
lady,
evil
who
con-
trivance of foes.
lais
bons.
Douce
la vois et
bas
li
tons.
ROMANCE
205
These words exhale the sweetest perfume of romance, under of which we are prone to free ourselves from workaday principles of behtiviour, and abandon the conventional
the influence
standards of commonplace
life.
Were
it
but a passing or a
we should be shocked
it
by the flagrant violation of domestic honour that But we have a deep conviction of the inevitability of
entailed.
it all.
The
burden of Tristram's song when with Ysolt of the AVhite Hands in Brittany sums up the whole tragedy of the true lovers' life
Ysolt
En
Here, we
control
:
vus
feel, is an attachment over which the subjects had no from the magic beaker they drank down death together
As Thomas
says
amur
la bale
The
story of Tristram
and Ysolt
is
too well
known
to require
(in.
a detailed analysis.
Miss Weston's
may be
quoted
here.
The
in a solitary retreat,
where
all
nature ministers
they gat them forth to the meadow where grass had been refreshed. The glade was their pleasure-ground they wandered hither and thither, liearlcening each other's speech, and waking the song of the birds by their footsteps. Then they turned them to where the cold clear spring rippled forth, and sat beside its stream, and
the
" In
dewy morning
and
flowers alike
watched
its
flow,
till
felt its
heat.
Then
its
soft
beneath
and
flowers.
of those
by
their time
had
suffered
;
and told each other tales and died for love. Tliey mourned and Eiblis, whose of Phyllis of Thrace
;
But when
206
THE CYCLE OF
in
SIR
TRISTRAM
chap.
they would think of them no more, they turned them again to their grotto
their turn
sang to
it
and
strike the
harp while
Isolt
make music
notes.
Mark
is
is rewarded by seeing the queen, " more Stealthily the he could not but yearn. king nears the bower where he knows the lovers to be, and climbs to the little window high in the wall. A tenderly mpving sight meSts his eyes. There they lay, the entranced pair, on a crystal couch, a naked sword between
beautiful
whom
them.
" He gazed on his heart's delight^ Isolt, and deemed that never before had he seen her so fair. She lay sleeping, with a flush as of mingled roses on her cheek, and her red and glowing lips apart, a little heated by her morning wandering in the dewy meadow and by the spring. On her head
was a chaplet woven of clover. A ray pf sunlight from the little window fell upon her face, and as Mark looked upon her he longed to kiss her, for never had she seemed so fair and so lovable as now. And when he saw how the sunlight fell upon her he feared lest it harm her, or awaken her, and so he took grass and leaves and flowers, and covered the window therewith, and spake a blessing on his love, and commended her to God, and went
his way,
weeping."
No
subject of an independent
is
In each
we
boon granted
rashly
and
fulfilled
with sorrow.
To
skill
the court of Cornwall comes one day an Irish knight, a former lover
on the
lute,
Thus
is
He
his boon.
When
fair
he names
Ysolt,
it,
there
con-
Rather than
to
him the
news of
him
his
to the seashore,
where
when
the tide
shall rise.
who
makes
way
Harp
ROMANCE
tent
207
sits
weeping
bitteily.
At
he
Dido
He
the notes enter Ysolt's heart, and her captor too listens eagerly.
rises,
so
The water
the tide
Finally,
runs so strong that they can only reach the boat on horseback, and Ysolt
insists
course, free,
on being borne by the minstrel. Once in Tristram's arms she is, of and the traitorous Irish knight must return home, ashamed and
sorrowful.
The second
the Otherworld.
tale is
It tells
Wales
to the "
that
his little
dog
Petit-Criu,
how Tristram won from Duke Gilan of "a fairy dog, that had been sent
Duke from
No
tongue could
the marvel of
it
it
was.
sides,
one red
white nor black, yellow nor blue, and yet was there somewhat of
therein
;
these
And
if
one saw
man
wise enough to
tell
and so changing were its hues. "Around its neck was a golden chain, and therefrom hung a bell, which rang so sweet and clear that when it began to chime Tristram forgot his sadness and his sorrow, and the longing for Isolt that lay heavy on his heart.
colour, so manifold
bell that
no man heard
. .
it
but he straightway
had troubled him. "Tristram stretched forth his hand and stroked the dog, and it seemed to him that he handled the softest silk, so fine and so smooth was the hair to his And the dog neither growled nor barked nor showed any sign of touch.
that aforetime
.
ill-temper,
it
was
it
ever
dog was borne away, Tristram's sorrow fell upon him as heavy it was added the thought how he might by any means win Petit-Criu, the fairy dog, for his lady the queen, that thereby her sorrow and Yet he could not see how this might be her longing might be lessened. brought about either by craft or by prayer, for he knew well that Gilan would This desire and longing lay heavy on his not have parted with it for his hfe.
"
When
the
as before,
and
to
no outward sign of
his thought."
Now
the
Duke was
Argan, and he
2o8
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
TRISTRAM
if
chap.
him of his and then demands the fairy dog as his rewaid. The Duke pleads with him to take anything else, but when Tristram insists, he yields. "Alas my lord Tristram,'' he says, "if that be indeed thy will, I will keep faith with thee and do thy pleasure. Neither craft nor cunning am I minded to use. Though it be greatly against my will, yet what thou desirest, that shall be done."
promises Tristram whatever he
terrible
foe.
may ask
of him,
he
will rid
fierce
fight,
it,
life,
for her
sake.
At
bell's
first
she had
The
made her
bell,
bethought herself that while she thus rejoiced her lover was in sorrow, she
upbraided herself
longer had
it
bitterly.
The
power
to sooth
Yet Ysolt was now the would not be comforted when Tristram was sad.
a downcast heart. in simple, flowing, octosyllabic couplets, the
Thomas wrote
and
to our
A much
more
is
coinplicated,
much
less
pleasing,
based on his
hearers,
poem.
obviously written
It
with
not
has
all
The opening
stanza,
which
metre,
was
a[t
Erceldoun,]
I there
Who Tristram got and bore Who was king with crown,
And who him fostered (of) And who was bold baron As their elders were.
By
Thomas
tells in
yore,
yere
From
this
passage
and
that
ROMANCE
versing with
209
him in private on the same matter. This Thomas had a remarkable fictitious career. He was called "Rhymer," and apparently justified the name. His personality is hazy; but there seems to be good evidence to attest his existence as an
historical person living towards the close of the thirteenth century.
1400, he queen of
fairyland,
She, however,
to this world,
gift
is
and
of sooth-
On
this
account he
very soon was associated with Merlin, and for centuries a great
deal of influential prophetical literature was current under his
said that the "
others,
name.
Indeed,
it is
of Merlin,
in
it.
There
to
is
no evidence, however,
that
Tristram.
write a
poem on
but
name
Anglo-Norman
poem would be
distinguished
Erceldoun.
Robert of Brunne,
c.
thought
Thomas
in
In an important passage,
artificial
metres and
common
:
sedgeyng
tale,
Of Erceldoun and
of Kendale,
210
THE CYCLE OF
None them
SIR
TRISTRAM
chap.
say as they
it
them wrought,
And
in their saying
seemeth nought.
Thereupon follows
poem, which
original author
is
of the
Thomas
though
this is
men
it
said as
made Thomas
So their fair saying herebeforn, So their travail near forlorn. They say it for pride and nobley. That none were such as they ;
And
all
that they
would overwhere.
forfare.
now
They
The
last lines
may be
is
but
ill
would have required a great poet to unhampered the clogs of rhyme that this peculiar quite by move Not satisfied, however, with these restrictions, stanza imposed.
of the earlier version.
It
No
one, then,
The whole
story,
moreover,
The
In
about 3500.
contrast
the
is
And
ROMANCE
rightly so.
had reason
worthy
to
to say that " over all gests " the story of Tristram
if
was
be esteemed "
men
it
said as
Thomas made
it."
But
if it
applied
English poem.
his
The
some passages of
poem would
not have
We
until
we come
late
Here
is
a hotch-potch of miscellaneous
many
Echoes of
are
to
is
classical
cycles,
be discovered
noticeable
But above
all, it
how
Tristram
in
is
the
time of Thomas.
He
is
now
a conventional knight-
errant,
who
another,
stories,
ever on
In the earlier
play.
Arthur and
his knights
Now, one
at least of
them
surely appears
no uninformed reader would for a moment suspect that Tristram was a hero once quite independent of Arthur, and that his thoroughgoing connection with the Round Table is to be found
only in
late
compilations,
which departed
appetite
for
far
Continental
audience whose
insatiate.
familiar
adventures
Inasmuch as Malory drew almost one-third of his Morte Darthur (mostly to be found in the eighth, ninth, and tenth
212
THE CYCLE OF
SIR TRISTRAM
chap.
method may be
in place here.
There
is
so great diversity in
it
is
well-nigh
impossible to state just what process was followed in any particular instance.
But
in
general
it
may be
common
sorts
There appears to of men to answer different purposes. have been a " vulgate," and an "enlarged" Tristan, the former
going under the
latter
name
of a supposed
fictitious
drew
his
story.
else,
save only in
Holy
Grail,
We
claim
the immortal
only because
was formed
because
in
its
present
and
after
;
the
Conquest,
is
but
also
all
it
is
localised
in
Britain
and, as
well
known,
of the country
in
even though to
come
into
to dispossess those to
whom
these
traditions
of Cornwall,
and that, it seems, in history, before he became the legendary husband of Ysolt. His castle was at Tintagel on the Cornish
coast.
One
Ysolt was
In these neigh-
bouring lands the action passes almost exclusively, and the hero
traverses the dangerous waters
among whom
between with as much equanimity whose home was on the sea. The people the Tristram story grew up were as familiar with
certainly
The
saga
originated
in
heathen
;
times,
when
Christianity
in a barbarous
life
in rude sim-
ROMANCE
when chivalrous when heroes fought on foot, using
pUcity; in a time
warfare was
as
213
undreamed
If
of,
by the cross-bow, or
think of
it,
javelins
thrown by hand.
we stop
to
No
Christian
is
Might
right;/
cunning
is
praiseworthy;
unrestrained.
The
primordial instincts of
are
seen unveiled.
illustrious lovers
of British,
Wherein do they
In
this,
differ typically
from
moves about
love
is
end
that justifies
The
as
life.
to the
same overmastering passion, never controlled their destinies by In the grave chansons de geste love the same mysterious charm. women played no dominant r61e in the was little welcome
:
manly
conflict for
is
communal
gain.
hand, there
intensity
and passion
abundance.
;
There the
self-sacrifice
women
men
Yet
theirs
was
no
demanded no
favour.
Life
was too
Men
With
who
waited on luxurious
ease-.
Without Guthrun blood is thicker than any amorous philtre. for her revenge get husband to a scruple she deceives her
brother's death, but not to indulge a guilty love.
The
proto-
flashing
the
scene
of
strife;
those
of
the
Celtic
lady-loves
the
exquisitely
beautiful,
richly attired,
marvel-
214
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
GAWAIN
who
chap.
fascinate
and
soothe.
It is
All the it in some form. and those of the Renaissance evince their profound appreciation of its charm. In our own time, Tennyson, Matthew Arnold, and Swinburne in England, Wagner in Germany,
great mediaeval poets
and others
his
in
many
that
places,
have reawakened
it
to power.
We may
reason
character
Malory exalted.
in England,
It
will
indicate
another
stories
And
all
other,
that
there
'
no country, and so
in
in
And
after,
as he
growed
saith,
we heard
tell
And
as the
book
he began good measures of blowing of beasts of venery and beasts of chase, and all manner of vermains ; and all these terms we have yet of hawking
is
And therefore the book of venery, of hawking and hunting, book of Sir Tristram. Wherefore, as me seemeth, all gentlemen that bear old arms ought of right to honour Sir Tristram for the goodly terms that gentlemen have and use, and shall to the day of doom, that thereby in a manner all men of worship may dissever a gentleman from a yeoman, For he that gentle is will draw unto him and from a yeoman a villain.
and hunting.
called the
gentle taches,
and
to follow the
T^e
Cycle of Sir
Gawain
Of
himself,
all
Gawain
interesting.
invariably represented as
fear
or
his
all.
benevolence un-
He
was "the
ROMANCE
2iS
we
are told
he agreed and
to give
all
by Wace, " he was wont to do more than more than he promised." Arthur loved
followers,
him most of
their
his
his.
exploits
by
in conceiving
erent."
him as " adulterous," " false," ." reckless," " irrevNowhere does the irreligious Gawain appear in English
In
all
its
purity,
him
is
universal,
He
all,
the envied
of none.
Although there
him, as
to
is
to
hardly
an Arthurian story
part,
his
in which Gawain does not play a distinguished and there are numerous poems about single episodes in career. The several Middle English poems which have
for a
him
hero are
all
in
Probably
some
of these were
Anglo-Norman,
poems such
like
and
utilised later
by writers
Crestien's Perceval.
{c.
Gawain and
language.
It is
life
is
the
Green Knight
1370)
is
incomparably
a misfortune that
the author's
and personality
temporary, he
here
to
it
do with
his
work
as an
may be
said,
lived in the
West Midland
district
memory
He
at
wrote in a very
assembled
Camelot (Somersetshire)
a gigantic knight, clad
New
when
2i6
THE CYCLE OF
and challenges any one present
first
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
only in green, and seated on a marvellous green steed, rides into the banquet
hall
stroke,
He will to exchange blows with him. on condition that he may have the privilege
are all speechless at
rises
first,
of returning
it
a year later.
The knights
but,
offers
and
grant him the favour, and, after making arrangements with the Green Knight
Green Chapel, the stranger's residence, The Green Knight, however, speedily mounts his horse, reminds Gawain of his agreement, and rides off When the with his head in his hand, leaving the warriors dazed and fearful. appointed time approaches, Gawain, much to the sorrow of all at court, sets out to fulfil his covenant, and after many adventures reaches on Christmas Learning that the Green eve a beautiful castle, where he seeks shelter.
for the return blow, to be given at the
he takes the
latter's
Chapel
castle.
is
but two miles away, he accepts the urgent invitation of his host to
for the intervening three days,
feast, his
in the
early
the
chase,
covenanting
at
the
same time
to
exchange at
nightfall
In the knight's
absence,
Gawain
is
sorely tempted
love.
who
art,
frankly
seeks his
by the blandishments of the beautiful wife, But he parries her advances with courtly
This he gives to his host in the
all
Three times
love,
thus
offers,
tested,
the
lady's
and
she
except
magic
girdle,
which, she
assures
him, will
The
;
kisses
he returns to
gift
but the
When New
starts for the
tries to
Year's
Day
arrives,
Green Chapel,
Gawain makes ready for the combat, and him with a guide. The latter
so perilous an adventure
;
dissuade
but Gawain,
faith.
He
arrives
weapon in hand, and praises Gawain's Gawain makes ready to receive the blow, and
fall,
fidelity in
after
one or two
in such a
harm.
fulfilled his
is,
He
ROMANCE
lady's wiles,
virtue.
217
of the castle are one and the same person, that he was fully aware of the
and that
fair
is
all
Gawain's
He
promises him a
but Gawain
insists
on going
at
once to
Camelot.
girdle,
He
and
tells his
shame
to his
They
make
his in
and agree ever after to wear a green lace similar to memory of the remarkable event. Thus Gawain's fame was spread still
land.
This romance
so
is
made up
connected
first
is
the
The
and elsewhere in Irish, where Cuchulinn is the hero and no doubt that it existed as an independent Celtic tale in very early times. It reappears in Old French, attached to Caradoc in the verse Perceval, and to Lancelot in the prose
Feast,
there can be
version
In the French
is
MMe
the adventure
earlier
ascribed to Gawain,
hero.
based on a French (Anglo-Norman?) account; but the author treated his material with a great deal of freedom, and the unusual
charm of the
reproduce)
is
narrative
(which
no
brief
It
summary can
test,
at
all
was probably
his idea to
connect with
of which
many
parallels exist.
The
poem
about the knights' wearing the lace in Gawain's honour seems to have been suggested by the establishment of the Order of the
Garter about 1348.
In a short poem in six-line stanzas, The Green Knight, preserved only in a fifteenth-century form, we have practically the same
story localised in the
slight literary value,
This poem, though of "west country." would be more significant than is usually
it
thought
if
English.
Anglo-Norman and
or
in
2i8
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
much more interesting poems, The Turk and Gawain and The Carl of Carlisle, which probably
soil.
arose on English
state of
difficult to
It
appears,
an underworld castle
various games, not
way Thor visits the dwelling of Utgarthaloki in the By the aid of his companion, a " Turk (dwarf?), prose Edda. he outwits his opponents, and is saved from death. The Turk, in return for his services, asks the hero to cut ofif his head,, and
''
As soon as the blood Gawain consents somewhat reluctantly. flows, the Turk becomes a handsome knight, and the people of
the castle are also freed from enchantment.
of the host
who
guests
is
who do not
the
first
implicitly
obey
his requests.
The hero
of the tale
one spared,
and him
The author
:
minstrel style
in about a hundred
names
of a large
number
of romantic heroes
Ironside, a
known
in England.
He
book
as
Gareth's
audience of
common
folk.
In the Awntyrs (^Adventures) of Arthur at the Tarn Wadling we have another poem in honour of Gawain, a poem of exceptional
merit, vigorously
and
freshly told.
in the forest of
and introduced
identify.
He
ROMANCE
219
King Arthur, while with his followers at Carlisle, one day goes hunting. Gawain accompanies Queen Guinevere, who is gaily dressed and rides a milk-white horse. All the rest become absorbed in the chase, and he is left She is lying under a laurel tree just at undern when alone with the Queen.
the adventure befalls.
fierce
storm of
rain, sleet,
and snow
arises.
ghost
is
fearful to behold,
Then appears a flame from the The ghastly and embraced by snakes. The
But
dogs make off in terror, and the other animals escape as they can. Gawain, undaunted, boldly conjures the spirit to tell her purpose.
declares that she
She
of her sins.
is the mother of Guinevere, suffering this punishment because She begs a sight of her daughter. When Gawain brings the Queen, the spirit bids her take warning from her mother's terrible fate, and
mend
and
also
her ways.
if
She
is
told
what qualities she herself should strive to attain. Then the spirit pronounces a prophecy regarding Arthur's fate, and weeping departs to her The clouds disperse, and the sun shines brightly again. woeful dwelling.
Arthur collects his men, and
all ride
While
armed.
The knight gives Arthur welcomes them and asks their mission. This his name as Galleroun, Prince of Galloway and other adjoining lands. The stranger district had been won by Arthur and given to Gawain.
challenges any one to meet
him
for
in single combat to settle their dominion. him the next day at noon, and urges him to Gawain conducts him to a rich pavilion, where
fight.
he
is
royally served.
He
and
ladies,
men
struggle,
and great
the anxiety of
sees her hero
fight
Gawain's
friends.
Guinevere especially
is
troubled
when she
tears.
with
Galleroun's lady
now
Queen
to save her
is
not necessary, for Galleroun admits that he has been beaten, and that Gawain is " in this middle earth matchless of might." He offers his sword to the King, and renounces all claim to his possessions. Knights hasten
This, however,
wounded and weary combatants. Then Arthur offers Gawain Glamorgan and other places if he will relinquish his rights and leave the Gawain readily yields to the King's valiant Galleroun his present possessions. wish, and all repair to Carlisle, where Galleroun weds his lady, " with gifts and gersouns (presents) of Sir Gawain the gay." Arthur celebrates a feast of the Round Table, into which fellowship Galleroun is received.
to care for the
THE CYCLE OF
Guinevere, we read in the
ferly " at the
SIR
GAWAIN
Thus
last stanza,
ends
this
' '
Tarn Wadling.
The second
vitalised
half of the
fight of
curiously
by the author's imaginative power the first half, combined with it, deserves some comment. The setting
;
of the hunt, during which certain persons get separated from the
rest
is
commonplace of
The
This story
preserved,
may be
said,
no
less
Guinevere had
it
won an unenviable
this story
is
made
unnamed queen.
It
Awntyn
same
region,
life
reflects the
same conditions of
and thought.
the gay in
life
;
The
and
He had much
and
of the
But the
had softened
his tone
The
past.
poem
and elaborate
The
stanza
is
tive lines,
rhyming ababababcdddc. The last four lines form a sort of " wheel," and one stanza is connected with the next by the carrying over of words in its last line to the first line of the
following.
This feature, most familiar in the structure of the the Green Knight) is
of another
Arthurian poem,
Golagros
and
ROMANCE
Gawain, a product,
it
district,
is
more Northern,
In Scotland,
popularity.
it
is
The
first
tale is
made up
length
the
of these occupies
eighty-five.
some eighteen
stanzas, the
After
much wearisome travel, they come to a fair castle, where the Kay begs permission to make inquiries. He
open gate and penetrates to the hall, but finds no occupant at first. he observes a dwarf roasting a fowl on an open fire. Kay snatches the bird roughly and is about to devour it, when the dwarf makes the hall resound with his uproar, and a grim lord appears. He reproves Kay for his bad
At
last
manners ; but finding him boastful and and then withdraws. As soon as he
tells
ill
of speech, he strikes
him
to the floor
recovers,
Kay
hurries to the
King and
of his failure.
Then spake Sir Gawain, the gay, gracious, and good. Sir, ye know that Sir Kay is crabbed of kind I read (counsel) ye make forth a man meeker of mood.
;
That
Arthur thereupon urges Gawain himself to go and seek shelter once more.
His courteous
to his hall
recjuest is
his
men remain
astonished
They come
The King,
whom
it
belongs.
is held by a very powerful lord, Golagros, who subno one, Arthur vows to make him swear allegiance later. He pushes on to " the city of Christ " (a late touch, to have him emulate CharHe despatches Gawain, lemagne), but on his way back halts at the castle. They are urged by Lancelot, and Ywain to the lord to demand submission. Spinogras to be very polite in their petition, for the lord is an uncommonly " Make him no menace," he urges, "but all measure" ; doughty warrior. They follow his for " it hinders never for to be hendly (gracious) of speech.''
mits
advice
when
they
come
Sir
Then
Gawain the
222
THE CYCLE OF
Jolly
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
full
chivalrous,
That never point of his price was founden defaced ; Eager and ertand (enterprising), and right aunterous,
Illumined with loyalty, and with love laced,
np the
freedom
castle.
his elders
After several single combats in which the King's followers are mostly
successful,
The
to
terrible struggle
between them
is
is
described at length.
Magnanimously, then,
Gawain
he were himself beaten. Arthur is overcome with extreme grief when he sees "the flower of knighthood" thus quit the field ; but the situation is soon made plain. Golagros explains to his men how he has fared in the battle, and how Gawain has generously spared
him.
They agree to submit to Arthur, and all together make their way to the King to promise fealty. The incident ends happily the King's vow is fulfilled, and the friendship of Golagros is secured.
:
In the Avowing of
Sir Baldwin of Britain
King Arthur, Sir Gawain, Sir Kay, and we have a poem which may well be conpreceding, not
nected
with
those just
only because
it is
it
deals
written in the
same
temper and
the
is
localised in the
same
is
district of
Inglewood Forest.
considerate
Here too
Gawain,
who
generously aids
beaten
is
foe,
regularly
Guinevere.
court.
He
is
all
at
The poem
unknown
in
to
he
is
mentioned several
times
He
Carl of
hunting
together.
Here
bishop
is
a purveyor of wise
domestic philosophy.
ROMANCE
to the type of "
223
gab
" literature,
which he
When
alone,
they discover the boar, Arthur makes an avow to catch him himself and bids the others make similar avows. Gawain swears to watch at Tarn Wadling all night ; Kay, to ride through the forest till day, and slay
any one who refuses to let him pass ; Baldwin, never to be jealous of his wife, never to refuse meat to any man, or fear a threat of death. Each goes
his
own way.
The King
it
after
a hard encounter.
Then, inasmuch as he "couth of venery," he brittles him, and hangs him on an oak. Kay in the forest meets a knight. Sir Menealf of the Mountain,
carrying off a beautiful lady against her will.
He
challenges
him
to fight,
but
is
easily
overcome.
Then he
where Gawain will requite him. Gawain espouses his friend's cause. He overcomes the knight in two jousts the first to ransom Kay, the second to free the young lady. Menealf agrees to take the maiden to Guinevere, and say that he has been sent by "Gawain, her knight," to be at her disposition.
Kay,
it
is significant,
persistently taunts
to
while Gawain
tries
considerate kindness.
Menealf when Gawain beats him make up for his companion's rudeness by acts of Menealf, we learn, is received by Arthur as a knight
is
of the
Round
lauded.
The poem
by the author's
usual.
is
different sources.
skill.
Arthur here
less of
He
It
is
arranges practical jokes to test his comrades, for such his knights
are.
sixteen lines
is
work of the late fourteenth century, each, rhyming aaab cab dddb eeeb.
employed,
not
pervasively
all
in stanzas of
Alliteration
in
only
fitfully
as
the
West
Midland poems.
presented popularly in
an English way, without the over-refinement and sophistication That on the Continent also Gawain of the French of the time.
is
God
of Love gives
Roman
de la Rose
224
THE CYCLE OF
Of Arthur's Remember
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
The
:
case
loved he to missay,
and spleen.
For
ribald speech,
all
and
evil
famed
Among
In the Wedding of Sir Gawain, a fifteenth-century stanzaic poem, somewhat over 900 lines long, we have Gavyain figuring as the hero of an ancient story, of which several English versions
exist
in
which he plays no
part.
It
is
the
familiar
tale
of
Amantis.
Gower appears
to
in
an
poem more
like a
Breton
lay.
is
Gawain mentioned.
Again the scene
is
the same
is
in
Inglewood Forest.
who
it
now
to requite
him of
his lands
pleads that
and given them -to Gawain (as in the Awntyrs). would be dishonourable to slay him unarmed, and
make amends.
dition that
him a respite of a twelvemonth on consame place, alone and in the same array, and say what it is that women desire most. If he bring no answer, he shall lose his head. The King agrees and departs to join his companions. " His heart was wonder heavy," but in no one did he confide except Gawain.
grants
The knight
he return then
to the
The
one,
latter suggests
that they
two
and Arthur is
the
virill
collect
still
answers.
a large book.
But
tells
In the forest he
in detail.
life,
She
King
will
that she
knows
reveal only
on condition that he
it
Gawain
to
wed.
He
declares
he
not do
no persuasion.
He
is
were a
"or
were
No
Gawain bore
ROMANCE
When
Arthur again meets
22S
(for so
Dame
that
Ragnell
him
sovereignty.
other answers
The knight
it,
Ragnell, his
sister.
all
whence the wisdom Gawain fulfils his publicity, and takes her
When, once bedded with of women, and when he gives her the
it
whether
shall
would be
be always beautiful.
Then
lest the
hag should
rejoices
comes
morning
to
He
fortune,
it
is
story
is
to
be found
tale,
In the Irish
own power
But she
is
made
to represent
an abstraction.
is
She
fay
is
of Erin, which he
destined to win.
to be a free agent, a
at the
first
good
who
same time
She
the green.
is
represented as afflicted by
marriage with
a valiant
knight.
produce
of the
to the
The
sister
it
giant-magician,
hero
who
The
idea of sovereignty
perpetuates
women most
desire.
this story
We
It
simply to enhance
its
change
between
who
But
relations
226
THE CYCLE OF
is
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
in her
equally certain.
folk,
Despite
by unimaginative
disappeared
mysteriously
like
from
the
world,
like
Launfal
and
This, tradition was and Ywain. evidently in Chaucer's mind when, in the Squire's Tale, he remarked that even Gawain, " with his olde curteisye," if he had
Guingamor,
Arthur
" come ageyn out of Fairye," could not have saluted a fair assembly more suitably than the knight upon the steed of brass
who rode
says that
King Cambynskan.
which
Gawain
and that he afterwards cherished the memory of this love above any other similar experience. By the beautiful lady, moreover, he had the son
time he abandoned warlike pursuits,
Gyngalyn,
who
afterwards
became famous.
as
special cycle of
this
son of
Gawain,
otherwise
known
Libeaus
Desconus,
The
Fair
.con-
original
Desconus we
scope,
if
not
romance, conventional
in
general
structure,
but
containing
uncommonly
primitive
material.
Apart from the interesting account of the birth and boyhood of the hero,
to
adventures performed by him Ford Perilous an encounter with giants ; a beauty competition for a prize sparrowhawk, settled by single combat between the lovers of the rival ladies ; a dispute about a fairy dog (like PetitCriu), which last induces a visit to the fairy castle of the Golden Isle, where the hero is duped by an enchantress whose commands he disobeys ; a combat with a lord of another castle with a "custom," who only gives hospitality on condition that the visitor beats him in fight and finally, the rescue (by a
shall return,
series of
which we
we have a
:
which are
all
characteristic
fight at the
kiss) of
By means
of
made
two
fierce
enchanters
ROMANCE
who
and returns with her to Arthur's and return to rule over her lands.
bride, court,
227
French
into a very
charming poem by a knight, Renaud de Beaujeu, who wrote, he tells us, not professionally, but for private reasons, to evince
his love for a lady
and
to
do.
Not
satisfied
iai'ser,
with which the romance naturally ought to end, he represents him as sending
the transformed
off
return,
while he sets
is
with
whom
he
desperately
in love.
He
But
finally
he
hears of a tourney that Arthur has proclaimed in the hope of luring him
back, and he determines to abandon luxury and ease for a more honourable
life. The fay, learning of his decision, has him transported while asleep away from the castle, of which when he wakes he sees no trace, and he makes his way with his faithful squire to the Isle of Valledon, where the tourney
is
appointed.
There he
is
victorious
is
over
all
his
opponents,
is
heartily
his father
Gawain,
and only then weds the Queen of Wales whom he has freed. The poet, felt that this was not the ending he desired, and promised, if his work met with favour, to take him back to his true love, the fay.
The
The
early
(Anglo-Norman?) work was redacted in German and Italian poems, and there is a later version in French prose. The English
also was long familiar in England, as is evident from the numerous references to it in later works. It enjoyed, moreover, the doubtful honour of appearing in the list of "romances of
poem
Since
it
of
Kent,
the
author has
inconclusive.
The
because of the "rhyme doggerel" (the tail-rhyme strophe) in which it is composed and the minstrel's method, is incompar-
228
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
GAWAIN
Renaud
chap.
of the same
material
is
the
sister
of
Brandelis,
an (Anglo-Norman
?)
poem
a pavilion.
She
His
to
combat.
but
when
the hero
is
is
The English
for
again,
This is clearly a distorted conwhich Arthur's knights were glad. clusion. In the Perceval they renew the struggle some years later at
the King's court.
sister
When
the fight
is
at its fiercest,
Brandelis's beautiful
who
to
end the
Finally,
and receives
Round
Table.
The
forest
adventures of Guinglain
illustrate
a favourite type
of
biographical romance.
by
his mother, in
young hero, brought up alone in a ignorance of the world and his parentage,
makes
soon
his
way
thither,
and
is
welcomed by the
he
evinces
king,
who
presents
itself
all
Hereupon
surprising
bravery,
and overcomes
Connected
stories of this
kind doubtless existed early in Celtic speech, as Lay of the Great Fool sufficiently
we read of
of Gawain's son.
ROMANCE
229
Sir Perceval is but another, though the most famous, of the same family of popular heroes, undisciplined but richly endowed by nature, simple but beautiful, bold and brave heroes who flash upon the chivalrous world like meteors, in the full brilliance
start,
run a
finally
achieve a special
quest which was the object of their career, and then become
decorative figures at Arthur's court.
The deeds of Perceval were best known to French readers from the vast poem (some 60,000 lines long) on the Grail Quest by Crestien and his continuators ; to Germans from the parallel
to the
Welsh from
had them not only the French romances concerning him, but also the native work of an unknown author which bears the title Sir Perceval of Galles. This work occupies a position apart from the French and German accounts of the hero by virtue of the fact that in it the Holy Grail is never mentioned, while in them Perceval is the one who achieves the quest. The
while the English
author
he probably only
departing from
Sir Perceval father
would seem,
is
has been
His mother
But
a solitary
retreat,
in chivalrous pursuits.
age the youth accidentally encounters Gawain, Kay, and others of their fellows in rich array, and thinks one of them must surely
when
be the great
God
of
whom
his
mother has
told
them
but
is
courteously
The boy
immediately determines to seek the King, and the next day abandons his
home, leaves
his
his
makes
hood.
way on a mare
mother behind disconsolate, and, clad in goat-skins, to the court, where he roughly demands knightif
has just insulted the whole of his assembly by an act of open defiance.
who The
out.
youth rides after him at once and slays him with his spear.
the dead man's armour, he can think of no
Eager
to get
way except
to burn
him
23
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
GAWAIN
chap.
how to unlace the armour, and Perceval puts Then, unwilling to return to court, he starts out on a career of adventure, in which his invariable success is a constant surprise. Before he returns, he has wedded a beautiful lady, Lufamour of Maiden-land, whom he rescues from distress, and has been reunited with his mother. The Red Knight, we learn, was his father's murderer. The tale is one of vengeance
Gawain, however, shows him
on.
it
achieved.
The author
intelligence,
much
and with
It
of his narrative.
sixteen lines each.
The poem
Chaucer
refers to
Apparently no
effort
was made to
translate the
is
whole of
different
clear evidence
it.
It
was
the Ivain, or
the
Le
Chevalier
au
Lion
this excellent
first
half of the
uncommon
under the
induction
is
title
The
very dramatic.
tells
when
When Arthur hears of it, he determines to undertake it himself but Ywain, anxious to essay it alone, sets out unobserved in advance. Like Calogrenant, he is entertained on
from which he has just returned unsuccessful.
;
the
way by a
hospitable host,
to the
tree
by a giant herdsman There stands the most beautiful the branches of which birds are making melody.
is
and
later directed
By pouring water on a
wind and
rain,
underneath,
he
causes a
terrible
storm of
Soon a knight comes riding to the place and attacks the hero, but Ywain at last wounds him so severely that he takes to flight. Ywain follows in hot pursuit to the castle, and manages to get inside just in time, for the falling portcullis cuts
which
followed
by
a calm.
He
is
who
conceals
him
arts
of her
Laudine,
is
appeased,
and by her
manages to bring about a reconciliation. Laudine even agrees to marry Ywain, who thereupon becomes the defender of the fountain, and in
overcomes Kay when he arrives with Arthur to
try his fortune.
this capacity
ROMANCE
Arthur and his knights are welcomed
marriage with
its
at
fair
mistress.
Ywain
forth
again,
and receives
promises to
He
and
lonely
return within a year, but neglects to do so, incurs therefore the lady's dis-
and
As
a result he
goes
mad,
a.
lives
for
time a wild
life
hermitage.
He
is
cured at
many
valorous
deeds
favour.
Thus
far
Mailduin.
The
madness
Here Ywain
extremities.
is
lion,
whom
he has
aid in
who
affords
him invaluable
is
One
at the Castle of
the
band of distressed
ladies
from
wretched
At court, known only he vindicates her in a judical combat. Knight of the Lion, he engages in a hard and long-continued fight with Gawain, who is also disguised by his armour. When at nightfall the two on
his account,
as the
Each insists to the King comrades recognise each other, they rejoice greatly. This is the only episode in which Gawain plays an that the other has won.
extended part
;
is felt
throughout.
He
is
the knight
Ywain
and courteous, true and loyal, a contrast to Kay. No It is he who urges Ywain not to abandon for ease the chivalrous life. lady in distress ever appealed to him in vain.
loves best, as ever modest
Ivain
is
generally regarded
as
Crestien's
masterpiece.
is
It
peculiarly
intro-
by reason
psychological
is
discussions
duced.
The
is
English translation
reveals
work
about
2800
Though
232
THE CYCLE OF
and
elegant,
SIR
is
GAWAIN
straightforward.
chap.
less sophisticated
he
more
We
and
sincere, distinctly
Ywain,
like
Gawain, was
primitive
hero
of Arthurian
as
romance, and
like
chroniclers
tales
an
historical personage.
many
of Ywain
and he
figures prominently in
Dream of Rhonabwy.
's
Arthur's knights.
Pers
in
France,
finally.
Ywain opposed
Sir
Modred's
treasonable practices.
Scalacronica, states that
And
it
Thomas
Gray, in his
was he who
killed
and
To
Avalon,
Layamon
elf
new
fairy attributes,
who
Otherworld.
Gerine.
title
One
in the
which
that
though
of the
amalgamated with
titular
the fundamental
poem
country,"
search of adventure.
is
He
mysterious river,
suffers
at his hands.
He
returns
ROMANCE
home
afflicted
'
233
and tells of his adventure. His companion, Grim, determines and rides three days through the wilderness to the land
He
is
Dame
whose
to
efforts
his
wounds
who
finally agrees
wed him,
husband's death.
mirth.
The marriage
is
celebrated with
much
minstrelsy
and
We
story.
the devotion to each other of the sworn brothers Eger and Grim,
whom
it
he imagined
like
famous,
we
shall see,
strange combination,
popularity
steel
enjoyed in Scotland.
The
fight of
it
appears, that
Middle Ages most admired, from whom they chose to take example. There is hardly an English chronicler but testifies to Gawain's fame. Layamon praises him as "the
Englishmen
in the
truest
man on
earth."
Robert of Gloucester
Gradually,
calls
him
of courtesy."
that
"mickle honour of
minds
of the people his fabulous character and became like ordinary men, but nobler. Holinshed regarded him simply as " a faithful
gentleman, preeminent for his honour and loyal truth." Finally, in a late but valuable chap-book on his Singular Adventures at a
represented as living " towards the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII.," and is described as " a man of some
fairy castle,
he
is
234
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
LANCELOT
chap.
England."
His adventures
we
learn,
still
were at
recorded
among
verily,
by
his posterity"
in primitive
who
myth rode a magic horse, Gringalet, wielded the magic sword Excalibur, waxed in strength till noonday, and waned
steadily thereafter
till
dark
The legend of
Lancelot, as
we have
tales
it,
is
less primitive
than
Before 1164,
many
current
in
France about
most famous heroes of the Round Table; and before 11 73 he wrote a long poem on one episode of his
Just where Crestien got his material for this
;
work we
but
it
made
probable that he
had before him an elaborate French romance concerning the hero, which is preserved in a German redaction. That this was written,
moreover, was only a chance.
In February
194, an
Anglo-Norman
1170),
I.,
knight,
Thomas a Becket
was sent
Vienna
as a hostage
a prisoner
were given
who had for a year been detained as by Leopold, Duke of Austria. He and his fellows leave to return home after the death of Leopold at the
Richard
end of the same year. To while away the time, we are informed, he took with him a favourite book, the lost romance of Lancelot. By good fortune, this fell into the hands of a German poet, Ulrich von Zatzikhoven, who translated
it
in
9444
From
poem
affords,
we can
was a biographical romance of considerable length, which related the adventures of the hero from his birth to his marriage. That it was written in England, one cannot assert ; but, at all events, it
ROMANCE
was
in
235
circulation
there,
nobility,
There
is
He
was never
at
Gawain
is
was.
We
have no account
some
in
won enormous
favour.
"
book
" that
language,
For Robert asserts that even in his time his countrymen had few prose books about Arthur's " noble deeds of honour " in comparison with the large
number
in foreign tongues.
In
truth, there
In the
him,
long.
And
the
in
German,
It was a prose Lancelot from Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese. which Dante, in a familiar and beloved passage, represents Paolo
and Francesca
hero.
how
"
Many
times," says
Francesca in
" that
reading
faces.''
The
In
its
vulgate form
first
the
and adventures of
and
finally
236
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
LANCELOT
chap.
The whole is sometimes appropriately name which would have been much
Morte
Caxton, gave
it.
more
Two
cularly conspicuous
his enfances
and
type,
brought up in
;
but Lancelot
affec-
owed
tion,
own country
The Lady
a mortal youth on
whom
except perhaps
The
Lancelot's
life.
Lancelot, however,
chiefly
remembered
as the lover of
Guinevere,
whom
The
amour
is
(cf.
Malory,
xix.),
who has
carried her
is,
oflf
which no
that
it
parallels to this
adventure in Celtic
it
story,
and
to an end.
Yet
it
was
definitely attached to
him
in
became famous
given to play.
largely
by reason of the
is
was
This adventure
Conte de la Charette.
A
the
May-day
rides
up
King while he
table,
granted before
is
heard.
The
knight declares
that
he holds many of the ladies of Arthur's land prisoners in his domain, and them all if there is any one of the King's followers who can
ROMANCE
overthrow him in single combat. If the trial is have the Queen and his opponent to take away petulant Kay demands a chance to try the fight, a neighbouring wood, where the contest takes
beaten, and he and the
237
accepted and he wins, he shall with him to captivity. The
But
is
in
Kay
badly
Queen
are carried
off.
the scene too late to prevent the disaster, but set out in pursuit. At a crossroads they take separate paths. Lancelot, however, soon meets misfortune, for
his horse breaks a leg,
A little dwarf in
and he must needs trudge on wearily in heavy armour. offers him a ride. Lancelot wavers,
because to ride in such a vehicle is derogatory to his dignity ; but the thought of Guinevere's danger impels him even to this ignominious act. His decision, however, brings him speedy chagrin. Gawain, whom he presently meets
again, rebukes
him
him
and
finally,
people along the road jeer at when, after various adventures, in which he shows himself
;
him patronisingly
always a
faithful
Queen
has been taken, and rescues her from the power of her captor, he receives only a sneer for his pains ; for Guinevere, like every one else in the land apparently,
has heard of her lover's dishonour and deems him
now unworthy
of her.
Lancelot, bewildered, does not stop to justify himself, or to narrate the beguile-
ments and blunders of his journey, but rushes away disconsolate to the woods. after a few days he returns repentant, he finds that Meleagant has locked up his mistress again. He seeks her prison -chamber, effects an
When
entrance,
is
unobserved.
him promise
twelvemonth
later.
He
departs
with the Queen, Kay, and the prisoners, and journeys homeward, meeting
Gawain by
rest.
the way.
He
an ambush, and
is
imprisoned.
because of his delayed arrival, seek news of him everywhere, but in vain.
last
At
fairest
is
damsel of Arthur's
By good
is
who
Lancelot's custodian
while this
is
taking place
for a
in disguise.
He
is
every-
where
pects
beaten.
When
lover, and sends word to him to allow himself to be he thereupon meekly accepts his opponent's blows, she withall to
shame.
He
There he pines
at
until the
238
THE CYCLE OF
SIR
LANCELOT
chap.
But he is deceived. Queen, feeling sure of winning with Lancelot absent. hero, by the aid of his fairy guardian, having been freed, restored to vigour, and equipped with good armour, suddenly appears, challenges and
The
slays Meleagant,
and
is
Lancelot here
him thus of
his
own
accord.
The
it
to
love.
The
heart,
and the result was unsatisfactory. Wearying of his task, he handed it over to a friend (Godefroi de Lagny) to finish, and wrote Great is the contrast between the type of love of Ywain instead.
presented in these two poems
:
contrasts
Even
in early
is little
that
is
their acts
they are playing, not always wondering whether they are faithful
to
what they
profess.
to consider the red-tape of love theory, to avoid incurring his lady's displeasure
;
him the
fits
attitude
of captious disdain.
She had, to be
for example,
sure,
her
of jealousy
and indignation
of her
lover's
as,
second marriage, or
from
his
foes
in
their
but
It is in
these are
being,
human
woman
Lancelot
that
we have
is
and
Guinevere
the
first
end of the
ROMANCE
239
fourteenth century, the author begins by recounting the charming and pathetic tale of " the Maid of Ascolot," and her unrequited
love for Lancelot, which
rewritten in
The poem
comes her
guilty,
tells also
how Lancelot
slie
in disguise
is
condemned
much
their
who
fear she is
Through this valiant deed the hero is restored to favour with Guinevere, who had previously sent him away in anger, and enjoys fully the satisfactions of love. Soon, however, Agravain, Gawain's brother, accuses him to the King, and the lovers
risk
are
entrapped
together.
all
Lancelot
boldly
defends
himself
against
his
opponents, slaying
but Modred,
by many followers, he makes his the castle the King has given him, and thither after a struggle later brings Guinevere, thus saving her from being burned for her guilt. Unfortunately, in this exploit
he has been forced
to slay
Accompanied
but
at
the
command
;
Pope,
whom
the
King agrees
to
to pardon.
continue
to
The
final
scenes
of the
poem we
is
discuss
presently
likeness
in
The
of
Malory's
due
to their having
had a common
the
Scottish
The
poem on Lancelot
is
The prologue
shows that the author was under the influence of the Court
of Love ideas, then beginning to wane.
as falling asleep
He
represents himself
upon the God of Love appears to him in a vision, reproves him for his futile complaining, and bids him compose a treatise "of love, or arms, or some other thing." When he wakes, he how, naturally enough chooses to narrate of Lancelot in love
240
chap.
own devotion
In addition, he seized
his original, for a
by some
in
hints in
we seem
to
James
It
III.
Scotland during the reigns of Each " book " has a lyrical prelude.
in
modern English
hero
is
assuredly a
whom
We
courtliest
truest lover of
man
that
ever loved
woman
and
man
sword
in
and thou wert the goodliest person that ever came among press of
;
knights
hall
among
and thou wert the meekest man and the gentlest that ever ate ladies and thou wert the sternest knight to thy mortal foe
;
rest.
No wonder
there
accompanied
his
death
A princely
Whose blended
Unto
his king.
life
knight
Lancelot
Holy Grail
for Perceval
was formerly the knight who achieved the Quest, while Lancelot later was represented as the father of Galahad, who usurped
Perceval's place.
The importance
ROMANCE
literature
241
for,
of Joseph of Arimathea
development in
view
Britain.
The problem
of
its
;
history
is
too
final solution
now
were
first
welded together
much
At
all
is
and due
that
in
its
later
to the stimulus
it
II.
events,
is
undeniable
what
is
known
is
of Arimathea,
at
and
that
Through the
stories
By
virtue
of this
is
most English-speaking people knowledge of the Grail limited to information drawn from the Morte Darthur; but
is
To
Malory's account
and obscure, of a French prose romance which was itself very Three hundred years before Malory, the far from the original. legend had been elaborated at great length and with much
skill in
tion)
remain to
day
its
purest embodiment.
These works
that
on material
myth,
was ancient
folklore,
at
that
time, primitive
heathen
universal
gathered together,
many
The
new
architects
still
over goes
242
chap.
some of whose deeds we have seen recorded in an English poem which contains no mention of the sacred chalice. Other exploits of his may be found in the Welsh tale of Peredur in the Mabinogion. A much more extensive narrative of his career, based, the poet tells us, on a book given him by the Crusader Count Philip of Flanders, was begun by Crestien, but left unfinished by him at
his death,
about 1189.
romance
referred
adventures
to, let
of
all
sorts, in
is
seldom
alone explained.
The
power,
is
likewise
paralleled
in
Celtic
mythic
tales.
These
of the
by a slender bond.
castle
rest
The winning
it
where
is
guarded, are
no
of
The
Fair
Unknown
whom
in bespelled
Snowdon.
solitude,
brought
final
one of greater
his
significance, with
whose
accomplishment
spell
he
the
seems to achieve
foreordained mission,
and
to
his
satisfy the
whole
career.
few indications of
how
his story
was to terminate.
lines,
The
master's
were different
Through
lines long.
ROMANCE
Perceval
is
243
and the work unlike a secular romance of the ordinary Arthurian type.
not
The
earlier
than
in
Crestien,
become
identified
with
sacred
of
Christian
relic,
Arimathea was supposed to have caught the blood that flowed from the body of our Lord after He had been pierced by Longinus' spear ; and this idea soon brought about a complete transformation of the tale.
The
better to explain
how
of Joseph of Arimathea was outlined, was prefixed to the narrative of Perthis, probably in Latin, was no doubt Legends of the conversion of Britain by Joseph had grown up in Britain independently, and were of
ceval.
Material
for
readily
accessible.
tale of British
to
In the
quarter of the
composed a
trilogy of
romances,
the
first
Arimathea, the second with Merlin, and the third was to deal
with PercevaL
The
poet's
that of intro-
whom
he repre-
Round Table
in the similitude
accustomed
and sustenance
all
of his followers.
the
measure he accomplished.
skilful
enough
to
make
at the
his
work
definitive
Robert,
it
will
be observed, was
244
chap.
religious order.
He
was a pious
man
of simple
but no theologian.
Indeed,
The Church uttered neither The legend grew of itself, at once secular and
doctrine, but subversive of none,
no important
The Church
clear,
let it
alone.
Crestien
and Robert,
it
is
many who
with extra-
the rninds of
men
ordinary swiftness.
An immense body
One
then produced, not only in Latin and French, but also in other
languages of Europe.
of these foreign productions, the
consideration,
German
is
Parzival,
merits
particular
because
it
a noble
poem
in
in itself,
its
because
it
of a
similar
work
French
original,
and because
that original
Anjou,
Wolfram
also
was a layman, a
learning, but
broad-minded, sympathetic
This one can safely
say,
of
whatever view
us that he
He
tells
poem by
whom and
it
poem
all
now disposed
He
rival.
He
Guyot
ROMANCE
was a
far
24S
more
tolerant
He He
had
and deeply religious person than Crestien. and was full of the Crusading spirit.
knights.
Templars,
The
compensation he adds
whom
and introduces Prester John. With the sudden fall of the Angevin dynasty, a work so decidedly partisan to them would find little favour in France,
and
therefore be neglected
and disappear.
poet's hands,
Fortunately, before
basis
the
German
Wagner
to
This
transi-
the
role of
hero and the complete sway of Christian symbolism. With Galahad the ideal of asceticism enters the romance. The human, loving Perceval is relegated to second place in the Quest, and the noble Gawain, thought too worldly, must needs
Grail
The
century
extremely bewildering.
Everything
that
had any
was dragged in. The different versions are legion. Hardly two of the manuscripts are alike. Above the thicket of versions and redactions one commanding figure rises, one who is always
it,
Map,
which
to
whom
is
is
known
St.
as
Grand
Graal,
Map
name
is
and
his
But if it be true, as kept here chiefly for convenience. " the mediaeval scribe said, that Walter Map made the book for
246
chap.
story translated
from Latin into French,'' we owe both the king and his counsellor
a debt of gratitude.
influenced the Celtic
had much to gain by identifying British legend; for he thus races of his dominion in his favour, and he
Henry
II.
presumption of the
the
Roman
Church.
He
undertook to rebuild
scale
;
and-
it
was
The
tales
of
Joseph
in Britain
is
Map
branch of
romance, and
fit
it
many
subtle shifts to
make
it
the
rest.
At
mand
this
of God.
dubbed
at Arthur's
court
To
connection was
made more
repre-
daughter of
The
But
this
He
love-story
Round
having
it
intervene
The
Grail-Lancelot
cycle
become a
gigantic
and
still
further
to
xvii.
little
ROMANCE
before his time, about 1450, the early history of the
247
Grand
St.
one Henry
London
skinner.
is
preserved in a
lines,
Britain.
the time of the alliterative revival about the middle of the four-
teenth century.
lines are
is
now
preserved in a
unknown.
The poem
deals
life at
It is interesting
not because of
the originality of
tion,
would be pleasant
to quote passages
from Malory
in
which
Galahad
at court, his
seating himself in the Siege Perilous, the vision of the Grail, the
but
there
is
no need.
To
Morte Darf/iur
If
is,
we review
we
see
how
allegory.
in the
The
reason for
apparent
the
it lies
change of the
their
attitude
towards
principles
of chivalry and
Roger Ascham's severe condemnation of the Arthurian romances on the ground of their immorality. We recall how Tennyson characterises them as
recall
We
And we
is
some reason
in these reproaches.
: ;
248
chap.
The
that of Lancelot
marriage
and Ysolt is the apotheosis of illicit love and Guinevere the glorification of infidelity in even Arthur, the governing spirit of the whole fellow-
ship of the
course, the
Round
Table, was accused of incest Outwardly, of romances were highly moral. In the course of time
Christian
as pious
who went
God and
ecclesiastical
all
that were
Christianity.
Yet these
tales of Britain
said Jean Bodel, and in their vanity and pleasantness lay the
secret of their
unopposed
success.
at last
grew
alarmed
and they
Holy Grail
Christian pilgrims
Thus
were
finally
The
Grail-Quest remains
human
endeavour.
The
Cycle of Merlin
The
consideration of Merlin
conducts
us back from
the
and legend,
his youth.
to
the
events
is
its
Among
ROMANCE
249
By
first
con-
Identifying
new
character.
desirous to build.
if
who
become
is
firm.
:
Messengers find
his
birth
mysterious
not.
The messengers
They conduct wisdom that they think him divinely inspired. him to the King, to whom he reveals the cause of the tower's
instability,
and,
to
the
bewilderment of
all,
foretells
strange
happenings to come.
Merlin as an enchanter plays a conspicuous part
in Uter's
Dance.
tales.
his
suggestion
in
popular
purpose.
Manannan and Mongan, gave him hints that he Thanks to the fame of Geoffrey's book,
the exploits of
came
managed
to give a
life
The
by
to
becomes the
2SO
chap.
The plan of the demons is, however, circumvented through the child's immediate christening by the holy
subvert mankind.
man,
Blaise,
who
becomes a
force for
good instead of
for evil.
Like
all
youths of
is
soon
wise.
discovered to be
"marvellously witted,"
preternaturally
When
old
still
He is only eighteen months when he defends her against an unjust accusation of adultery, and secures her release by convicting the judge's own mother of
secret sin in his conception.
his mysterious
Before he
is five,
he has exhibited
wisdom
Thereupon
his successors,
whom
their enemies.
As
the
omniscient
and omnipotent guardian of the young Arthur, he It is he behaves like Odin to the hero Sigmund in the North. who arranges the sword-test by which the supposed foster-child of Antor reveals himself of Uter's blood; he plans and helps to
bring
by
his
know-
poem became
and
for the
most
tediousness,
in
fourteenth-century version
insig-
From some
"
version
ennobling
by
that of his fellow, the servile translator of the whole, or, indeed,
ROMANCE
skinner Lovelich, whose trade seems to have occupied
little.
251
him too
The
writers of the
fifteenth century
;
(like
if
Lydgate, for
but
lines long.
finished,
in
unique
the
manuscripts.
Who
can
tell
how much
he wrote ?
century,
Long
before,
at
the
close
of the
thirteenth
much
greater
power
as material for
Over
from
poem
are preserved,
and yet
it
is
far
in poetic
it
is
we
poem and King Alisaunder, of which the work of one individual, who wrote in Notable among the agreements in style
lyrical
passages
life,
as preludes to
in descriptions
His
and enthusiasm
dull.
not prevent a
modern reader
The
We
linger
Merlin's amour.
There
is
evidence in Geoffrey's
tradition a story
Welsh
whom
he perhaps lived
This tradition,
may
The
widespread narrative of his relations with Niniane. air-castle in which she imprisons him was of a kind familiar
an Otherworld
creation,
where a
2S2
chap.
The
story
is
laden with
the tone to
Breton romance.
Tennyson has
It
treated
it
in the
exchanged achievements.
of
his
own
land,
and was
When
them
carefully.
come
to pass.
Indeed,
men were
slow to
abandon the
1
As late surnamed Thomas Hey wrote Merlin, as wood a Life of Ambrosius, his Prophecies and Predictions interpreted ; and their
folly of trying to elucidate this
imposture.
64 1
Defoe
tells
us that
who
modern prophets
way
his authority
promote the
But
the Welsh.
The monk
of Malmesbury
who
Edward
III.
that, in
consequence of a
recovery of England
by
An
historian
who fails
importance of romantic
ROMANCE
253
A
add
constant tendency
is
manifest in
mediaeval
England to
romance
into
history.
Vagueness
and remoteness of
scene yielded to
situation.
strict
petuated,
dignity.
national
in
On
the
fourteenth century a
new
effort
was made
of Britain, and the old alliteration seemed appropriate to patriotic poets for the recounting of their warlike deeds.
Of
interesting
the
is
which
necessarily therefore
a production probably of
In
II.
when Edward
his
nominated
in
place by
The
Lucius to his
final fight
He
was
to
chronicles accessible
developed romance.
prominently in the
by name
in
at
least,
French.
Modred
is
one of
villain.
goes abroad.
praises
He is When he
in
irre-
Gawain dead, he
him
of the
proachable words.
In
the
chief interest
poem
254
chap.
Rome by
and her
the
dreams of Fortune,
first
"a
men
beautiful
duchess,''
is
revolving wheel.
At
later
crushed by
And when
returns. in
once
a pilgrim announces Modred's treasonable deeds, he at In a stirring, lifelike passage is described a sea fight near
Southampton,
which Modred
is
overcome.
In the
final
The
contest
is
mighty.
But
at last
Modred
he
feels
falls
vanquished.
failing,
Not
King
survive.
When
himself
(!),
and
there,
he has solemnly
departs
baronage of Britain,
with
"The and forgiven. then, bishops and others, repair them to Glastonbury
this
world,
forgiving
with rueful hearts, to bury there the bold king, and bring him to the earth,
all
suitable
mourning notes
in
religious
j
robed
copes, pontiffs
and prelates
precious
weeds
dukes and
and downcast
in face
all
women and
authors allege, that was of Hector's blood, the King's son of Troy, and of
Sir Priam, the prince praised
on earth
for
of this Morte Arthure was a thorough-going and His simple, sturdy qualities Englishman a genuine poet. had never been neutralised by foreign sophistications. None of the feebleness manifest in the degenerate jomances of subservient Here, on the contrary, is minstrels appears in his vigorous lines. the power of originality, the charm of freshness. The author We find in his evinces a sense of humour and a love of nature.
The
author
poem attempts
romancer.
at characterisation surpassing
is
Reality
His
and
wrote with
much
the
same
spirit as
ROMANCE
45S
A curious
found
is
in a short
Southern
poem
(642
lines, in couplets)
of the
the
in
his
enthusiasm
for
Arthur,
feeling
little,
while he bade
We
are
entries
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
scenes inevitably
first
The
evoked
not,
memory by
the
the
mention of Arthur's
death
are
however,
would-be
and romantic the scenes that Tennyson has made familiar to all. These, with all their gleam and haze, were wonderfully described, ages before the Laureate's time, in Malory, in the earlier stanzaic Morte Arthure, and in the
historical but the plainly mythical
century French prose, some copy of which was used also by the
alliterative
poet.
is
In
Malory's
;
version
will
the
story
of Arthur's
forthfaring
well
known
but
it
which
tells
"
in
How
the
sword Excalibur
water,
at
"a
little
chapel not
far
from the
in a
of
Sir
dream
that
it
should be.
Lucan has
to help to
move him.
weeping
Then
Sir Bedivere
wept
" Leave
;
this
and mourning," said King Arthur, " for all this will not avail me for wit thou well, and I might live myself, the death of Sir Lucan would grieve me But my time hieth fast," said King Arthur unto Sir Bedivere; evermore. " therefore take thou Excalibur, my good sword, and go with it unto yonder water side, and, when thou comest there, I charge thee throw my sword into
that water, and lord," said Sir Bedivere,
word
again.''
come again and tell me what thou shalt see there." "My "your command shall be done, and lightly bring you And so Sir Bedivere departed and by the way he beheld that
;
all
throw
this rich
loss."
And
hid
"
2S6
Excalibur under a
chap.
and
as soon as
Arthur, and said he had been at the water, and had thrown the sword into " Sir," said he, "I " What sawest thou there ? " said the ICing. the water.
" That
is
King
'
therefore
;
go thou
in his
lightly
and do
in."
my command,
Then
it
as thou art to
me
and dear
it
hand
and shame to
And
again and told to the King that he had been at the water and done his com-
mand.
"
"
" Ah,
traitor
untrue
" said
Who would
me so lief and dear, and thou art named a noble knight, and wouldst betray me for the rich sword ? But now go again lightly, for thy long and tarrying putteth me in great jeopardy of my life, for I have taken cold but if thou dost not as I command thee, and if ever I may see thee, I shall slay thee with my own hands, for thou wouldst for my rich sword see me dead."
;
Sir Bedivere departed, and went to the sword,, and lightly took it up, and went to the water's side and there he bound the girdle about the hilt, and then he threw the sword into the water as far as he might ; and there came an arm and a hand above the water, and met it and caught it, and so
;
Then
shook
it
thrice
and brandished.
And
away with
Bedivere came again to the King, and told him what he had seen.
said the King,
Then
Sir
" help me from hence, for I dread me I have tarried over long." Bedivere took King Arthur upon his back, and so went with him to
And when they were at the water's side, even fast by the bank hoved a little barge, with many fair ladies in it, and among them all was a queen, and they all had black hoods, and they wept and shrieked when they saw King Arthur.
the water's side.
"Now
put
me
softly;
and there received him three queens with great mourning, and so these three
queens sat them down, and
And
from
me ?
Alas
this
in one of their laps King Arthur laid his head. " Ah dear brother, why have ye tarried so long wound on your head has taken over much cold. " And
!
so then they
from him.
of
Then
rowed from the land, and Sir Bedivere beheld all those ladies go Sir Bedivere cried, " Ah my lord Arthur, what shall become
!
me now
is
me
here alone
" Comfort
me me
no
of
my
grfevous
wound
and
my
was
soul."
But evermore the queens and ladies wept and shrieked that
ROMANCE
pity for to hear them.
257
And
had
and so he went
the
night
The power
of
it
of Arthurian roimance
is
made
Among
it
Englishmen, we
have seen,
Welsh
was an inspiration
prolonged struggle
for
independence.
it
The Scotch
Sir
in the
poured into
Modred
are then,
as
curiously
enough,
exalted
their
chroniclers
champions of Scottish
their
rights.
The Arthur
so
much vaunted
The
and
of
opponents was
life
in reality,
whose
revels
in York,
He
achievements
abroad.
is
no longer a theme
different
for discord,
its
among
scholars holding
views of
perplexing growth.
the centre about
All nations
now
of
love to
remember Arthur
so
little
as
whom
whom we know
ideals,
that
true,
romance
Ages.
romance
tions that the lives of our ancient British knights reflect but they
Table
is
dissolved,"
it
Though "the whole Round remains now as ever "an image of the
to
us, as
is
mighty world."
Therefore,
it
seems
to
Caxton, that in
its
varying
For
in
it
ye
sliall
the most noble knights of the world, whereby they got praising
258
CHAP.
continual.
seemeth by the
oft
greatly desire to
accustom yourself
is
knightly deeds
ness, faithfully
that
that
to say, to dread
and courageously
And
the
more
God
meeker ye ought
deceivable world."
unstableness of this
The Matter
Our
national
epic,
if
of England
any, is based upon British King Arthur occupies in the political history of England a position somewhat parallel to. Charlemagne's in that of France Arthur was not English, and Charlemagne was not French. Our Germanic forefathers did not have the same large s'upply of legendary fiction concerning Arthur that was accessible to their descendants after the Conquest, and could never have dreamed that a fabulous hero of their despised Welsh neighbours would come to be exalted to so high a place Before the coming of the Normans as Arthur was destined to fill. the rulers of England sang by preference the exploits of ancient
we have
men
of their
own near
kin or type
at
home.
Nor did
it
brought
about
its
transformation.
stories of
among
past.
Yet
tales
we must bear
for
Saxon
poets,
and Latin
chroniclers, and, as
would have
it,
least
French
in
in
others
(e.g.
Horn, Aelof,
Waldef, Beves)
gcste
;
was rewritten
in
in
sometimes
{e.g.
Havelok,
Guy of
ROMA^CE
in
259
the
usual
octosyllabic
{e.g.
couplets
ancient sagas
the
Vita
in Latin redactions or
summaries.
native
far
Thus
are
preserved
in a great variety of
many
of
them
;
from primitive.
carefully
and we must
if
we would
and epochs, the same substance received divergent impress, was moulded into shapes strangely unlike. seemed almost necessary at first for a saga to assume the It
exterior
in order to maintain
its
dignity
so that thus,
as
it
were,
subtly,
by devious devices.
in
Continental
inevitably
conceptions
were disseminated
:
England
and
own
heroes,
When
some
none
with them the tales they had been accustomed to hear at home,
at least of
which were
in literary form.
Unfortunately, most
mythical
story of the
Germanic hero Wade, son of the famous Wayland the Smith, and of his magic boat, is several times referred to by Chaucer and other Middle English writers, but we are now
ignorant of
its
of an old
poem on
Saxons seem to have been forgotten very early by cultivated people. Their place was taken by a new body of saga of native insular growth, which has for us, of course, far greater
traditions of the
interest than
We may
:
consider
them
as
we
will,
the
sum
is
the same.
A
;
main perhaps
and coloured
26o
chap.
history so far as
romance."
JVa/Jidof),
not
yet published, the author explicitly states that the original of his
that then
it
The Anglo-Saxon original has now quite disappeared, but it was known to a fifteenth-century monk, John Bramis of Thetford, who
used
it,
He
first
was
composed
in verse,
by the French poet at the instance of a lady, the author's " friend,"
who
language.
To
summaries of the
we
examples of in
eves of Hampton and Guy of Warwick. the fortunes of Waldef, but of those of his
sister
We
father,
King Bede,
his
Odenild,
his
his sons
Guiac and
Guthlac.
usurpers,
intrigue
exposed children,
on through
We
ment
in
have no Anglo-Saxon
version
though, as
we have
seen, there
swcSx a
is
Waldef ihsX.
it
work
Were
it
the superadded Celtic tone, and the interweaving of Celtic incident, which
gained,
British minstrels,
much to its advantage, by being handled by we might fairly group it in the present chapter,
its
where according to
origin
it
belongs.
In the beginning
it
con-
tained Germanic material very like the romance- cycle with which
we have next
to deal, that oi
so splendidly alchemised by
art.
The
Horn
is
contained in a
named
ROMANCE
261
Thomas, based probably on an earlier French version of a Saxon alliterative poem. There is no absolute evidence for this intermediate version, but
scope
all
indications point to
its
existence.
Its
may be
it
1250, which
probably
This, the
Middle English romance preserved, contains only some rhyming in couplets, while the chanson de geste
The
it
and succinct
in style.
poem
and
refined, evidently
composed by a
of
well-informed, cultivated,
society.
pious
man
for the
In
is
as follows
The king of a land called Sudene is slain by hostile seamen, who thereupon take possession of his realm. His young son Horn they set adrift with several companions helpless on the sea. After a day and night their boat is cast ashore by the wind in the country of Westerness, in Britain, and the There youths speedily make their way to the residence of the king near by.
they are treated with
all
Horn
and prowess,
intimacy
is
by his unusual beauty, accomplishments, and the princess Rimenhild engages him in love. Their the king will accept no exbetrayed by a traitorous friend
;
planations,
and Horn
is
lovers agree to be faithful to each other for seven years, and Rimenhild gives
Horn
him
in
fight.
Leaving Britain, he
is
He
refuses,
honour
until
in the
beaker
him
Finding her
still
true,
he assembles his
plight.
Without
and
is
reunited with
262
his mother,
chap.
who
castle
by the
sea.
Warned by
some of
and soon
third
He
suitor
and a
own
country "
among
The topography
of this
tale,
Horn's
home Sudene
is
name
Man
Westerness
Wirral
hero,
;
it
is a peninsula in the "west country," probably the and Fenice is Furness. The rudderless boat carried the would seem, into the Mersey, and Chester was the capital
It
just in time.
is
designated in
poem by
as the
the Scandinavian
name
" Westir,"
West
Isles.
Inasmuch
Norse, or such as
over, as the story
names of persons as well as of places are were familiar to Norsemen ; inasmuch, morestriking likeness to
shows
Old Norse
historical
is
arose
among
the
Norsemen
and
(orally,
whom
saga
is
was communicated
in literary
That there
elaboration.
is
somewhat of actual
its
present form
it
At
all
events,
reflects
the
life
Great Britain
Western waters, when the lands along the coast were never secure
against viking depredations,
when
encroachment or invasion,
to
a
During
this
Man
was
R(.)MANCE
263
located there.
ponderant in
record.
It
likely to
was not
uncommon
for
among
strangers until
they
of
came
and then
to be helped to
recover lands
ambitious warriors
to
above
all
age
of independent achievement,
valorous deeds
princess
won
and hand of a
sports,
Were
poetry,
visitors to foreign
courts also
in
music,
or
manly
welcome for festivities were as frequent as combats, and some "abridgment" was necessary to "beguile In pastimes of various sorts men and women the lazy time."
they were
associated,
naturally formed.
AVe have
torical
results,
many
many
their
The
story of
and with
became attached
to
it
The
of
trilogy
early
it
making
The
first
section of the
264
chap.
and the
Hadermod.
certain, but
That the
story of the
The
hero,
reared by a king
we learn from the summary in ITom, was a foundling, kindly named Silaf (Silaus). When he grew up, he was discovered
Emperor of
Germany, and Silaf gave him the princess Samburc to wife. Previously he had distinguished himself by his prowess, overcoming many heathen warriors, but had been the victim of calumny on the part of a traitor Denerey. We
infer that these unjust accusations
and no doubt resembled those directed against Horn by Fikel, and that, being in some way vindicated, he was decreed the king's heir. After SilaPs death he assumed power and for ten years defended his realm against the heathen, until finally he was overcome by an invading host and put to death. His son,
however, lived to achieve revenge for
this disaster.
On
Child,
poem was
Horn
which
is
much
less important.
In
it
the story
is
miserably
is
distorted
There
now no
in a
made King
in detail.
of North-
umberland, and his struggles to defend his realm against his foes
The
hostile
as
made use
of older traditions of
allied
Scotch and
is,
Horn Child
artifice
in
truth, a reckless
was yielding to
and
origin-
convention.
The
conventionality of the
its
poem
in
both
its
inconsistencies
and
vagaries,
lines, are
"rhyme
doggerel,"
so
we can but
admit,
was
ROMANCE
richly
265
deserved. He mentions Horn Child as one of the " romances of pris " that Sir Thopas so far surpassed in worth.
One
Horn,
Horn
parts.
Hind
in the
current
it
may be
in
remote
Finally,
based
on the French. This was a translation of the very popular prose romance of Ponthus et Sidoine, written before 1445 in French by
Ponthus, de
distinguished
la
Tour
family.
is
completely
re-
The work
If
we review
instructive
we
shall find
it
an
early quality.
We
still
exist
three French
twelfth
Horn
and fourteenth
dependent each on
pre-
form as well as in
the
first in
Each
version
is
the material.
New
The motive
a
simple
changes.
Starting
as
record
assuming soon the sophistication of romance, the story becomes finally a means of glorifying a single family, "whereof a man
lerne many goode ensamples, and yonge men may here dedes of aunciente people that dide much goode and good the
may
The
hero in the
first
English version
was a Norseman,
in the
Frenchman.
266
chap.
increases.
the
traces
of Northern
origin
disappear.
The
action shifts
more
and more from the outlying islands to the mainland of Europe and the East. Viking warriors become crusading knights. Each
redaction reflects the manners and sentiments of the age
when
it
was fashioned.
It
is
The
last
version
is
first
that
historical,
was
definitely localised,
and corresponds
In that of Havelok
all
define
but in
hero
is
England
for
sister
a while in
His father Sigtrygg (Sihtric) ruled Northumbria, and married as his second wife the
After his
of King Athelstan.
in
death in
927 Athelstan
assumed control
The
young prince, however, having married a daughter of Constantine III., King of Scotland, at the head of a large body of Scots, Danes, and Britons attacked Athelstan ; but he was completely
routed at the Battle of Brunanburh
bered, which
Chronicle.
is
defeat,
it
will
be remem-
before
being
Eadmund. In 949 he regained control, but was finally expelled in 952. Then he established himself in Ireland, where he reigned as King of Dublin until 980. The year after
driven out by
Now heroic
way of
was suitable
tales of
He
;
mind
life
as rehearsed
to serve.
by poets and
chroniclers, each of
whom had
his
own end
ROMANCE
various.
All,
26;
written in
however, deserve notice here, as having been England by Englishmen, though only one of import-
ance
is in
was so extensively appropriated by the Anglo-Normans, were comit appears, at least two French poems on Havelok one,
more
Only the
latter is
preserved
but of
the romance
we have
summary
slain in
combat.
While at sea, they are overtaken by and the queen is slain ; but Grim lands safely at Grimsby (so called after him), and there rears Havelok as his own son. When the youth becomes a man he takes leave of his foster-parents and makes liis
mariner," to take her from the land.
" outlaws
"
way
whose Norfolk. At
shire),
King of Lyndsey (the northern part of LincolnOrewayn was married to Egelbright, Danish King of
Havelok, who
is
their
daughter and
(scullion).
heir, Argill, to
is
Havelok
him
Desiring
knowledge of
well received
Denmark,
is
regains his
heritage,
is
sometime steward, and through his aid native land. He then returns to England to recover his wife's successful, and becomes the ruler of both Norfolk and Lyndsey.
by Sykar,
his father's
it
was
said,
went
the
to
Denmark
to
demand
"
that
as
represented
He
Hodulf
(Eadulf),
to gain
It is remarked that ever while Havelok, a youth of seven, in his castle. Hodulf having designs he sleeps an odorous flame issues from his mouth. The story develops on his life, he and liis mother are carried off by Grim. Havelok's marriage with Argentine (Argill) is explained as due as before.
humble
her,
and yet
fulfil
his
"
268
compact with her
chap.
who has
left
Argentine one night, to be found. bemoaning her lot, observes the mysterious flame, and also has dreams, which awaken her wonder. She is urged by a hermit to whom she confides her
she shall be married to the strongest
man
They
discover the
prowess and
defeats Alsi
is
and sail to Denmark, where the hero displays amazing crowned king. Returning to England after four years, he
Thetford (using, by the way, in the battle the device of magnifying the appearance of his army by tying the dead to stakes), and
at
and Lyndsey
interested,
for
twenty years.
We
are
most
present form
relation
discussed
is
still
obscure.
The names
of the
characters,
and Grim, are all different. Evidently the English poem stands by itself; but it is not safe to assume that rather than the French poems, represents best the original it,
except
Havelok
Like
Horn
Child,
it
far better
attention throughout
vigour,
3000
lines
by
fresh,
and by the interest of its evidently accurate descriptions In the structure of humble life at the time of its composition. of the poem are apparent certain departures from the primitive form (notably the transformation of the induction) which involve
unhappy duplication of
attest
incident,
and
him
as a writer of originality
power.
The
No
English tale of Havelok was not written for the refined. such " gentleness " as pervades the extant French lay appears
anywhere except as an echo. Grim is not as there a " baron in the service of the Danish kings, but a rude fisherman. His
spouse
is
a homely fishwife.
The
life
ROMANCE
that of the plain fisher folk of
269
Grimsby in the writer's time, who and farm produce in " the good borough " of
laden with articles in exchange.
The
and
who have assembled to listen to his recitation, for " a cup of full good ale,'' and we may well believe that in the public room of an alehouse, or in the kitchen of a manor, his poem met with chief favour. The minstrel's style was adapted to his humble audience. He endeavours by open appeals to hold their attention, indulges them with many proverbs, regales them
maidens,"
with detailed descriptions of scenes they could enjoy,
passes
fair
hurriedly over such as, being prolonged, " would annoy this
for their
applause sentiment to
says, for
" It
is
no shame
for to
swink (work)," he
example, and
word.
most
likely too in
wheel wedded to
to the throne,
was surely
listen
stir
who would
with glee.
a strong prince of
The commanding
More
than
now
men
and
as
a right.
Acknowledging
this,
with the
author of the romance that noblesse oblige. The king who is faithfully served, he makes clear, is himself worthy of love and reverence, kindly disposed to his subjects, firm to denounce vice
in
men
in a word, a
man
in his
own
person without of the good King Athelwold, the author plainly utters contem-
reproach.
270
chap.
period,
of which
Edward I. strove to overcome. One passage only we have space Edward VII.
to quote, a picture of
an
When
men
see
The most
Skirming with
talevas.' that
men
bear,
Harping and piping, full good won,^ Leyk of mimes of hasard ok,^
Romance-reading on the book
;
There might men hear the gests sing, The gleemen on the tabor ding ;
bulls bait.
And
And
SO on.
Every
might be seen
clothing
;
and
wine
The
feast
lasted forty
" exile
is
Havelok has many comrades in romance heroes of the and return " type. The historical foundation of his story
but nevertheless
it
exceedingly slight;
political purpose.
As
English
as
Confusing,
of
the
or
deliberately
actually
identifying,
King Constantine
III.
Scotland,
the
legendary Constantine,
successor,
nephew and
sixth
he
the
century, a Danish
In great quantity.
Lively
(?).
^
*
'
dice.
ROMANCE
ruler of
271
Who
was
first
we cannot
say
we
may be
land.
sure
it
was
fostered
seems
the
unscientific
show
had a long
life.
The romances
similar character,
of Guy of JJ'ar7ciii:k and Beves of Hampton, of were two of the most popular in mediaeval
England.
Written in
five
more.
in Sir Thopas,
Guy borrowed more of the phraseology of his parody than from any other "romance of prys." Puttenham in 1589 attests that Guy and Beves were popular then at ''places of assembly where the company shall be desirous to hear of old
version of
adventures and valiances of noble knights in time past " ; but He mentions the two these were not the castles of the land.
among
other works as
"made
Christmas dinners and bridals, and in taverns Earlier, high and alehouses and such places of base resort."
common
people
at
and low joined more frequently at common gatherings, and the romances of Guy and Beves pleased all alike when read aloud. They were then, of course, very different in tone and form from
the degenerate versions to which Puttenham refers
robes,
cast
off
like
splendid
become the treasures of the poor. of Warwick was celebrated as a national hero, one who by extraordinary strength and valour had saved Saxon England from foreign dominion and the chief basis of this renown lay in the report of his successful combat with a giant Colbrand, who
faded,
Guy
272
chap.
kingdom was
preserved.
given of
this,
as follows
King Athelstan
under
He
find
meet the
he
whom
undertake the
fight.
This
is
home
He
The King induces him to and Anlaf (Havelok) agree that their rival
The long
struggle
is
described in detail.
and the Danes withdraw. Athelstan's joy and gratitude know no bounds ; but no offer of reward will induce Guy He makes his way secretly to his own castle at Warwick, and in to remain.
is slain
He
establishes himself at
an
is
by the countess.
When
after,
his
approaching death
revealed to him,
away
in her arms.
Very shortly
is
Guy
legend, was at
first
perhaps
in
independently treated
(cf.
the late
the
Percy MS.).
It
foundation, but
now as legend. The combat of the two champions representing the Saxons and Danes resembles that
nevertheless appears
and
Flollo of France.
The
situation
is
interesting,
and
life
As a matter of
:
however, Gtty of Warwick taken as a whole is wearisome it but a series of commonplace adventures stretched out to an
unreasonable length.
here
.
The
Guy
is
He
falls in
" difficult
" lady
Felice.
She
him on condition
that
he wins fame.
named Thus
many ways
abroad.
ROMANCE
Not, however, until he
is
273
For a month
for
after his
life
he
God.
sins.
Finally, after
many
save his country from the Danes in the fight already described.
for
is
whom
away
career.
Guy, of course,
is
born.
He
stolen
nayl for
Heraud searches for him diligently, like GouverTristram. At last he and Reinbrun meet and fight
reveals his name.
it
when Reinbrun
in
great number,
would be
distracting to enumerate.
Our
judgment on such
tales as these
We
to
grow into
When
his ancestors
and
his descendants,
and
thus were linked together previously independent narratives, or new ones were concocted to prepare for and continue his famous
career.
Guy of Warwick
it
apparently
owed
its
amazing popularity
:
it
was
at
once
belligerent, patriotic,
and
religious.
That
it
was an
inartistic
much
and
made over in They lost their primitive realistic force and simplicity, and became extravagant, compliEven at their best they are not cated, long-drawn-out, and dull. The heroes to be compared for charm with the tales of Britain. T
sagas suffered sadly by being
geste.
profit."
274
chap.
were too
little
They were
superstitious,
fanatical,
and
Women
they
We
miss the
the
atmosphere of courtesy
British tales,
arid
where gentle
and
at
popular than
Guy
home, had
passed into
more vogue abroad. There are three metrical French versions of the story and one in prose. From France it
far
Italy,
where
Redactions
and modern
lines),
Yiddish.
interesting
to
and the Middle English romance written about 1300, on the basis perhaps of an earlier translation from the French. This latter, as preserved, combines two metres, the introduction being in tailrhyme strophe, while the main part of the poem (over 4000 lines)
is
in short couplets.
;
redactions
but in
Guy
tale
Horn
it
and
appears
now
Horn
We
last
how he was done out of his rights for many a long day, but at came to his own how during the period of his probation he
;
fought usurpers,
sort of
dragons
any and
every
opponent
always
Many
cism,
and
story
success.
a flood of commonplace. had lost its simplicity its topography was turned topsy-turvy, and its temper transformed by witless redactions Yet the hero was popular before it reached its present shape.
narrative, but
The
for the
as
Guy
his
combative
zeal,
piety,
ROMANCE
and
patriotism.
27S
Men
in the
achievements
in his steed
Arundel, almost
human
beloved
difficult
and
fidelity,
and
Josiane,
Felice.
more
summary of this, as well as of Guy and other English romances, may be found in the Specimens of George Ellis, who, to quote from the encomium of his friend
but entertaining
Sir
A detailed
Walter Scott,
the dullest tlieme bid
flit
On wings
of une,\pected wit.
Guy
of Warwick,
at
we have
a
crisis
seen,
in
is
with Athelstan
the
of the
land.
The
opponent of Athelstan at Brunanburh was Anlaf Cuaran, whose name at least the hero Havelok bore. We have other evidence
that this powerful
About
his
clings
his
name.
of the relations between the king and his three " wedded brethren,"
who had
One
and
Even
the arclibishop,
who
interposes
is
is
roughly
treated.
An
to his senses.
fire.
is
He
to
who
trial,
They walk
forced
nine
fiery
who
miserably.
The
Some circumstances in this story make one think that it would have been better connected with King John than with
Athelstan.
At
all
events,
it
took
its
in
conflict,
when Church and State and when the ordeal and the trial
guilt.
By
the
276
chap.
method, Gunhild, daughter of King Cnut, was said to have been vindicated from an unjust accusation of adultery, and
latter
William of Malmesbury
attests.
Of
also
records
a
the
pleasant tale of
how
camp on
camp
The
had attached
perpetuated.
it
him much legend that the people in the Middle Ages he was " England's
tradition.
the
circumstances of his
in the inaccessible
retreat of Athelney.
Alfred,
soldiers
As Asser informs us
a
and
life
among
the woodlands of
for
of
who had
submitted to
Alfred, then,
was
for a time
fugitive,
most
dignified of a goodly
number
who openly
In
no other country, except Iceland, where the sagas of Grettir and Gisli were read with glee, were tales of outlaws so popular
as in England.
his valiant
band of Saxons,
doubt had
we
know them
In Anglo-Norman verse
Monk, who
flourished in
and
although,
to
ROMANCE
chroniclers,
277
he was
to the English,
highly entertaining,
and we applaud
that,
This
true
likewise
of
another
outlaw,
Fulk
Fitz Warren,
also celebrated in an
in
Anglo-Norman poem,
Fulk
unfortunately,
prose
paraphrase only.
II.,
friend of Richard
in 1203,
He
caused John
infinite worry,
to his rights.
personages,
recognised by contales
It is different
is
who,
in
"absolutely a creation
supreme
whose authority
in the
matter of
is
a yeoman, outlawed
free,' religious in
for reasons
'courteous and
sentiment,
respectful
in the
and above
to all
all
whom
he
is
women.
He
lives
man
orders, secular and spiritual, bishops and archbishops, abbots, bold barons, and knights, but harms no husbandman or yeoman, and is friendly to poor
men
generally, imparting to
liberality,
is
the rich.
Courtesy,
good-temper,
marks;
he
is,
for courtesy
and
good-temper he
This
the
a popular
Yeoman
;
as
he has a kind of
and a gentlemanlike refinement of humour. Robin Hood of the Gest especially the late ballads debase this
in
its
sixteenth
as "a
all
century,
but
put together as
earlier ballads.
It
tells
early
It
is
1400,
or before,
on the
of
still
fyttes."
above
Richard
at
the
Lee,
how he
278
chap.
money
how
for
the knight
his
proved
but lost
and ran
risks
sake,
This
It
ballad-epic
is
too
familiar
to
need
retelling.
leaves
us in
love with
Robin and
sheriff of
his
men, happy in
their
power
the
fat ecclesiastics
outdoor
life.
And
It is full
leaves be large
and long,
merry in
fair forest
:
To
To
draw
to the dale.
And
And shadow
Under
This we
feel
profoundly.
And England
is
the
merrier,
the
freer,
The words just quoted are from the fine old ballad of Robin Hood and the Monk, which tells how the monk and the sheriff of Nottingham, who have captured Robin, are deceived by the cunning of Little John and Much the Miller's son, and lose The king also is befooled by the same bold pair. their prisoner. Robin Hood and Guy of Gisborne attests not only Robin's skill
in archery, but his strength in fight
and
he
slays the
unhappy Guy
in single
latter's clothes,
and
releases Little
John from
serious peril.
the
how
by beating him
by the
him-
self entertained
merrily.
Here
ROMANCE
Robin
acts
279
somewhat
like
his
historical
prototypes Hereward,
The
The famous English outlaws were regarded when they resisted official interference in what they considered their rights. The game laws being administered with great severity, those who represented the rulers were the
popular sentiment.
sympathetically
object of general dislike, and were deceived gladly whenever
it
was possible.
We
Adam
dim
who engage
our
full
sympathy.
is
William
and children
at Carlisle.
is
The
ballad
how he
a
is
how he
after
and
skill in
^how
through the
how,
finally,
which
increases
when
like
the
men
that the
William
The king
his wife
and
his
yeoman
is
The
interesting
of Gamelyn, which
lines, written
familiar in a
It
poem
of
about 1350.
was preserved by
among Chaucer's works, and is thought to have been a he had in mind to redact. If so, it would doubtless have been put into the mouth of the forester-yeoman, who knew
poem
all
that
the
"usage" of woodcraft.
He
was clad
in cote
Under
he bar
And
It
in his
yeoman
28o
chap.
to
tell
pictured
in the tale.
He
is
the youngest of three brothers, a youth of extraordinary physical a reputation for boldness and courage.
strength,
who wins
and
tries
to get rid of
him, but
is
end hanged for his sins. The hero is a reckless outlaw, who defies sheriff and justice of the peace with a light heart. He has been driven to this life, however, simply by necessity " He must needs walk in wood that may not
:
walk
in
town."
He
is
in the
wood, he
asserts,
no harm
But
if
for to do,
we meet with
As men that be hungry, and may no meat And be hard bested under wood-Iind.
So; when the king wishes, he
provided only that
well treated.
is
very glad to
make
and
" Chief
his
This
cluded.
is
essentially
a manly
tale.
Women
Gamelyn
;
are
is
rigidly
ex-
To
be
said to have
wedded a
wife
fair "
matter to be talked
Strangely
Gamelyn
gives
way
it
to Orlando,
and Rosalind
is
intro-
duced
In some way
or other, a version of
Thomas Lodge,
who used
Eupkues'
his play of
it
Golden Legacy.
On
this
As You
Like
Lt.
Times had changed when Shakspere wrote. The Arden was not then the abode of outlaws as of old. the past is even more remote, but still we feel with Keats
of
Gone, the merry morris din.
Gone, the song of Gamelyn; Gone, the tough-belted outlaw
Idling in the
'
'
forest
Now
grene shawe.
"...
ROMANCE
So it is Honour to Honour to Honour to Honour to Honour to
;
281
woods unshorn
I
his
The most
the Tanner,
the sixteenth century, the latter perhaps not beyond the seven-
modelled upon
which
there
is
Summaries of
found
in the fifth
volume
The
early thirteenth-century
about Henry
II.
is
Cambrensis embodied in
an
John
the Reeve, a
poem
of 910
lines,
it
by
his contemporaries;
for,
:
O worthy king benign, Edward the last. Thou had'st often in thy heart a dread impressed Which that thy humble ghost full sore aghast, And to know if thou cursed wert or blessed,
Among
To
the people oft hast thou thee dressed
hear what
men
John the Reeve is mentioned by both Gavin Douglas and Dunbar in conjunction with Ralph Collier, whose acquaintance we
have already made as the chance associate of Charlemagne.
late broadsides
In
:
and
of other kings
282
chap.
Alfred,
William
the
justly praised
John
Bishop Percy III., and Henry VIII. Reeve for " genuine humour, diverting
incidents,
manners
"
but he could
We
Lost
Moth.
since
;
Armado. Is there not a ballad, boy, of the King and the Beggar ? The world was very guilty of such a ballad some three ages
but I think
now
'tis
not to be found
or, if it-were, it
would neither
honoured
on high
pillars
of distinction.
Beside Statius,
Of yren, he, the gret Omeer ; And with him Dares and Tytus
Before, and eek he, Lollius,
And Guido eek de Columpnis, And English Gaufride eek, y-wis ; And ech of these, so have I Joye, Was besy for to bere up Troye.
So hevy ther-of was the fame, That for to bere it was no game.
Who
have they
men
associated with
Much
indeed,
if
we
information
Chaucer
Homer "the
and no doubt knew that the fame of the Trojans depended But with the Iliad he and his finally on his splendid poem.
ROMANCE
contemporaries certainly had no first-hand acquaintance.
283
It
was
not, of
Troy divine
"
was
is
to us.
Had
they
known Homer,
successors
who
treated the same theme, unless perhaps for had withheld their praise of his work. In
first
of
Homer
But
yit I
gan
ful
wel espye,
litel
envye,
lyes,
Oon
seyde,
Omere made
Feyninge
in his poetiyes.
And was
to
Grekes favorable
In the
firmly
believed
themselves
to be of Trojan descent, and applauded those only amongst the narrators of the story of Troy who ministered to their national pride. On this ground they were particularly grateful to Geoffrey
of
Monmouth
"),
as re-
as for that of
matter
we may
begin.
Before tracing the development of the romantic history of the Trojan War, we must first examine the basis of the widespread
tradition of the blood connection of the
the
Conquest seldom
failed
to
mention
no reader
Had
fable.
as he purposed, he
this
of the Trojans to Britain and the deeds of their posterity, including the story of "Sabrina fair,"
284
chap.
line.
was reserved
for
him
to enlarge
with picturesque
detail.
Brutus,
we
learn,
Greece to establish
for
himself a
The Latin elegiacs which Geoffrey, his Virgil represents him as then uttering, Milton thus translates
Diana.
Goddess of Shades, and Huntress, who at will Walk'st on the rolling sphere, and through the deep, On thy third reign, the Earth, look now, and tell
in
mind,
What What
land,
what
me
thee
seek.
certain seat,
where
may worship
quires.
And
from
the goddess
Brutus, far to the West, in the ocean wide,
Beyond the realm of Gaul, a land there lies. Sea-girt it lies, where giants dwelt of old ; Now void, it fits thy people. Thither bend
Thy
course
There
And
Shall
kings be
bom
of thee,
Thus guided, Brutus makes his way with a to Britain, where, after some struggles with opponents, he builds a new Troy.
Geoffrey's story gained universal credence.
brilliant
company
giants
and other
of
The account
Trojan invasion was speedily accepted as a very ancient tradition, and the British plumed themselves in consequence of
the
their
supposed
past,
illustrious
descent
As prone
as
we
to
romance
about the
ROMANCE
.
28s
But not only were the British, as shown by Geofifrey, of Trojan descent: so also in other ways were the Franks, the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans in truth, almost all the
nations of Western Europe.
If Arthur
To show how
It will
this
was
be
suffi-
why
it
political
and
literary
moment.
fold:
it
On
it
dignity;
them
made them
on
this account.
He
first
Britons
In
when he
truth,
we Romans and
;
same
origin, since
both are
Our
.
first
^neas
theirs,
Before the
Romans
offer to
invade or
for fear
we
of our kinsmen.
Your demand,
from yEneas in both Britons and Romans, and one and the same chain of consanguinity unites us ; which ought to be a band of firm union and friendship.
It
us,
we have
For
by the people,
literary
men
By way
turn.
of recom-
pense,
To
first
the
War we now
The
cen-
286
chap.
tury,
poem
of iioo hexameter
lines
a work composed,
it is
much
more
a Cretan of Gnossus, at
enclosed,
historian's
first
It
was
we
are
tomb.
it
turned
Later
it
Latin. credited,
preposterous
for
was widely
centuries as
itself
was regarded
many
authoritative
as an eye-witness on the Trojan whose Historia de Excidio Trojae gave the true statement
of the war.
or historical value
but
all
who
exist,
it
Apparently,
it
in
of those
events,
it
seems necessary
to
ROMANCE
287
ment of the story to explain the first important treatment of the theme in mediteval literature, that of the skilful French clerk
Benoit da
Ste.
More
1165, wrote
Roman
the famous
underwent redacit
it
was referred to
to
in the
We
mean
merit.
is
clear,
and
flowing.
His
story,
being
long-drawn-out
in parts,
and and
burdened
dramatic
-with
detail, is
naturally
it
monotonous
with
but by
compensation in others
force.
It is
is
told
peculiar
vigour
brilliant half-century of
written a
Roman
it
de Thebes
Old French literature. Then, too, were and a Roman d' Eneas, remodellings of
spirit.
This
spirit,
is
least that
of
antiquity.
The writers of these " romances " paid no heed to what we now call " historical colour." They did not try to put
themselves into the world of their heroes, to picture them as they
were, in the surroundings in which
a picture of
life
really
they actually
in
lived.
mediaeval
France.
bear
Greek and
Roman
They
carry
names, to be
themselves in the
inhabit castles
like
crenellated towers
II.
They
are
faith.
their warfare
feudal
lords
peace,
observe
the
impulses, stimulated
actuated
by the same
of
The worshippers
to the
one supreme
a
Christian
of
the
Bible.
represented
as
monks and
cloisters
under
his
288
chap.
rule. relics
solemn oaths.
classical
mythology,
the
affairs
are so influential in
in directing
On
have
left
an obvious
fay,
mark
Hector
with
is
and
rides a
We
warriors
No
He
The French through his work got and they rejoiced with him. the same sort of view of Greece and Rome that Crestien gave them of ancient Britain. Benoit and Crestien were products of the same conditions they lived in a personal age, when men saw
;
because
it
The
their
Rome and
fate.
Britain in
inevitable.
It
was largely
'
be based
attested
it
directly
on Dares.
fact
that
popularity.
at
Messina in
Sicily,
and undertook
Archbishop of Salerno,
Hugo de
Porta.
He
the main,
Virgil
made
and Ovid.
reflection.
moral
On women
It
was
made no mention
of Benoit
RO^tANCE
Here we cannot
289
come
thereby to a better
men
of different
in
the
common
many
century.
sentiment.
We must
which
metrical versions
appeared in and
the
fourteenth
was
in
1187
or
thereabouts
of Exeter's Latin
poem De
Bella Trojano.
and
skill
The
earliest
poem, over
the
of
Troy,
which
dialect.
exists
in
a unique manuscript
in
West
intro-
Midland
His
The
style is at
He
duces into
In the
heir of
poem The Siege of Troy (in short have couplets) we seem to a free abridgment of part of Benoit's
less
significant
romance,
before
him
in
a somewhat
enlarged form
form
like that
used
and Gower
the
title
some of the
tales in
As
city,
and he therefore
treats
But of
best
is
all
John Lydgate, monk of Bury St. Edmunds, which he began in 1412 or a little later, and when complete presented to Henry V. In 15 1 3 it was printed by Pynson at the command of Henry VIIL,
290
chap.
under the
lines long,
to
its
charm.
much freedom, and in so doing added greatly His descriptions of natural scenes, of festivals,
Lydgate
is
and
in
many
moves
He
in all
about 3715
to
fill
lines, are
lacunas.
been very
long.
matter of dispute.
to
all
the rest
le Fevre.
1464 (four years only before the Order of the Golden Fleece was founded), at the
in
command
it
Good
of Burgundy.
Caxton translated
in 1471,
it
making
about 1474, put it in type, thus English printed book. It ran through no less
later,
than fourteen editions between 1503 and 1738, and within the last few years has been twice reprinted not, surely, because of
its
merit.
The French
England
himself
metrical
and
after.
That Chaucer
knew both
intimately there
It is possible that
he
may
also
He
and
many
of his contemporaries
an episode of a
ROMANCE
romantic, not a
belligerent,
291
character, the
now famous
Boccaccio,
love of
by the
example of
favourite
author,
who had
previously written a
poem on
poet as a guide.
Boccaccio
in this regard,
we must
first
ment of
Its
the theme.
We
it.
have
now no
yet
it is
to
Briseis, for
such was
the Greek
name
among
camp
verecundam, animo
simplici, piam."
what developed
his imagination,
in
lost,
be
charm.
laid rather
awakening
by the Trojan
Briseida
is
hero.
the
She
maiden daughter of Calchas, who has deserted Troy to is loved by the hero Troihis, who is disconsolate when
(an exchange of prisoners having been effected after the capture of Antenor)
camp
to
be united
to
her father.
falls
whose duty
her,
it
is
to
and
finally
In a
combat with
In
another engagement, however, Troilus wounds him very severely, and vents his indignation on his former love because of the way she has deceived him.
Slie,
moved by
pity for
292
affection,
chap.
Troilus apparently con-
Diomed has the reward of his labour. But Benoit's poem almost no mention is made
of the
affair.
This incident
lated
it
is
no more
in the
Roman
de Troie, trans-
by Guido, seemed to Boccaccio a suitable framework for a poem which should express his own love. He too, like Troilus,
had been deserted by a lady (the Princess Maria d' Aquino, natural daughter of the King of Naples, who has been immortalised by him as Fiammetta), and he determined under the cloak of Troilus to
voice his sentiments towards her.
Naturally, then, he placed the
emphasis on the
first
rather than
on the
last
amour of the
lady.
He
and
pictures
by preference Troilus
final
delights, his
sorrow.
now
is
the
less
and
more devoted
Diomed.
of Pandaro (the
name from
Benott),
whom
he pictures as the
despicably, to
young compromise
gallant,
who
strives complaisantly,
and
The poem
of Love
;
itself
The Conquered
;
with satisfaction
and
it
Boccaccio
was
still
living
Florence.
writer
first
visited
Genoa and
Italy, in
had died.
became possessed of // Filostrato, and this stimulated him to write poem of his own on the same theme. About 1380, or perhaps earlier, appeared his Troilus and Cressida, a work of genius, which
a
first
revealed in
him
which came
fully
ROMANCE
from mentioning Boccaccio or
his
293
poem which he
Deliberately
utilised
but
hardly credible.
seems to be no way
he
there
mystified his
misunderstanding of a passage
of
in
Horace,
or,
some one
;
War
and he
in the amplificaalso.
but in Troilus he
fails
to
mention them
theme had
to be bolstered
suit.
up by remote
authority,
and Boccaccio
is composed in the favourite Italian metre, the and contains 5352 lines. Troilus comprises 8239
(rhyme
royal).
careful comparison
of the two works has shown that for nearly two-thirds of the
poem
we
or since.
poem.
in incident
and
is
darus,
He
no longer the gay young cousin of Cressida, but her middleaged, experienced uncle, whose advice she might be expected to
follow,
in behalf of Troilus
faithless to Troilus
But
Courts of Love
and they
294
THE STORY
fickle
OF" TROY
justly
chap.
pictured the
lady as
suffering
afflicted
an unhappy
fate.
of Cresseid, by the Scottish schoolmaster of Dunfermline, Robert Henryson. His work was deliberately arranged as a sequel to
that of his master Chaucer.
He
of " the
fatal
destiny of
fair
Cresseid, which
ended wretchedly,"
and he
might be the
if all
real situation.
?
Who
wots
that
Nor I wot not if this narration Be authorised, or feigned of the new By some poet, through his invention
Made to report the lamentation And woeful end of this lusty Cresseid, And what distress she tholed, and what
deid (death).
He
company of
lepers
among whom
his beloved.
who
her benefactor
is,
breaks out
and
dies.
A
story
;
mention
in
Henry
V.
of the
and
Cressida
it
The
some reason
situation.
all
Chaucer's
delicacy.
Troilus
and
Cressida,
or Truth
this,
Found Too
Late.
When
Sir
he took occasion to
still
remark that
had
further deterior-
changed to
ribaldry.
some of his
ROMANCE
295
Cressida
sitting in
with
two companions,
listening
to
occupied
reply
with.
Cressida,
in
welcoming
we
makes
"This romaunce
is
of Thebes, that
rede
And we han
And
here
Thurgh Edippus
and
al that
dede
we
How
Aniphiorax,
Unowe
my-selve,
And
al the
maked bokes
twelve."
sister of Troilus,
;
when
in the
and
twelve
in
"
romance
and
in
same general style that Benoit employed. It made widely familiar in medieval Europe the substance of Statius' narrative, The Latin poem was familiar to all but did not replace it.
the
cultivated
men
in
it
directly did
it
he
poem
that
:
embodies
this
is
in part,
Falamon and
Arcite
based on an
poem, //
it
Teseide, of Boccaccio.
Soon
and with
in
296
chap.
adopted there
and again
9054
failed to
mention
his source.
The
Teseide has
lines,
Chaucer's changes are seen in the metre, the plan, and the style
length.
He
;
introduction of lifelike incident and characteristic detail, to the scenes of the narrative
fairly real.
make
Whylom,
Ther was a duk that highte Theseus Of Athenes he was lord and governour. And in his tyme swich a conquerour. That gretter was ther noon under the sonne.
lines, transfer
atmosphere of antique chivalry, an atmosphere of aristocratic Chaucer could have remoteness and exaggerated distinction.
chosen no more suitable
highest of station
is
.
tale for
and
among
rich.
his pilgrims.
The melody
of his verse
nowhere more
Palamon and Arcite provided the plots of several Elizabethan plays. One by Richard Edwards was produced at The Two Noble KinsOxford in 1566 before the Queen herself.
tale of
The
Dryden competed more obviously with Chaucer in his own style. Though his Palamon and Arcite has genuine merit, Chaucer's poem still remains unrivalled. The works of Chaucer and his imitators dealt only with an episode in the tale of Thebes. The need of an English version
of the whole account was
felt in
and
this the
Utilising,
it
ROMANCE
about 1420.
Chaucer's
:
297
work
by
tell
chance
the
first
at
story
We
comparison between
way
to the shrine.
and that of the Knight, the first on the Lydgate borrowed freely from Chaucer's very
is
vastly inferior.
We
deplore his
to
Chaucer
as high
on
pillars in
the
House
of Fame.
Their works
in Latin,
reproduced
in the vernacular.
It
should
be noted, however,
and the Thebaid, the ^neid was transformed into a French Like the rest,, it romance of adventure about the same time.
seems
admit
to
it
we must
it
to
be
at
least
Later,
unavoidably,
became sodden
in
prose.
redaction called the Livre des Eneydes, and this Caxton translated for English readers in 1490.
His Metamorphoses
was a great storehouse of myth and legend, from which both clergy and laity, ascetics and lovers, drew material
about which to moralise as their inclination dictated.
stories
Ovid's
became common property. They were repeated in many So accessible, compendiums of information and amusement.
indeed, was the " matter of
Rome "
it is
particular
tale.
Thus,
for
Roman de
Henryson
Livy, where
it is
best known.
298
chap.
in-
numerable in mediaeval
West was
the
but some of
its
may
Alexander the Great, one of the most popular narratives that the
Not only
in various
languages of Asia
and
one
;
in
of Alexander's
exploits
was current
and
England
stories
Versions are
as well
dates.
and Anglo-Latin,
Monk's Tale
and
It was, in truth, as
Chaucer said
of Alisaundre
The stone
so comiine,
That every wight that hath discrecioun Hath herd somwhat or al of his fortune.
The monk
exalts
Alexander to
the
position
of a
peerless
"heir
of
All of
it
he
demeyne,
And
So
yit
ful
was
ROMANCE
Darius, and an hundred thousand mo,
299
Of kiiiges,
. .
I seyc, as fcr as
man may
his,
ryde or go,
I
Tlie world
was
what sholde
mighte nat
more devyse,
For thogh
I write or tolde
it
you evermo
suffyse.
Of his
IciiighthodCj
legend had taken shape before the Christian Greek work known as the Pseudo-Callisthenes. This contains, in germ at least, the whole fabulous history of the Macedonian king, yet was itself a culmination of previous reports
era in a
The Alexander
enhance
original
his glory
and spread
his fame.
exist,
form
but,
and Armenian,
accurately to
its
third-century form.
It reached Western peoples through two Latin redactions one by Julius Valerius, written before 340, of which an epitome, prepared in the ninth century, afterwards became very popular another the Historia Alexandri Magni, Regis Macedoniae, de
Proeliis,
made by Leo
Campania,
(i) a letter of
(2) a
body of
Brahmins
and
(3)
to Paradise
ail
The Alexander legend was one of the first to be redacted in Old French. Towards the end of the eleventh century, Leo's work was translated into French verse by the Provencal Alberic
de Brian9on
;
is
left.
employment
work, got
the
name
Tort (Crooked)
30O
chap.
and Alexandre de Bernay. Here we see again the mediaeval disregard of anachronisms and the romantic style applied to ancient
would-be history.
He
Middle Ages, especially largess. was represented by them more as a model knight than as an
first
invincible conqueror.
The
Paradise,
Next
monk
of
St.
Albans made
passages
historians.
concerning
Alexander
from
supposedly
trustworthy
theless
little
was
set at
nought
by an English clerk of Chaucer's time, who decided to combine with it the Epitome of Valerius, in order that he might
provide an example for the imitation of youths, by which they
vice.
ecclesiastic,
Eustace of
made
some more
His work,
historical
material
drawn
from
various
sources.
entitled the
Roman
the subject, namely. King Alisaunder, anonymous poet of the end of the thirKing Alisaunder contains over 8000 lines in teenth century. couplets, and may have been written by the same author as Arthur and Merlin. Between these two epic-romances there the best English the production of an
is
poem on
the same
way
time
above
all,
literary
passage,
which
is
not paralleled
sort.
elsewhere
in
;!
ROMANCE
Fair be tales in
301
Merry
Evil
in
church
company is melody
;
may
And
worse
may
Who
I
Jolly he
may him
is
Marie
She us
And
another chapter
In time of harvest merry
it is
enow
his
horn
corn
;
:
The
Sweet
true love
and
fine.
method of rhyming
in
clusters.
From
all
the frequent
references to
was not a
an
pictured
interest
of his
Three fragments of alliterative poems on Alexander were composed about the time of Chaucer's birth. Of these two may have belonged to a single work formerly of great length (one
contains 5680 lines) entitled The
Wars of Alexander.
Its chief
source was,
it
seems, Leo's
De
Froeliis,
concerned
with the long succession of wars that the Emperor waged against
;
yet they
and marvel.
Alexander
is
the
queen
is
Ammon
will
appear
to her,
302
chap.
boy indicate that he will be master of the world. He shows his right to rule by his signal success in taming the wild, carnivorous horse "Bucephalus
(Bulsifal).
He
on Nicholas, King
When
he
is
nobly received at
Darius, he wages a long war against him, which ends by his overcoming his
Porrus of India,
whom
he puts to
flight.
gigantic
strongly
his march. His return journey is marked by the many bewildering marvels that he encounters. All sorts of strange creatures and creations appear before him. Trees are seen that wax and wane
in a day, mysterious
cliffs
woods
filled
full
of crowned snakes,
silver address
him
in
The sun-tree of gold and the moon-tree of Mounted on Bucephalus, he has a great prophecy.
In an airtight glass vessel he descends into the sea.
fight
with
griffins.
The
aflbrd
rich
storehouse
;
him experience
due
he
:
is
trial.
at last, is
to treason
he
whom
mildly rebuked.
The
is
;
earth (in
;
some
made
to
quake
at his passing
away
the sun
darkened
he
is
moan
of thunder
buried in Alexandria in a
tomb
of gold.
The author of King Alisaunder considered the tale as " delicious " to listen to. He does not fail, however, to express
in a closing couplet his
In
one of the
alliterative
accessible to
ecclesiastic
historical
life
convey
information.
Dindimus maintains
is
that
the
contemplative
of his people
life
pursued by Alexander
and
his folk,
and
of the Greeks.
The
discussion
comes
no conclusion, and
with
the
is
deal
romantic
In
"
ROMANCE
a Scottish
303
the Most Noble and we have rather an
poem
Buik of
later career
he plays
three
more
or
less
conspicuous
:
part.
The work
contains
The Foray of Gadderis (Gadres, Gaza), The Avows of Alexander, and The Great Battle of Effesoun. The first is from the French Fuerre de Gadres, by one Eustace, probprincipal
divisions
and
1312, or earlier)
both
teenth century.
The Foray recounts an interesting conflict during the siege of Tyre between a detachment of Alexander's army under Emynedus and the host of Gaza under Betys, in whicli the Gaderan Gandifer especially distinguishes
himself by his heroism in maintaining the struggle most vigorously while his
fellows are beating a retreat.
The Grecians
is
are in a fair
way
to
be overcome
related
how
which
one
at
is
On and served at a fine repast. the repast makes a vow to behave valorously or nobly
later daintily dressed
each
in
one way or
poem
tells
how
in the
and how
their
festival.
Though
though
the
Buik
that
is
it
only extant in
print of
1580, and
this states
was composed
to
It is
work has John Barbour, on the evidence certain in any case that Barbour
in 1438, the
was thoroughly
his
Alexander
story.
He
compares
in valorous achievement,
Thomas
and
fought until
chivalry.
" noble
304
chap..
In fact, Alexander was particulariy popular in Scotland. Wyntoun, Lyndesay, and Blind Harry refer to him ; and, likewise in the fifteenth century (1494), Sir Gilbert Hay, at the instance of Lord Erskine, composed a poem about him (not yet published) containing some 20,000 lines in couplets. Hay was a cultivated
courtier,
tells us,
France
He
relates the
whole history of
Alexander from
to the Foray,
He
gives only
2500
lines
in the Bulk.
as vague, as
little
He
is
The
English and Scotch had no interest reputed connection with their national
in
life
They heard of the strange creatures that occupied India with the same absorbed interest that the travels of Sir John Mandeville once aroused. This, however, was a diversion pure and simple. Even as our curiosity takes us over and over again to see the
eccentric animals in a menagerie, so our ancestors, not favoured
like us
puzzlingly
When we remember
and experience
in
also
that
they
had
abundant
satisfaction
warfare,
perennially attractive
as in the past
still
;
now
tales of
ments
rivet
our attention
even to
this
day a name to
conjure with.
The matter
-Squire's Tale,
of the Orient
is
is
which
to
the
Moors bore
Spain,
Roi (1275-1283).
This
is
in // Penseroso
ROMANCE
Or call up him that left half-told The stoiy of Cambuscan bold, Of Camball, and of Algarsife. And who had Canace to wife,
That owned the virtuous ring and glass, And of the wondrous horse of brass On which the Tartar king did ride.
30S
The
is
Cambynskan (Kanghis Khan) by the stranger knight on behalf of his master, the king of Arabia and India, and certain underlying conceptions, such
as the belief in metempsychosis.
Marco
regret,
Polo,
is
essentially
lines,
a romance.
It
and
then,
much
to our
tale
suddenly breaks
:
off.
With
and
that of the
Knight
greatly enjoyed
late
"rhymes" of common
Other Romances
Byzantine and Early French
ReminiscentLegendary
We
have traced the history of the chief " matters " of romance
in
represented
English.
for
poems remain
Except
in a
are preserved.
S^jfi
ROMANCE
First
CHAP.
may be mentioned
is
the
originally
extant in an
It is
revealing
of
sentiment
at
which
rugged
it,
and
anything in
into
may have captivated them by its very unlikeness to their own experience. The tale was thrice translated
verse,
Middle English
is complete. It is the longest and one of the best-told tales of the Confessio Amantts, the one with which Gower chose to end his great thesaurus of moralised
fiction.
Chaucer,
it
will
be remembered, thought
it
an " unkind
abomination," a " horrible " story, and went out of his way to gibe at the " moral Gower " for rehearsing it. From Gower's poern,
was drawn.
differ
and Blanche-
which appeared
offers to
it a strange contrast. The hero is a youth who loves a young captive and almost dies of a broken heart when separated from her by his parents. After many vicissitudes the two are reunited and made happy.
Tristram and
of high station
story got to France, where the oldest literary and whence it spread to other lands, we are unable to say definitely. At all events, two distinct renderings appear
How
the
version exists,
The
earlier,
"aristocratic" one
boy ; the later, " popular " one as a bold fighter, an opponent of heathen kings, a
Oriental yield to Western impulses
It
action,
was the
ROMANCE
aristocratic version
307
into
English.
Similar
which Mr.
Andrew Lang
Who
'Tis
lovers met,
Of
And
Of his
Sweet the song, the story sweet. There is no man hearkens it,
No man
healed, but
is
glad,
'Tis so sweet.
In one redaction of Flores, the heroine is represented as the mother of Bertha, surnamed " of the big foot," the wife of Pepin, father of Charlemagne. Caught similarly in the eddy of Carlovingian tradition was the tale oi Parthenopeus de Blots, as contained
in the
and
yet so excellently
wrought that
it
The
tale is usually
and Psyche
romance.
but
it is
really quite
At bottom
fay's
it
The
is
tale itself
has
all
rationalised, to
Any one
familiar
with
3o8
ROMANCE
Yet we have not
this alone.
chap.
Parthe-
nopeus
is
beloved of the
knight, to
whom
it is
in the
queen Melior, an enraptured and desperate end comes transcendent joy ; he is also a
Count of
Blois, the
son of King
is
Clovis
and
Ardennes that he
hunting
when he
lady-love.
He
la
France ne
soit honie."
who
is
The
By
The
well
as
story of Parthenope
in
became popular
best
is
all
over Europe as
(in
England.
The
English version
rhymed
couplets),
but a fragment.
The
author,
to
who wrote
vouch
throwing
all
the responsibility
on the French
poet,
whose work he
tries to
reproduce exactly.
;
for
he
for
it
would seem,
Like most of the English translators of French he was willing to omit descriptive and other
delicate ornament.
Once,
he advises those
As
for
It
long, he urges,
lady that
is
of high degree
Arrayed
in the best
is
be.
The fairy boat of Melior, " Wanton Damsell " which " pleasant He "
it
carries
ROMANCE
More
swift than
309
Withouten care or
to guide,
the
wind
to fly
wondrous
mind," that
Alcinous
book of the Odyssey. Similarly nationalised was the Old French tale of Amis et Amiles, which appears in a thirteenth-century English redaction
to Ulysses in the eighth
commends
of
uncommon
interest.
This
is
We
in
trial
by
from his
own
life
land.
Accidentally he
way
which
his friend
can be cured
warned by an angel that the only by being anointed with the blood of
restores his friend to health.
them and
When
nothing
together in sorrow
Amis and
if
had happened.
The
story of
is really
a legend, in which
and Christian
it
is
paramount.
In one Old
geste.
French version
is
The
The
traitorous steward
It is the
who
Amis
offers
is
of Ganelon's kin.
As a
picture of
ancient
apart from
worth.
Much more
artificial
was the
we may
310
ROMANCE
The
practice of
Hugh
have no
less
8890
character,
Old French poems. Its most prominent feature is a magic staghunt, such as we meet in Marie's lay of Guigemar. Two independent metrical versions are extant
in
unique manuscripts of
his.
One
has some
10,000 lines in couplets, the other some 7000 in rhyme royal, the
inci-
dents of its original, the latter preserving more unity and proportion
but
less
easy in
style.
The
Norman poem
has disappeared.
On
Low
Degree,
likewise an
who
agrees to
She
will
him
for
seven years.
A
:
false
him
the youth
chamber
He
finally
when
upon when he comes to " undo "her she draws the bar, she discovers
is
set
lover, so hacked as to be unSadly she places the corpse in a chest, which she keeps by It appears, however, that it is her in her room, and refuses to be comforted. The Squire has slain the body of the steward on which she wastes her tears.
to be the
him, and yet has been permitted by the king to undertake his projected career. When, at the end of seven years, the princess is about to enter a
convent, the youth returns, famous from his wars in Lombardy, and relieves
her
distress.
They wed
merrily.
Low Degree
were exceedingly
ROMANCE
popular figures,
311
whom
despite
many
is
and power.
There
" exile
not
much
embodying the
and return
" motive,
;
practically no psychology
freshness of narration,
and because of
long
of birds, trees,
and armour, which the author enumerates with fond care and considerable skill. Here may be found material of value in reconstructing the luxurious life of
viands, wines, musical instruments,
pomp
of Lancastrian knights.
period, reminding
tale of the
same
same
life
are pre-
On
Solomon
the
and Ambrose
There was a
crystal
The
floor
was of clear
covered with
pall.
On
The
The
curtains of the
bed
And while included every dainty. Sir Degrevant partook, his winsome lady sat " harping notes full
ran on gold rings.
feast
sweet."
Thus they
slay care.
We
acter,
next
come
to a series of
Beves.
Guy of Warwick and Their popularity seems to have been very great among
people,
the
classes,
and perhaps among the inartistic higher their religious and warlike character. To us they are distasteful, if not ridiculous. It is unfair, however, to take them seriously, as so many literary historians do, as
no doubt because of
common
312
ROMANCE
chap.
when
They are
for the
ordinary minstrels,
whom
scorned.
The
majority of those
had no knowledge of
theatres.
better things.
many
some
city,
now
bewildering
Somewhat
metre and
dis-
command
of Sir
It
Humphrey de Bohun
originally
(cousin of
Edward
in
III.)
about 1350.
had
been written
for the
Countess Yolande of
who
Emperor
of Constantinople.
were most interested in events localised about the Mediterranean, and they read of fights with Saracens, of deeds of individual heroism, of amorous adventures, of intrigue, deceit, and marvel,
with the satisfaction of recalled experience.
Spain,
The chief hero of the romance is a werewolf, the heir to the throne of who has been transformed into this shape by a stepmother. He saves
King of Apulia, from murder, swims with him him on opportune
is
from
Rome
with the
princess Melior,
degree.
versed,
whose love he has woii while serving her as a squire of low William at last recovers his kingdom, has the werewolPs charm refor all
who
could be
made
to match.
tale of
The
appear
Sultan of Damascus, to keep him from devastating her father's realm, pre-
ROMANCE
tending to accept his
father's prayers to
belief.
313
is
Her
first
child
stillborn
it life
When
of face.
himself
made
fair
He
requires
all
his subjects to
embrace
his
new
faith or else
be hanged.
Five
all to
the glory of
God
of Laufs Tale
A legend akin
is
to that of
Constance
in the
Man
The
of the
former exists in
versions
of about
the
middle
may
rely
and good
also a
similar in character,
its
is
poem
false
theme.
Here
shame.
who
commit
rapine,
afford succour.
The
complications.
Miracles
still
more
Sir
Eglamour
only to discover on his return that, like Constance, she has been
put to sea in a rudderless boat, for bearing him a son before their This son, Degrabell, is carried away on the journey by marriage.
a
griffin.
When
he grows up, he
is,
Degare,
married to his mother, and almost consummates the unnatural alliance. At the festival tournament he unhorses every opponent
except his father Eglamour,
the delight of Christabel.
who
fortunately turns
up
just then, to
In Sir Isumbras
legend of Placidas
is
(St.
is
romance.
The hero
a knight humbled by
God
in every con-
314
ROMANCE
who
lives
ceivable way,
all
The Lord ruined his possessions, deprived him of his wife and children, made him endure exposure and hardship beyond measure, all apparently
things worked together for his spiritual good.
with
the
and
testing
his
patience.
resignation,
He
is
another Job,
who
and
and rich
lands.
Robert of
Sicily
inculcates
similar
doctrine
by the much
more
entertaining
who
pride
may be
sub-
dued.
one of the well-known Tales of the Wayside Inn, told there with full sympathy ; for, like the student he so agreeThis
is
lance.
And banner waves, and trumpet sounds. And ladies ride with hawk on wrist. And mighty warriors sweep along.
Magnified by the purple mist.
The dusk
From such
we
turn to heroes
clouded by romantic
fable.
Notably
this
own
picturesque king
Richard, that robb'd the lion of his heart,
And
On
7000
romance (over
long)
of Richard
Coer de Lyon.
perhaps
identical
with
that of
Alisaunder., having, at
all
events, the
same
He
too lived
in Kent.
ROMANCE
We
"
31
though, as the
is
full
good
'
to
hear."
No
tender spirit
incarnate."
Richard appears at times like what his opponents thought him, " the devil In one instance, for example, he gleefully prepares for the
Before
all his
placed platters with the heads of their relatives thereon steaming hot.
From
sit
the dish before him the king eats with good-will, while the messengers
petrified with horror.
set to.
He
tells all
them
that
it is
custom
to
have as a
first
when they show no appetite for the other dainties he puts before them. They bear back to their master the cannibal message, that since the English find the flesh of the Saracens more
heads
hot," and feigns astonishment
nourishing than any other, they do not intend to return to England until
their
all
The
an
made
race.
effort to explain as
due to
his having a
mother of unearthly
Complying with the urgent request of his barons that he take a bride, King Henry sends messengers in all directions to discover the fairest woman alive. While sailing on the sea, they meet a white boat most wonderful, in
which they recognise the lady they seek. The beautiful being therein, called Cassadorien, has been directed by a vision to make her way from Antioch to England. The king weds her gaily, and the two dwell together
happily for fifteen years.
daughter.
sons, Richard
retire
The
queen's custom
always to
mass.
malicious earl
comments on
daughter by the hand, and "out of the roof she gan her dight," openly
before
them
all.
John, however,
flee
falls
from the
air
and breaks
his thigh
but
The king
year
is
in sorrow
in his fifteenth
proclaimed
The
an
familiar
au Cygne appears
in part in
alliterative
English
poem
3i6
ROMANCE
The
English romance of Partenay preserves the tale of
Swan.
The
French
This version
from
the
Latin
is
prose account
of
Mdlusine by Jean
found
in
English prose.
But the deeds of Godefroy de Bouillon were presented in an work which discarded the fabulous notion of him as The Siege and Conquest of Jerusalem, by another Lohengrin. William, Archbishop of Tyre (i 175-1 184), gives in the main
historical
reliable information
lishments in the
text
on the First Crusade and the French estabHoly Land. A French version of the Latin was translated by Caxton and printed by him in 148 1.
By Caxton he was
most
Alexander, -and Csesar, and the three Jews, Joshua, David, and
regarded as
the
Nine
Each
and a
lines of distinction
One and
all
that
Three Ages, the writer takes them as his text for a homily on
the vanity and transitoriness of
human
things.
The
inclusion
for
it
of three Israelites
among
the Worthies
is
shows how the characters of Scripture were viewed in the Middle Ages, how all heroes were regarded as much The stories of the Old Testament and Apocrypha the same.
significant,
were popular
Bible,
ROMANCE
317
men.
If Joshua could If
make
still,
why not
Charle-
magne?
David could
slay the
Mont
St.
Michel or the
Demon
hostile
Cat of Lausanne ?
hosts
?
If
against
Bouillon
To
another
these
Nine Worthies,
du Guesclin
as a
(1320-80),
who
and was celebrated by the French Scottish Ballad of the Nine Nobles,
after writing
the mighty
King
Of England, Edward,
That occupied
twice in fight,
And sometimes was set so hard And had not six to him toward. The good men that these ballads read Deem who doughtiest was in deed.
Evidently there was good reason for thus associating Bruce
with the representative heroes of medieeval story;
delineation by
for
in
his
John Barbour, the only important Scottish writer of Chaucer's time, the colours of romance were freely employed. Barbour's famous poem is a very interesting illustration of the
could, be applied to the treat-
fable,
Then should stories that soothfast were. And they were said in good manner, Have double plesance in hearing.
3i8
ROMANCE
So Barbour begins j and throughout he shows his familiarity with the " delitabell " tales that we have here discussed. He
made prominent
might be thought to resemble the long celebrated worthies of the world, and enforced by definite comparison the likeness of his
exploits
to
theirs.
In
picturing
loyalty, bravery,
and
and respect
treatment
for
women
in
sum, chivalrous
nobility.
will receive fuller
later.
Barbour's work
Here
in
it
which
have done
literary
in mediaeval lore.
may
finally
be
romances were
greatly favoured, as
is
attested
by the
and
candin et
I' Orgueilleuse
d' Amour,
Vienne,
"the
These, and
others like them, are of a mediaeval type, but they took form
first
became potent
I.,
in
wrote a fantastic
St.
George of England,
St.
Denis of France,
St.
James of Spain,
Anthony of Italy, St. Andrew of Scotland, St. Patrick of David of Wales and their sons which has been described as " all the lies of Christendom in one lie.'' Richard Johnson also wrote The History of Tom h Lincoln, the Red Rose Knight; and of the same period are the popular prose tales, George ^ Green, Pindar of Wakefield, Thomas a Reading, Dr.
St.
Ireland, St.
MANCE
Faustus, Friar Rush,
etc.,
319
which Thorns,
James
I.
of Scotland
and
men
the period
Burke must have been stimulated by a romantic conception of when he wrote the following familiar words "The age of chivalry is gone Never, never more shall we
sex, that
proud submis-
which kept
freedom.
nations, the
alive,
even in servitude
itself,
life,
The unbought
grace of
cheap defense of
is
heroic enterprise
gone
while
It is
gone, that sensibility of principle, that chastity of a stain like a wound, which inspired courage
it
honour, which
it
touched,
all its
half
its
evil
by losing
CHAPTER
TALES
VI
The
is
most
delightful
and abiding
literature of the
Middle Ages
narrative.
the
drama
is
in its swaddling-clothes
but
or
It
may be popular
ballad
or
of
worthies
of
the
Church, secular or
religious
in separate forln,
unquestioned sway.
We
have studied
stories of
termed romance,
extended
We now
was
ated,
embodiment
and
in
and
what
their nature,
much
more we
are
amazed
popular
We
is
pened
impossible to obtain.
320
TALES
321
Oriental Tales
It
many
tales
popular in the
West originated
Three
:
at least of the
Canterbury
endeavour
tale of
to gain Kiiig^s
which each
loses his
life
(compare Kipling's
;
The
Ankus)
and
In no case
is
Dame
merchant
Sirith
an Oriental
tale,
Henry
fair in
III.
how, while a
rejects
absent at the
clerk,
Boston, his
wife
the
advances of a
but
is
later
belief in metempsychosis.
told
in a clever, jovial
style
Similar in character
Adam
Cobsam's entertaining
tale of
(fifteenth
his steward,
parish church, try to win the love of the Wright's wife, but are
made
The
was chaste.
It
was to
test
that each of the three suitors tried to bribe the lady to his desires.
This
tale in
chastity-test
lovers has
many
parallels
one
is
reminded
in
Spenser
in the second,
many
Eastern
tales
i),
Decameron
(ix.
Lady
Prioress
and her
Y
322
TALfiS
CHAP.
The Friar
Well-Fitted.
tale
em-
bodying the world-wide belief in " the thankful dead." It turns on the law (that Herodotus tells us existed among the Egyptians)
Emphasis
is
laid
upon the
virtue
of fulfilling troth
plighted, in a
way
It is interesting to observe that the story of Dame Sirith was transformed by a contemporary into an " interlude," De Clerico et
was put
of
in
German
fastnachtspiel by
The Wright's Chaste Massinger's Picture and Fatal Dowry. Sometimes tales of shrewdness and
romance.
hero
In Sir Cleges, a short
Hans Sachs. The themes Wife and Sir Amadace appeared later
wit took
on the guise of
poem
of
King
knight.
is
humble prayer,
his
head catches
a.
bough
fruit.
Dame
is
disposed of in
way of accomplishing revenge. When the delighted Uter asks him to name his own reward, he asks for twelve strokes and these he then dispenses to the grasping steward and his fellows, much to the
advance, he takes a witty
;
On
of Beryn, written in English early in the fifteenth century by an anonymous author, who, like Lydgate, foolishly tried to continue
the
Canterbury Tales.
He
explains
in
a prologue
how
the
VI
TALES
first
323
on the
return journey.
The main
who
countercharges of wit.
game
all
of chess to a
The
the prosecution, agrees that Beryn shall drink the salt water, but
that all the fresh water running into the sea
requires
be separated from
it.
Again he
who
find in a certain house. The house appears empty when they enter, but the cripple lets loose two butterflies in it, and secures heavy damages because the prosecutor cannot secure five ship-loads of
what he can
Fabliaux
Occasionally of Oriental origin are the merry tales in verse
known
century,
as
"fabliaux,"
in
the
Middle Ages.
they enjoyed
and
literature.
of
whom
are
English verse,
it
is
Though only a few fabliaux are certain that many were composed.
extant
This
it
was
The fabliaux offer a striking contrast to legends and romances. They are not chivalric and courtly, but bourgeois and rough they
;
and
is
their
primary object
to
evoke
;
laughter, to
but
they
do not inculcate
waggish.
ethics
their
satire
is
amiable,
;
their
moral
They
are,
no detailed
324
TALES
CHAP.
and hears no more than enough. Characteristic, furthermore, is their attitude towards women. The fair lady heroines of romance are supercilious, haughty, cruel, when they wish, but
valiant warriors delight
to
;
serve
them
they are
is
all
endowed
are
charm
their
worship
an established and
honourable cult
women
husbands
if
men
necessary
evil.
The
cynic
Meung.
If one would reconstruct mediaeval society accurately, if one would learn of the actual surroundings and occupations of the
Chaucer
obliged to relate
some of them to portray suitably certain Then in the real world were as marked
The
with
moved
bowed
The
Palamon and
Arcite with the vulgar anecdotes of the Miller and the Reeve, the
tale of the Prioress with that of the
and
one
Say what
Chaucer chose
the pilgrims.
makes
Of the
he remarks
;
But
for the
moste
Ne
who
resented
it
VI
TALES
325
a carpenter, a
of his own trade. When, moreover, he ("and harlotrye they tolden bothe two"), he gave such satisfaction that the cook " for joy clawed him on the back."
retorted in kind
.
man
The
is
earliest extant
English fabliau
(if
such
it
a short
poem
somewhat Cokaygne
and
coarse, satire
it
one
finds in the
Summoner's Tale.
Here
The
and
is
found everywhere.
It
may
his
The poem
doubtless
many
to laughter, without,
we
fear,
leading them to
mend
is
their ways.
How a
Merchant did
which served to show how a man can be " penny wise and
pound
foolish."
A merchant who has neglected his wife for a fascinating mistress, is given by the former a penny with which to purchase wit abroad. For this he gets To the advice how to test his lemman's devotion, in contrast to his wife's. former he comes in apparent distress, and is cast out while the latter takes He recovers the ricli presents he has bestowed on pains to comfort him.
;
them
her
penny.
They
live afterwards
happily together.
Of
The Miller of Abyngdon (in tail-rhyme strophes), extant also in two Old French, two German, and one Latin form, as well as Like nearly all the English fabhaux, in the Decameron (ix. 6). La Fontaine Chaucer's poem is derived from a French source.
drew
his version
from Boccaccio.
326
TALES
Other " merry
jests " in
CHAP.
Boy
how
the
latter,
made a
friar
ste]>
How a
slain
Plowman
names of
:
forty
poor
who one
;
after
another
Amen
Basin,
how
John and
;
his
stuck fast
soon
it
who could
in one
fifteenth
form or another a very widespread and amusing narrative. Perhaps with the idea of parodying chivalric poems, or of
burlesquing knightly practices,
were written
in
the
century The Tournament of Totenham, The Felon Son and the Friars of Richmond, and The Hunting of the Hare. In the last
a whole community of
common
The
that
Tales, with
Pious Tales
Attention
may
tales,
VI
TALES
327
the
;
work of monks
they
fostered
;
These
tales
relied
on credulity
superstition
but
Quite as
much
as any other
body of
narra-
Hterature, they
may be
tion
to
and
revision.
Their value
their
in the
is
not
be measured by
Most numerous
once
those
written.
Our Lady.
Only
a collection of forty-two
in
all
gone.
Of
are
some
up enmity
how a Jew put his son into a burning oven because he communed with Christian children at Easter, and how the brands were as a bed of flowers to him by the care of Another is of the young scholar who so exasperated the Virgin.
of these
tells
One
certain Jews by his singing of Alma Redemptoris Mater that they murdered him and concealed his body, but to their own shame ; for the crime was discovered and the boy miraculously restored
tale, it will
There was no
who
help,
served her.
if
Even
Ave
Marias.
For
this
reason
who
monk
after
in serious peril.
how
lady that he loved another (meaning the Virgin) more than her, and
wife's jealousy
cliiklren.
all to life
;
how
the
raised
by the
devil
so that she
her
to the restoration of
was turned
when
328
scourged by the angels.
sikerly
TALES
This the poem teaches
:
CHAP.
" There
shall
no
man
do aught
for
The Knight
v^ife
also reveals the Virgin opposing the wiles of the devil, rescuing
peril.
The knight in extreme poverty pledges his gifts. When, unwitting of harm', she is
confalls
on
is
to the meeting.
in his pre-
makes oiif in angry dismay. Mary gives the man wholesome advice, which he afterwards follows. They find the lady still In asleep on their return, unaware of what has happened in her behalf. various other semblances (as a midwife, for example) Mary was thought to
sence
the Virgin and
To
told.
inculcate
many
pious tales
are
Outlaw gives an account of an " errant thief" who haunted the wild wood-shaws, and how he and his The Hermit and
One Good
what he
shall
do
to be saved.
Moved by the vicar's sermon, he inquires One after another, however, he rejects the
last
The
vicar,
guided by heaven, asks him what he hates most, and the outlaw
agrees to absolve
replies
him
if
he goes without water for a day. The outlaw departs merrily, but is soon overcome by a terrible thirst. The devil in the disguise of winsome wenches
several times offers
him
to drink,
Finally, in despair,
his thirst,
and bleeds
to death.
The hermit
sees the
happy throng as they pass his abode, and marvels exceedingly. If this, he murmurs, is the way to get to heaven, he will abandon his asceticism and be an outlaw too. But an angel reproves him sternly, and shows him that he must persevere as he has begun. In the end he shares his brother's bliss.
poem
(in
tail -rhyme
a combination of two
teaching
is
The
evidently
joy in
who need no
repentance."
VI
TALES
first
329
The
part
is
lord,
having refused
in
all
whom he
to
a haughty mood, at
undertakes
for shrift
When
still
he finds
filled.
that no water will go into the bucket there, he vows not to rest until
it is
For a year he wanders restlessly, but to no avail. The bucket empty, when the next Good Friday he humbly seeks the hermit good man shows him the folly of his pride. And the first
repentance that the knight
carry his soul to heaven the
lets fall
fills
remains
again.
The
Angels
tear of true
same day.
On
means of blotting out even the blackest guilt is emphasised to our distaste and disapproval in the Tale of the Incestuous Daughter,
who,
after a long succession of horrible crimes, is
redeemed
just
before death.
Apparently
it
to give such
The
by the
duties,
virtue of
good
deeds,' the
of The
how
covetous father,
who on
and neglected
hell
his religious
by the
self-sacrifice
of
his son,
who
and
restored his
sire's ill-gotten
gains to those he
had
injured
The
son's piety
In
this connection,
though
it
Ghost of
may be mentioned the story Guy, an English poem of the second quarter
It is
The
of the
a miracle of a
after his death
spirit
appeared shortly
dead
shown by the
spirit's
declaration
of relief thereby.
Grotesqueness
is
33
TALES
The Smith and
popular
his
CHAP.
contes devois.
Dame,
the
for
comic situations
it
among
common
folk.
It relates how the Lord, to subdue the pride of a boastful Smith, shows His own superior power by forging the Smith's hideous old mother-in-law into a beautiful woman, and how the Smith tries to do the same for his wife.
When,
in the
is
restored to
and has made her unrecognisable and fairness by the Lord, to whom
The
class
MS.
shows how early they were put into English, but most of the
are extant only in late forms.
immense,
their
influence
evades
fully,
calculation.
would
them the
ideas, style,
Among
we
call
all
Aboriginal man,
own
nature,
and told
qualities
tales
in
like his
uncivilised,
whether in
all
origin
mythical
or
totemistic, are
tales,
however,
Beast-fables
Among
The
known as
500
a.d.
\}ivtjatakas, or
Buddhist Birth
form
till
Many
VI
TALES
331
perpetuated by the
The Greek
known.
most
that
personage of
the fables
whom
nothing exact
Many, however, of
Babrius,
now known
Roman
known
to
translation of
Avianus
many
West in a redaction which bore the name of Romulus, the work purporting to have been prepared by an emperor of that
name
for
It
.^sop, as
combined others
England
in the
One form
known
its
as the Ysopet. to
The composition
Alfred,
of this English
King
but
evidently
only to
heighten
authority.
French
later,
Odo
his
of
Sheriton
(Wales?) gathered
which was
much used by
No
The
seven fables he
tells,
and
their
prologue, together occupy about 900 lines, "and are written in the
.Troilus stanza.
version,
a Latin
in learned allusion
and
digression,
332
TALES
in
CHAP.
become conspicuous
1377, and that of "
English poems,
as, for
example, that of
number
Howlate
plumage
(145
1).
A fable that
far
lies
at
Buke of
the
In Scotland, by
Henryson appears
Caxton's book
Wynkyn de Worde,
of fables (1494)
is
Esopi Fabulae,
in 1504.
of the
1480.
German
Steinhowel's collection
part from
text,
comes from several sources, a large Romulus and Avianus, and a portion from the Greek
in Italy.
It
was reserved
for
La Fontaine (1621-95)
we
and behaving
tales
like
them.
by
little
separate allegorised
were brought together to form the Romance of Reynard the Fox, a satirical picture of society as viewed by the middle parody on the conventions and complications
as
of ordinary
life.
Originating perhaps
a semi-didactic work in
Flanders,
it
Germany, and
in
On
the basis
the middle
Roman van
German
and amplified
and
finally
appeared
in
Low
Caxton
VI
TALES
and printed one of the
is
333
late prose versions in
translated
148 1.
modern embodiment
full
of
The Roman de Renart is certainly a captivating work, good-humoured fun and sly suggestion. Men's foibles
satire.
are
laid
merry, conscious of its growing power and awakened to independent sentiment," but not disposed to sneer. Light-heartedly
the
common
ills
of
life,
and laughed
applaud-
away discomfort.
ing wit.
They
forgot their
own
afflictions while
Reynard is the centre of the little epic. His name is derived from the German Reinhardt, meaning " strong in counsel," and he
justifies
it
by
his conduct.
His cunning
is
superb.
equally
and
will call
most
readers.
like,
The framework
are imitations of
and the
of men.
The
per-
The French
sway
;
upper
classes,
to extend their
we can
And
classes for the most part either aped the taste of the nobility or
were
satisfied with
rude accounts of
fight
and vulgar
jests.
They
At
Hood.
Odo
334
TALES
;
chap.
etc.
that,
poem
the Wolf.
The anonymous
independence of
effect.
the
taste.
meet one hen than half a hundred women," and he hopes to gratify Entering an enclosure, he sees a cock seated on a perch with
He
he then makes his way to a well, where are two buckets, so arranged that when one goes down the other goes up. He leaps into one to get a drink, and down it moves. All He sees he is caught, his thirst vanishes ; the water seems to him to stink.
Being sore
athirst,
and begins
famished.
to
weep.
He
hears Reynard's
The
care,
his neighbour, the wolf Sigrim, also and inquires the cause of his condition. no pain, no enjoying the bliss of Paradise
whether
dead
"No," says the fox, "but I have abandoned the sorrowful world, and come down here where all is joy, and where there is plenty to eat." This stirs the " Well," replies Reynard, " were wolf, who begs to be allowed to join him.
you well shriven, and determined
to live a pure life, I
might be permitted to come hither.'' The wolf recounts his sins to the fox, who acts as confessor, even the sin he has committed against the latter in
clierishing towards liim ill-will because
wife.
he has seen
goes
tlie
The
Down
wolf,
his neighbour farewell ; he is glad he has Poor Sigrim finds he will have masses said for his soul. " Frogs had kneaded his dough. " His hunger presses, and nothing to eat. But the latter pays no attention, and makes off in glee. he curses the fox.
Reynard bids
come
to
a clean
life
The
friars,
The
chief steward
goes out to the well for water, draws up the bucket, sees the grim wolf within,
takes
him
With staves and spears he was y-stung The fox bikerd (deceived) him,, mid y-wis. For he ne found no kind of bliss, Nor of dints forgiveness.
V!
TALES
In the author of
this
33S
poem we have
in
a worthy predecessor of
Chaucer,
who
also
found
some epic
story of the
Reynard cycle
and of the yard with its fence or hedge, the dialogue between the cock and the hen after the dream, and the lament of the hens.
to
be found
in the
it
fable tradition.
is
The humour
That
as the
poet's
that dazzles
and
delights us throughout
Chaucer's own.
is
known
we may
well believe.
But the
in the extreme.
He manages
to
to invest
strange dignity,
and
make
the situation
No
our enjoyment
of
the
situation.
Yet Pertelote
as gay
is
as
ing
and
fair.
Likewise Chauntecleer
is
and fresh as a
squire, as gallant
and
flattering as a troubadour.
And
it
withal of
insinuating wit.
have attained
for in his
its finest
treat
as a
whole
it
who
first
endowed
with real
From
early times
qualities
They
are
all
among
far
the Christians of
First and wide. and thence into current in Greek, it was later turned into Latin, a Germanic version in The oldest the vernaculars of the West. language is the Anglo-Saxon poem on The Panther and the Whale
Alexandria,
(perhaps
it
work of considerable
literary point
poetic merit.
Far
less
important from a
of view
TALES
chap.
Queen Adelaide
le Clerc,
is
Guillaume
Anglo-Norman Philippe de Thaiin, written and that of the Norman which appeared after 12 10. The Middle
English Bestiary
some 800
main on a Latin Fhysiologus; by one Theobald, but its style is much less dry and dull. In addition to the original twelve sections on the lion, eagle, adder, ant, hart, fox, spider, whale, merman, elephant, turtle, panther, it has another (probably taken from Alexander Neckham's De Naturis Reruni)
based
in the
on the
morally.
culver, or dove,
To
on the
The
illustrate the
we may
lion
lion stands
born
still
and
stirs
The
third
custom the
of his eyes.
lion hath,
when he
is
lies to sleep,
he
is
Signification
Well high
kingdom of heaven.
pleased
Our
Lord
is
the lion
who liveth
thereabove.
Yet when
it
on earth, the devil might never know though he hunted came down, nor how He dwelt in that mild maiden, Mary by name, who bore Him to the profit of men. When our Lord was dead and buried, as His will was, He lay still in a stone till the third day. His Father aided Him, so that He rose then from the dead to keep us alive. According to His pleasure, He
watches as a shepherd
shield us if
for his flock.
He
is
shepherd
we
are sheep.
He
will
so that
we go nowhere
astray.
Elephants
mountains in body.
fold.
.
. .
get
up
with.
;
How
he
is
animal
rests,
hearken,
how
it
tells
.tree,
here
for
unwieldly.
it
confidently,
to
and underprops
it
VI
TALES
it
337
sits
not aware of
when he
returns.
He
himself
alone,
leans
If no
upon
his side,
is
Then comes
tree in the
this
man
there
when he
he roars and
him
it
no whit. He brother. Many and mickle come running there, strive to raise him but for all their help he may not get up. Then they roar all with one roar like the blast of a horn, or the sound of i bell. For their mickle roaring, a youngling comes running, bends quickly to him, puts his snout under him, and with the help of them all he raises the elephant erect who thus escapes this hunter's
accomplish
;
Then comes an animal there, hopes and struggles with all his might but he can can do then nothing else than roar with his
to rise.
;
have described.
Thus fell Adam through a tree our first father. That we Moses wished to raise him ; no one might accomplish it. After Moses, all the prophets no one might raise him where he stood before, to have the good kingdom of heaven. They sighed and sorrowed, and were in thought how they might help him up. They all roared with one voice, all on high to heaven. For their care and their calling, Christ, the king of heaven, came to
Signification
:
feel.
them, became
man
here,
little,
manhood,
fallen
and thus
He
went under Adam, raised him up, and mankind, that had
to dark hell.
" Glosyng
Yet,
is
full
absurd as most
influence
of the Fhysiologus
all sorts
undoubtedly
its
immense
sculpture
tion.
on
of
it
vi^riting,
as well as
on symbolic
and
painting,
makes
it
The
and
notions that
contains were
perpetuated in
much
secular
Collections
to
have
all
knowledge and
and
literary enter-
compendiums, corpuses, books and biography, and mythology of dictionaries selections, of All these existed in abundance centuries before encyclopedias.
modern times
to invent manuals,
338
TALES
chap.
We
saints,
remember how
in very early
times ecclesiastics
made
sums
"
collections
of theological and ethical teaching. We have seen how fables were gathered together, fabliaux united in jest-books, and pious
tales zealously
amassed.
collections of narrative
Now we must consider certain other and biography that were prepared with a
distinct
more or
Among
these,
one
in
which
and on
is
the other, the whole body of the Canterbury Tales, where each
follows
by
constructed connecting-links.
Both
styles
of composi-
The
show
type.
skill in
Of the
matters
far
Romanorum may be
taken as a
unsettled.
But the date of the collection cannot be and for the idea an ;
number of
Englishman seems to deserve the credit. To be sure, the the stories and the make-up were greatly altered in Continental redactions!, ~ and these were the only ones to be
;
When
thus imported
insufficient
The
to provide
At
VI
TALES
this
339
first
object was
of.
To
every story a
Such
It
tales,
must be
however, that
this
was no great
any
narrative,
One
example.
sufficiently well
The Tree that Bore Good Fruit, will indicate how far-fetched the symbolism of the inter-
growing
then
in
my
my
third.
wretchedness?"
"I
marvel that
Give me,
my
man
and ever
his estate.
Application
My beloved,
the tree
is
The man's
three
and
ought to be
is
He who
solicited
any
good
Christian,
This
of
tale,
told
by Cicero
in his
its
De
insertion
a book bearing
the
Gesta
Romanorum
times.
at first
happened
in
Roman
added
from every source, from secular and ecclesiastical traditions, from books of natural history, fables, and chronicles. Often the tales contrast markedly in spirit and tone, in localisation and age.
This
variety, however, preserved
to
men
in
any iood.
was
in the
But
made more
We
have three
340
TALES
'
CHAP.
Henry VI.
Soon
after 1510,
an Elizabethan hack-writer, Richard Robinson, made another, which was reprinted frequently, and passed into everybody's
hands.
doubt.
It
That Shakspere knew the Gesta there can be little included the stories of the Merchant of Venice, Lear,
Indeed,
and
Pericles.
many prominent
use of
it,
English writers
from
and on the Continent men as different in time and spirit as Boccaccio and Schiller. Boccaccio, though famed now chiefly as the writer of the
Gower
to Walpole
made
Virorum
et
among these were two, the De Feminarum lUustrium and the De Claris
The monk declares that he has in his cell a book of a hundred " tragedies," which he implies were arranged in chronological
order.
Of
these, however,
strict plan.
ing to no
He
Adam, Samson,
told of
a work that
to
no more) formed a late insertion into Chaucer had earlier begun but lacked incentive
continue.
as
He
humorously
the
represents
the
Tale of
the
Monk
narration
interrupts
reciter
in
the
interest
of the
fatigued company.
once again, when Chaucer's him 'to abandon a work which did not commend itself to him after he had proceeded with it a short way, his disciple Lydgate, less sensitive and more plodding.
It
artistic
VI
TALES
341
De
but he had
it
before
him
in
a French version
of
ecclesiastic
Troyes.
The
Falls of Princes
is
the
best of
The
Mirror for Magistrates, by Sackville, Baldwin, and others, was a later series of "piteous tragedies," probably suggested
by
it.
In the
De
women.
Legend of Good Women agrees with that of the Italian writer in the general scheme of narrating the lives of many heroines, chiefly
of antiquity, without connecting-links, but united by an intro-
ductory prologue.
author
queen,
states, in
a time of
dedicated unobtrusively to a
last
whom
legend.
whom
he desired
particularly to
his
material from
for his
Boccaccio's compilation
but he
shows esteem
From another
the
may be
added,
De
Genealogia
Deorum Gentilium
also
et
Heroum, a dictionary of
introduced
in
mythology,
Chaucer
gleaned
information
various places.
The number
kind
from which English writers could and did draw so large that it is difficult to determine the exact source in any
very large,
particular instance.
tive tales in
illustra-
sermons were
but later
When
preaching to
the laity
342
to help in their preparation
TALES
CHAP.
most
Among the became very great. Exempla of Jacques de Vitry (ff. 1240),
i^tienne
de Bourbon
(t
c.
1261).
The
latter
Map and
'
Of
Latin sermon-books by
Predicantium of John Bromyard of Hereford (t 1418), which contains a very large number (about a thousand) of exempla in topical arrangement, drawn from almost every sort of book accessible to a man with a well-stored library at his command. Historical rather than
the
Summa
Bromyard of the Dominican order, and professor of theology at From his book of commentaries, Super Libras Sapientiae, as we have seen, Chaucer appears Ma have derived some material for the tales of the Nun's Priest and Pardoner. The use of such " sermones parati " appears to have been very detrimental to the style of mediaeval preachers, whose sermons were often little more than a series of anecdotes. Dante complains of those who " go forth with jests and buffooneries to preach, and swell with pride if they can but raise a laugh.'' Gautier de
Oxford.
non opera regum, vel Renardi, vel Wycliffe insists that when Christ bade His disciples go fabulas." into all the world to preach, their message was to be the Gospel
"audiebat verba
oris eius,
story of Troy.
The example-books,
of mediaeval writers.
resist the
for
him
the
Pardoner in
this
practice,
illustrated the
methods of the
common
sermoniser,
who
justified his
VI
TALES
many
343
samples
reason,
no doubt
Lewed people
In the Franklin's
who
more.
So
or
last
the tendency to
make
every one,
it
human
is
superhuman,
man
grows at
some-
The
tale,"
with
many
digression
and
illustration,
blasphemy and
Under
many
of
There were
a
also
works
ployed.
One
poem
that
we
shall presently
number of
stories of all
Deadly
Gower's Confessio Amantis, one of the largest bodies of narrative a discourse on verse in the English language, is in plan similar
different
God
of Love.
Gower was
with the
familiar
not
Roman
La
344
TALES
chap.
many
author had collected for him by two priests and two clerks.
are of
all
They
than
sorts,
some
it
fit
An
Henry VI.
script.
is
extant in an elegant
in 1484.
manu-
The
knightly
author states that he also wrote a similar work for the guidance of
his
two sons
No
doubt
it
courtesy.
The
amusing was that of the Seven Sages of Rome, which merits our more particular attention because one of the earliest Middle
English poems
is
based on
it
lines long, of
There
and they
its
differ
another.
in
this
the
same
and
its final
ethical
on
to
their
women's
On
been a prey
Sages
these
all
men
him
to their advantage.
two
varieties, tales of
to
The Emperor Diocletian of Rome is said to have had a young son, Valenwhom, when the empress dies, he commits to the care of Seven Wise They pursue Masters, that hg may be well instructed in all arts and sciences.
tine,
vj
TALES
and as a
result the
345
youth becomes excep-
tionally wise.
young
woman
of great beauty, who, eager to see the heir to the throne, and jealous
of his position,
Learning by
life
meeting
have
to be contrived
him against
The
situation
is
Becoming enamoured of Valentine, she acts towards and when her advances are rejected, accuses the prince of insulting her and of plotting the emperor's death. Diocletian in anger pronounces on his son a judgment of death, but is dissuaded from
mother's interference.
him
having
tells
it
who
him a warning example of woman's cunning. What is accomplished by the wise man in the day is undone by the wife in the evening by a story she tells to the discredit of counsellors. Thus time and again for seven days the emperor's mind is altered under conflicting influence. The empress relates seven tales, each of the wise men one, until finally, on the seventh day, when
the sentence
vailed, the
is
arts
and denounces
sufi'ers
the perfidy of the empress, who, being unable to deny his accusations, the hard fate decreed at her instigation for the prince.
The
is
fairly stable
wherever the
the
book appears,
notable
is
East or West.
But
all
in
certain respects
the Western.
The most
the fact that the youth has only one preceptor, the
is
tells
two
and only one in the Western. When we leave the framework and come to examine the stories themselves, we observe at once The two groups have only four tales in common. great diversity.
And
even
in
Of the Western
oldest preserved,
The
the so-called
long French
poem
it.
stories are
346
TALES
story)
chap.
swan-maiden
The
Sept Sages
This comprises
Though
with twice as
many
?)
lines.
A
later
Latin re(c.
Romae, had
1330
a tremendous vogue, not only in France but also in of Europe, particularly Germany.
several late English versions,
many countries
On
it
The
poem
is
as yet
undetermined.
It
them
The
streams
Ocean of the Rivers of. enough in colour to be easily detected, but they took up in their course through Western lands elements of diverse appearance, and the
Story " (as one Eastern collection
is
result
-is
complex.
whose
son cut
head
to conceal his
own
guilt.
Another
form by Moliere.
The Decameron
In
it
is
the setting
is
more
made.
and
artistic,
tale
more
fair
skilfully
During the
terrible
plague of 1348,
as
seven
and gentle
by the author
VI
TALES
With them they take three
friends
347
distant.
of
tlie
stronger
minds disagreeable thoughts of surrounding sorrow by the telling of tales. Each one of the party has a story to tell on each of
the ten days that the entertainment
lasts.
Chaucer was acquainted with Boccaccio's great book, strange though the fact may be. He had plenty of suggestion in other collections of stories if he had
is
There
no evidence
that
needed any
all
to guide
him
For
in his
work
far surpasses
is
parallels
The
a real
to the
is
a saint's
life
experience.
poet's
The Canon's Yeoman's may be based on The greatness of Chaucer's works is not due power of invention, but to his human sympathy and
his characters,
genial
and
to the wonderful
melody of
his verse.
tales as
all in
rhyme.
But
classic dignity,
it
and
would not
prose
to collect
known.
The
last.
variegated
known
as
the
Cento
in Italy a large
realistic
tellers
of wonderful
Mention need here be made of the names of only a few whose novels were current in England Ser Giovanni Fiorentino, Poggio, Bandello, Cinthio, and Straparola all of whom, and more, con:
tributed to a work
influential
in
determining
the
themes of
EUzabethan
dramatists,
namely,
By
and
1/
348
TALES
chap, vl
In Italian
many of
his fellows,
hesitation seized the available treasure. The French, among whom the fabliaux had arisen, having meanwhile adopted the new manner and material, maintained their old position as
and without
It
Queen of Navarre,
much
of the
The communicated to the Middle Ages thus provided for future generations a supply of
production was
English.
fiction that
In
pared
this for
how
fabliaux pre-
pious
tales
anticipated mysteries,
It will
and novels
presently
be seen how
Legends of the Robert of Sicily type were early acted in public, and other romantic themes of many sorts were recast in dramatic form. The origins of the drama we shall not attempt to trace
here
;
but
it
is
in place to
all
churchly even in
very early times, and that the methods of the stage were a popular
growth.
CHAPTER
VII
historical works
Chronicles
In the Middle Ages, went hand
authority.
in
far
history
and romance
hand.,
The most
scientific^Tiistory" contained'
A prevailing
belief in miracles
and
special dispensa-
documents
of popular tradition not really susceptible of disproof, and the acceptance of fanciful stories natural as an act of
faith.
made The
rhymed
little
significance
as compilations of fact.
as
well
students of the
English language,
will
For a proper
inde-
be viewed
chroniclers
interesting
in
is
laity
Nevertheless,
hold their
own
with their
Norman
prototypes,
and (comprising,
form important
when taken
together, a vast
number of
349
lines) they
35
HISTORICAL WORKS
It
chap.
Conquest,
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
His work
is
was
at the
least
potent in
its
All that
son of Leovenath.
May
the
Now
prayeth
Layamon
for
the Almighty
God
forth,
each good
man
book and
learn this
counsel that he say together these soothfast words for his father's soul
who
brought him
for his
and
it
soul
!
who
own
soul that
be the
better.
Amen
A simple-hearted man, we observe, tender and devout, a sincere book-lover, an honest scholar, a faithful son. Evidently Layamon worked not for promotion or favour,
unmistakable wise.
not at the instigation of a patron in power, but for the love of
vii
HISTORICAL WORKS
His
office
35'
little
this retirement
began
The
basis of the
Brut
(for so
of living force.
his work,
after
clearly
Wace's
Monmouth.
From
little
anything.
He
was unaware that the English Bede was connected with King
Alfred,
and by mistake
the
(for
ascribed
Latin
original
Albin and
St.
Augustine.
Pope Gregory and the English slaves in Rome, nothing seems to have been drawn from Bede in any form. We have no evidence that he was a man of much learnUnless
it
be the
tale of
ing.
He
all
acquire,
and he gleaned
found
it
he
finally
both subjects
is
But great
the
them
in
manner and
lives.
spirit, as
well as in the
Wace was
Norman,
no way
life,
who had
Layamon,
we can
tell,
was an Englishman,
in
Wace
was a writer by profession, who never lost and eagerly expected a reward. Layamon,
Brut, was actuated
chiefly,
undertaking his
he wrote anything
elegance,
else.
Wace's narrative
courtly
is
refinement,
and
sentiment;
Layamon's by
and simple zeal. Wace is cool and conIf Wace was ventional ; Layamon emotional and unrestrained. influenced by his Norman environment in his presentation of
earnestness, strength,
352
HISTORICAL WORKS
chap.
British history,
the
his work. Wace's models were the metrical romances of the French; Layamon's the epic songs of Old
style
of
England, the
Wace and
that of
clearly than in
To Wace
of knights,
Layamon, on the
contrary, envisaged
him
in the light of
He was of great
will,
and
who demanded
but
Layamon
interesting
An
English touch appears in his account of the fight with the giant
of
Mont
Michel.
Geoffrey and
Wace
represent Arthur as
fair
play in any
when
he remarks
able deed.
that Arthur
woke him
first
Arthur
now should
unbecomingly
in
Around him was gathered a body of Layamon appear as the comitatiis of a Germanic chieftain, rather than as the fellowship of knights-errant who in French romance occupied seats at the Round Table.
maintained his dignity.
men who
It is
in Arthur's career,
to
his
wars of
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
353
conquest,
represent
him
as
a national
whom Englishmen
might boast.
Layamon's attitude
marvellous king.
sisters,"
He
is
the
first
to record
how
the three
"weird
his
fate.
He
introduces
wounds by Argante (Morgain), queen, and makes both him and Merlin utter the
The scene of Arthur's death, reminding one in some features may be given in the poet's own words, thus modernised by Sir Frederic Madden
of Bdowulf's,
Then was
in the fight of his knights.
two hundred thousand men but Arthur the King and two of Wondrously much was Arthur wounded. There came to him
of his kindred
;
:
a youth
who was
Him
;
field
" Con-
welcome
in
my
the
kingdom.
and hold
them
all
my
And
Avalon, to the
of
all
elf
most
beautiful.
And
she shall
kingdom and dwell with the words there drew near from the
make me all come again to my Even with these Britons with mickle joy."
sound,
make my wounds
And
afterwards 1 will
sea a
little
;
and they took Arthur anon and two women therein wondrously formed Then bare him to the boat and laid him down softly, and departed away. was accomplished what Merlin whilom said, that mickle grief should attend Arthur's forthfaring. The Britons believe yet that he is alive and dwells in
Avalon with the fairest of all elves, and the Britons still ever look for Arthur There is no man born of woman that can of sooth say more of to return.
Arthur.
(his sayings
Britons.
354
HISTORICAL WORKS
Dwelling as he did on the Welsh marches,
chap.
Layamon was
in
the
expand
Wace.
The most
significant
of
additions,
his
elaborate account
Round
Table,
of
in
his
neighbourhood.
of
Seldom, however,
far as fact
Wace
important so
is
concerned.
Where
in the altered
new
spirit.
Wace made
rhetorically
Geoffrey's
History of
the
Kings of
Britain
less
impersonal,
more
vivid.
More than
Geoffrey
he
described
in
scenes
as
an eye-witness,
warriors
modern guise. He made them speak oftener in person, and act more like men of his own age. Layamon was equally realistic in his own way. Anachronisms troubled him no whit more. He was determined to make his characters live real in the eyes of his fellows, and by graphic touches he further animated and
actualised his story.
His
style,
has
all
condensed metaphor and balanced phrase. Alliteration demanded a rich vocabulary, and Layamon's stock was astonishingly full and
pure.
We
Witness
shall
get a
poet's style if
we
follow
for a little his account of Arthur's struggles with his foreign foes.
first
and promise,
:
allowed to return
Then laughed Arthur, with loud voice dooms wieldeth that Childric the strong is
hath apportioned to
all his
" Thanks be
to
!
God
that
all
tired of
my
land
My
all
land he
my
fox
country, hold
me
for
base,
and have
my
it
realm and
my
kin
put to
death,
my folk
is
all
destroyed.
has happened as
full
it is
with the
when he
enow;
for wildness
in
him he worketh.
For whosoever
shall fare,
He
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
all
355
animals.
But when
to
him come
hunters
men under
downs
;
the
hills,
cries, the
he
fleeth
hounds there give tongue, they drive the fox over dales and to the holm and seeketh his hole ; into the farthest end of
;
him on every
was
ever
it
set in
I
the bold fox of bliss all deprived, and men dig to most wretched the proudest of all animals So with Childric the strong and the rich he thought all my kingdom to his own land ; but now I have driven him to the bare death, whatso-
then
is
side
then
is
Now will I give him peace, and let him nor hang, but his prayer I will
Hostages
I will
weapons
have of the highest of his men, their horses and and so as wretches they shall go to their
;
good land, and there worthily dwell in and tell tidings of Arthur the King, how I have freed them for soul and for my freedom solaced the wretches."
ships, sail oversea totheir
their
realm
my
father's
It surely
of which there
liberties were-
no hint
in the original.
Evidently in the
fancy
free.
make
Brut Layamon
no
desire to deceive.
Childric,
we
and returned
to harass
the
For the following description of the invaders' conduct the poet may have had in mind the horrors of a real depredation, though he received suggestions from the French " As soon as they came on land, the folk they slew ; the churls they drove
southern coast.
:
off,
all all
all
murdered
men
on gleeds
all
churchesSucking children they drowned in the water ; was among the people the cattle they took and slaughtered, carried it to their inns, boiled and All day they sang of Arthur roasted it ; all they took that they came nigh. the King, and said that they had won homes that they would hold in their power, and there they would dwell winter and summer ; and if Arthur were so bold that he would come to fight with Childric the strong and the rich, they would make of his back a bridge, and take all the bones of the noble king and tie them together with golden ties and lay them in the hall door,
with clubs
they
filled
grief
where each man should go forth to the worship of Childric the strong and the rich This was all their game, for Arthur the King's shame but all
! ;
"
35^
HISTORICAL WORKS
;
chap.
and
their
it
their boast
shame
befel to
themselves to shame
and so
it
men who
so act."
Arthur
indignation
is
far
away
in the north
when he
His
mercy has entailed such harm. A summons goes at once to his followers to make haste for revenge. Together they The king arms for battle with elaborate care until he speed to Bath. stands resplendent, " the fairest of knights, the noblest of race." His
is
fierce
that his
men
who
so
Thus Arthur speaks: " And for they all are forsworn, so shall they be forlorn (destroyed). They March we now forward, fast shall be put to death, with the Lord's aid. together, even all as softly as if we thought no evil, and when we come Now to them I myself will commence, foremost of all I will begin the fight.
treacherously have employed their
crafts."
"wicked
we shall' ride and glide over the land. Let no man on pain of his make noise, but fare quickly. The Lord aid us " Then Arthur the man began to ride he proceeded over the weald and Bath would seek.
!
life
rich
" the
The
first
earl
he meets he smites
"And
anon:
them,
The foremost
the
to
is
dead
! '
Now
who now
their
Lord bore
!
them
Now to
slay
two thousand of the wicked without the loss of one of " The his own spear Arthur works dire destruction.
is
king was
enraged as
when
in the
many
swine.''
The Avon
to Bath hill
now he
in
standeth on the
!
hill
how
lie
the stream
Armed
life
is
destroyed
spears.
come
to this land
such
After further taunts he pushes on, always in the front, inciting his men,
until at last
complete victory
leader
if
is
addresses
the slain
of the
enemy
" Thou
;
didst
climb this
hill
wondrously high as
but
now
thou shalt to
hell.
There thou niayest learn much of thy kin. And greet thou there Hengest that was fairest of knights, Ebissa and Ossa, Octa and more of thy kin, and bid them dwell there winter and summer, and we shall live [here] in [this] land
with
shall
bliss.
Pray
for
your bones
lie,
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
357
How
Layamon
Reasons
first
for the
In the
place, the
England, and the poet's patriotism was for his country, not for his
race.
all
Englishmen
common
weal.
Then
again, in Geoffrey
and
Wace
Finally,
Normans,
who were
new
We
He
Layamon
wrote.
makes no
His reference,
poem
204.
Under
momentous
event,
Layamon may
facts are
home.
manuscript
is
one copy of
may
it
but (4)
lost,
that
would
art.
is
The
no need
Brut
to the
grammarian there
monument
of early
length
its
358
HISTORICAL WORKS
its
chap.
extraordinary freedom
To
:
structure
of poetry
in the
is
interesting
because
it
betrays
much
contains a goodly
From
the opening
we
Then,
by popular demand,
who
had
all
more and more interest in national affairs. These chronicles differ from the Brut notably in that they are brought up to date. They begin likewise at the beginning, and embody the fables of the British and Saxons, but they continue the narrative to their own times and record recent events. In plan and scope they thus resemble the more learned Latin
histories,
much
;
method they perpetuate the style of the chronicles in verse. The authors make no claim to originality they declare themselves to be first and foremost popularisers, undertaking tasks for the common profit, not for their own glory. Had they desired fame,
in
The
Robert of
Gloucester.
This
conclusions in
part of the
for that
is
probably an integral
work
When he
gives
name, he
at the
same time
refers to
us reason to believe that he liimself dwelt in the neighbourhood of Evesham in the year 1265, namely, the great darkness that
attended the famous battle there, which he says was so great that
the
It
the service in
the churches.
vn
Crucifixion
that
first
;
HISTORICAL WORKS
but only a few drops of rain
this
fell.
359
made
We
are
who
saw not only the darkness but the consternation of the monks,
and
that
fraternity.
Certainly
He
was eager to
by good works
was
and showed no
He
ecclesiastical legends,
and appears
form of
to have written
some himself
and the
sources.
original
his
Yet
this
to Wace.
For
he drew from Henry of Huntingdon, though he also consulted In the second section, from about William of Malmesbury. the year 800 to the Conquest, Henry and William were his
chief sources
;
De
Genealogia
Edwardi
of Ailred de
Emma
the author's account resembles most that of the Annals of WinFor the history of Count Robert of Gloucester a source chester.
in the
out.
The
influence of popular
and the
lives
of saints
is
In
the latter part of his work, Robert's statements, though not wholly
man
of inuch
36o
HISTORICAL WORKS
power.
it is
chap.
literary
its
due,
but plainly
achievement
because
its
He
chose verse as a
medium
of conveying facts
poet by nature.
qualities of art or
for her praise
Only
judgment.
But
his love of
make him
"
England
first
is
ween, of
all
the
Like
to the skies.
The
king's death,
is
opposing the
traitor
Modred,
to
him a personal
"British
lie."
grief.
Had
made in some such place, not in Avalon. His Arthurian " material is more tinged by romance than Layamon's. " Chivalry is a word familiar to him; and its highest embodiment, Gawain, he has come to regard as the " flour of corteysye.'' True, he had his doubts about the Conqueror, and denounces the deeds of some of his royal successors, but he felt the Normans to be in reality his fellow countrymen, and he desired the closest union of
Glastonbury?
Caliburn (Excalibur), he declares, was
Ramsey
or
all
land.
to
England
works
in the vernacular
could
not published,
is
and we have
contents, authorship,
and
character.
is
which
is
drawn
Then,
for
some 27,000
lines,
the historian
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
and afterwards
361
narrates,
quent history of England to the coronation of Edward III. The whole extends to the great length of almost 40,000 lines. There is good evidence that the author stopped writing in the year
1327.
His name,
it
Castelford,
he was an old
man
of at
least eighty
when he ended
his chronicle.
heed to happenings of
all
interest
and
dwells at length on
He
is,
enthusiasm.
He
differs also
and
in that
he appears
to have
been fonder
Thomas's chronicle, unhke those of Layamon and Robert of rhymed couplet of the FrencL
ati
In
anonymous
short
chronicle, likewise in
couplets,
some
Gaveston (131 2)
in a little
over a thousand
lines.
Yet
have gained
it
success with a
in giving
common
audience,
At
all
it
to the
reign.
was a
little
later,
in
Then
England
in 16,730
362
HISTORICAL WORKS
Some
thirty-five years
composed, also
in verse,
an important didactic
replete
six
value.
The
narrative he followed
failed
him he
in
first
took
Langtoft
as
an
and
merely
reproduced
He
whom he had he not disapproved of the way " overhopped " events to him significant. His
but not slavish.
is faithful,
and there
he also interpolates
at will material
Havelok and
He
St.
Edmund.
Possibly
some of
avowed
What
interests
his
object in writing.
Wace and
Langtoft, he says
said
laid,
I couth.
That
I
is
lightest in
man's mouth,
harpers,
simple
men
;
.
made
it
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
it is
363
pleasant to remember.
Evidently
the people's
won
tells
''
us,
commonalty,"
would
listen
He
it
was above
"when
His
at
poem was
to
common gatherings, about the hearth, in the ale-house, or at the fair. Many a time no doubt he had associated with the poor in
their
homes or
at their festivals,
and
Thus, understanding
as well as advantage.
its
The
value
of his work
to
contemporaries establishes
importance to-day.
in the vernacular in
Scotland,
by
Andrew of Wyntoun, covers the period from the creation to 1408. Wyntoun <^\ c. 1425) was Canon Regular of the priory of St. Andrews and Prior of St Serf's in Loch Leven. John Hardyng's
Chronicle traces English history from the earliest period to 146 1.
and was
for
of the castle of
Kyme
in Lincolnshire.
as the English
(t 1464),
John Capgrave
we
Political Poems
It
made use
of contemporary
poems
of
to
rise.
William of Malmesbury,
and snatches
of
others
may
be found
quoted
in
the
French history
Pers de
by Robert of Brunne.
364
HISTORICAL WORKS
chap.
Fabyan preserves Scottish songs relating to the siege of Berwick The latter of (1296) and the battle of Bannockburh (1314).
these exemplifies
the
minstrel
Why
So soon
With rumbalow.
They rowed hard, and sung thereto With hevelow and rumbeloo.
A large
number of songs
that
disappeared to the
last vestige,
influential
still
moment
but
Those
common
III. is a spirited
Song against
King of Almaigne,
Earl of Cornwall.
Specially emphasised
the circumstance of
army
at the battle
of Lewes in 1264.
The song
-was evidently
at the
written by a partisan of
head
fall
of the national party, and echoes the general exultation at the of his deceitful foe.
(tricker),
trick shalt
so
runs
the mocking
refrain.
Song on
the Flemish Insurrection, called forth by the defeat of the Count of Artois at the battle of Courtrai in 1302, "wherethrough many a French wife wrings her hands and sings waylaway." That on the Execution of Sir Simon Eraser, composed in 1306, soon
after the
battle
of Kirkencliff, evinces
the Englishman's
con-
vn
HISTORICAL WORKS
all
365
traitors
in
Hang up
A poem
On
the King's
Breaking
his Confirmation
of
Magna
II.
when Edward
men
;
For might
;
is right,
the land
is
is
lawless
loreless
2.
land
is
nameless.
;
For one
;
strengthless
is
for
weal
is
is
ruthless
3.
land
loveless.
For
;
is
thewless
is
penniless
4.
for pride
is
almsless.
;
For will
is
wreakful
is
for wit is
qued (wicked),
the land
wrongful
for
good
is
sinful.
The
poet makes a plea for love and charity, characteristics of the true
life.
Christian
political
whom
nothing
known, but who appears to have lived on the border of the East Midland and the North, and who wrote under the immediate impression of events between 1333 and 1352. His
favourite metre
is
but he also uses short lines combined in couplets or stanzas. To exemplify Minot's style, may be quoted the opening and
closing strophes of his
for
Bannockburn
Scots out of Berwick and of Aberdeen,
the Bannockburn were ye too keen ; There slew ye many sakless (innocent), as it was And now has King Edward wroken (avenged) it, It is wroken, 1 ween, welt worth the while
At
seen.
I
:
ween,
for
they are
full
of guUe.
HISTORICAL WORKS
man
threats
chap.
and speaks
full ill
still
"better to
be stone
The Scot
For
in his
for to spill,
all his will
at the last
Edward
shall
have
He
had
his will at
Scots brought him the keys, but get (look out) for their guile.
We
highly
others of the
some
religious
pieces.
The themes
on the Continent,
such as the battles of Halidon Hill and Neville's Cross, the sack
of Southampton, the sea-fight at Sluys, the siege of Tournay, the
victory of Crdcy, the taking of Calais
and Guines.
These war-
and
epic.
They
rhyme
in the
mood
of the partisan,
be
rather
to
yet well
enough
moments of
all,
the actions
especially perhaps
as a sturdy;
Scot,,
and con-
better
They
odds of one to
six.
He
He
use of
makes a
is
an immediate,
he shows considerable
versatility in the
metrical forms
less
and dash.
But neverthe-
we must acknowledge
wit as " thin.''
his sentiments too
own
His phraseology
shrill,
narrow and
permit us to
sort.
Henry
"
versificator,''
vu
deeds.
HISTORICAL WORKS
Minot might
suitably
his
367
laureate to
Edward
III.,
whom
he delighted
to laud,
and
whom
he thus prayed
God
that shaped both sea and sand, Save Edward, King of England, Both body, soul, and life,
And
grant
strife
For many men to him are wroth In France and in Flanders both For he defendeth fast his right.
And And
That
him might, do both night and day. may be to Goddes pay (pleasure).
evoked by the
battle of
stirring times of
is
Edward
III.
Concerning the
And
may be
artistically,
are
political
verse appear
and prophecies.
to gather
Adam
cerning Edward
as a pilgrim to
and wearing a grey cap; again, together with the Pope, "crowned with great bliss" in token that he should be emperor of Christendom ; while on a third occasion
riding an ass
Rome,
when her
his
Son obtained
Edward on a
(very)
crusade.
Of Davy
is
"
Wei
swithe
wide
name
known."
So had
it
368
HISTORICAL WORKS
whose mouth was put much
political
chap.
into
prophecy.
Minot
begins his
poem on
the landing of
in
Edward
at
La Hogue (1346)
romance aright
are of
many books
yet in
him written
witten (know),
As
may
And
many
privy nooks
Men may
find of
Merlin books.
He
then
it
prophecies,
and
applies
war
in France.
They
all
rely for
established by Geoffrey of
Monmouth, which served more than Closely allied with Merlin, as we have prophet Thomas of Erceldoun, who was
Some
under
(1333).
his
name were
And
to
float anticipatory
many
generations.
is
Thomas
spoken in figure
like the
prophecies
Edward
and
flagellated
by devils."
arose
soon
after
1189,
when Ralph FitzStephen set up the at Here (?), which had been given
him by Henry
II.
Satires
Though
satirical
denunciations
especially, of course,
vii
HISTORICAL WORKS
^(,g
works
formal
over-serious
and lumbering.
contemporary
threat than
a tone of severe
on the
They show themselves more ready to deliver thrusts, rely more on the might of force of ridicule, use the weapons of Thor rather
Lightness
Land
transla-
From
rhyme.
wars.
the time of
Edward
I.
Husbandman,
and four
subject
is
the burden of taxation to support foreign the author points out, had designs on was hunted " as hounds do the hare on
robes,
All kinds of
officials,
He
the
hill."
"
(grievous)
it is
where there
is little."
beggars bold."
woe abroad
ousness,
in the land.
satirical dirge
In another
and
means
who escape
poor ass
by means of
plicity.
and the
sin."
"Those
in
that
are
in
highest
life
are
come
On the Retimces of would seem, of ribalds, horse-cheats, and others thought worthy of hell-fire ; and
is
in
dress,
strove to
370
HISTORICAL WORKS
Earlier, in 1275, a statute
chap.
title
"Against
slanderous reports, or
tales, to
with what effect we know not. But more than a was needed to stem the tide of direct and indirect denunciations of the clergy which in the thirteenth and fourteenth
people
''
statute
The
clerks" were ridiculed in the Song of Nego. of the Church were openly denounced.
And
even the
pillars
In a short poem,
When
is
Holy Church
built.
is
Under
Foot,
it
is
so beloved,
bribery.
is
now
despised by
is
all.
the
the
It
poem On
composed of 476 long lines, but is incomplete. The author undertakes to tell why there is war and revenge and manslaughter in the land, why hunger and dearth have subdued the poor, why their cattle are dead and corn is dear.
Truth is little among them. At the court of The clergy do amiss. Rome, " where Truth should begin," it is forbidden the place. He dare not enter though the pope should call him in, for the pope's clerks have sworn his death. For fear of being slain he dare not appear among the cardinals. The wisest clerk in the If he meets Simony, he will have his beard shaken. world would not be heard at Rome if he came silverless, but any wrelch is welcome if he brings gold. Some bishops and archbishops are fools and lead They dare not reprove their clergy for fear of being betrayed a sorry life. Certainly Holy Church has much degenerated since St. Thomas themselves. was slain. He was a pillar to hold her upright. Now too many prelates Archdeacons take meed of one another, and serve king as well as Church.
let
When
a post
is
vacant
it is
does his
own sweet
will.
He
gathers
money and
rides out of
Though the bishop knows of the little money will stop his mouth.
a good counsellor to maiden and
little less,
ill,
who
is
come a
though he
and thus
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
be ruined
for lack of lore.
371
lewd
priest is
no better than a
is
jay in a cage.
Abbots and
Pride
master in
Religion
despised.
The poor
and gluttony.
rich
fat,
The monks dress comfortably and give themselves up to They are fat and red-cheeked. The friars preach more
In
shrift
ease
for a
They
man.
If a corpse is
cloister
lean,
and
keeps his
at
home.
man can
he
suffers
is
a consistory court and get rid of her, then betake himself to his neighbour's
spouse,
silver
no harm.
eat the
men
man
sicker than
he
is,
to get
money
for medicines,
and themselves
Earls,
barons,
home.
They
are
He who
Young boys
bailiffs
all
dubbed
knights.
will
Squires
Justices,
"who
do wrong
meed,"
is
sheriffs,
mayors, and
The
king
deceived by them.
His
officials are
The poor
are pillaged,
browbeaten, oppressed.
"
for trickery
" For
falseness
all
no
all
and therefore
no wonder though
The
strife.
afflictions of the
The
folly of prelates
They do not
They dread
more
together,
And
But looked where the truth was, and there have bileved (remained). Then were the baronage whole, that now is all to-dreved (driven apart) So wide
;
But
certes
England
is
shamed through
falseness
and through
pride.
in
detail
because of
its
The author
is
plain
message of
the
Plowman
is
the
spirit
372
HISTORICAL WORKS
chap.
unselfishness, the same love of England and sorrow for her shame above all, the same insistence on the need to seek out and glorify Truth.
own sake, is the alliterative poem entitled A Treatise and Good Short Refreyte (Dispute) betwixt Winner and Waster, which will be discussed from other points of view when all the products
for its
In this
whom
be
the poet
Each
to
lays his
case
King Edward
III.,
who undertakes
and
tells
their judge.
is
He
Rome, Waster in the busy streets of London, until he shall accompany the King on his Continental wars. The poem contains some 500 long lines, but is incomplete. It is remarkable for its freshness and force. In a short stanzaic poem entitled Sir Penny we have a
fourteenth
-
time,
satire
the
titular character
on
England spmetimes was regnorum gemma vocata; or manhood the flower ibi guogue quondam floruit omnis,
Now
gone
is
Anglia
staret.
all
medium
of clerical protest,
and
it
But English was bound to English songs stirred the people tremendously
Gower's Vox
when
VII
HISTORICAL WORKS
373
words as "
When Adam
the
gentleman?"
poems of the same period became the mottoes of revolt. With the incidental satire in Chaucer's work all are familiar. Like Langland's and Gower's, it was prepared for by works written in Latin, French, and
refrain of English
the
English by clerks.
In this connection
may
also be
mentioned a
stray satirical
its
poem
title
Why I cannot
maiden who
be a Nicn.
to
in
desires
walking one
to
May morning
be si nun, but whose father is opposed, goes her garden to see " the sweet effect of April
In a
fair
God
falls
to help
in point to perish."
fine."
Then
asleep,
she
in a trance
"among
u.
While
fair
lady
to
own name,
come
comfort her.
attired
The
girl
her mourning.
she discovers,
is
fair
Lust,
Devout had been put to death by Dame Sloth and Dame Vainglory, Dame Chastity had "little cheer." Dame Patience and Dame Charity occupied a chamber outside the place. But Dame Envy was in every corner, and Dame Disobedient was very busy. Experience explains at last to Katherine that she has shown her this convent " so full of sin " to reconcile her to her father's will. Not all nuns, but the most part, were " feeble, ignorant, and froward."
Vet they should be what
their attire indicates.
"A fair
which hangeth at a tavern door is a false token as I ween, but if there be good wine and sure." Nuns should follow the example of holy virgin saints.
Monks and
People of
is
CHAPTER
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
flourished;
exclusively religious.
The
is
be found there.
When
at last
they are seen to write once more in the spirit of their long-distant
predecessors
:
themes
in the
in verse.
and
and other
sorts of
religious
poems abound.
1150 the West-Saxon Gospels were About 1300 a prose Psalter was prepared in the West Midland. But deserving more particular mention are the paraphrases of Genesis and Exodus, by an anonymous author in Here we have the chief the South-East Midland, about 1250.
In the South before
transcribed.
little
legendary embellishment,
find not only the salient
with
little
comment
or sermonising.
first
We
parts of
wanderings
is
of JVIoses.
374
But how
different
this
CUA.P. VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
!
375
It
is
phrase.
There
is
and
in his attitude
He
whom
when they
native speech
and with small words, of the hills of bliss and the and in the spirit rather of the rhymed chronicle
;
much on
which
compendium
of
its
substance,
much
poem
of a
somewhat
on a grander
atten-
scale, the
Mundi
overrunneth
its
all "),
which challenges
It
tion at once
by reason of
avowed purpose.
;
who could
;
common
English of England
It
and
instruct,
was
Thus with which both the poet and his readers were familiar. " romances Men yearn to hear gests and read the poem begins
:
in divers
manners
;
of Julius Csar
the
emperor
of the strong
;
many
conin
thousands
queror of England
his time;
Round Table
how King
Charles
he became mad of Yonec and Ydoine stories of Amadas [the hero of a lay by Marie] divers things, of princes, prelates, and of kings; many songs of
whom
of
divers rhyme,
questioned
fact.
We
376
RELIGIOUS WORKS
chap.
Men of writings current in England on these secular themes. were always ready " to read and to hear " such pleasant works.
Their influence, however, the author thought, was not always
good mours
:
it
"
made for licentiousness and loose had thereby become the fashion.
living.
"
Love para-
He
therefore offers
more true, more beautiful and ready to reward. In order to build on a good foundation, he will begin at the beginning, namely, the Holy Trinity, and thence he will
a rival attraction.
will sing of
He
loyal,
other,
composed (f. 1320) a poem some 24,000 lines long. Such an immense accumulation of legendary material baffles
It is
a fanciful account
from the Creation to the time of from the reign of David to the
Noah, from the Flood to the confusion of Tongues, from the time
of
Abraham
captivity of Judah,
John the
Baptist,
Doom
is
and the
state of the
world thereafter.
the legends of the
Very remarkable
that part
which contains
to
Holy Rood.
have been
extremely popular.
tion
says,
on that theme.
thirteenth century,
and
exists in
poem on
derivation.
The legend
itself
widespread in
many forms
and
The
earliest
for
the recitation of a
:
who
" Sit ye
now
both more
RELIGIOUS WOraCS
and
less "
;
377
is
spoken of
as a " lesson,"
service.
St.
and became, we know, a regular part of the Church the conclusion we are informed that the archbishop,
of Pontenay
{i.e.
At
Edmund
Edmund
days to any
it
who heard
or read
Moreover,
woman
to
Such a
folk
claim,
no doubt, stimulated
familiarity with the
attention
many
practical
who
;
and
work
Christ
would
is
make for the sick or sinful who served her truly. No matter if a man had transgressed in every possible way, Our Lady (" Queen of Heaven " and " Empress of Hell ") could As Chaucer obtain grace for him at the last hour of his life.
she might
says 'm.h\s
A
Soth
C:
is,
that
God ne
:
graunteth no pitee
With-oute thee
for
God, of
it
his goodnesse,
He
hath thee maked vicaire and maistresse Of al the world, and eel< goveineresse Of hevene, and he represseth his Justyse
After thy wille, and therefore in witnesse
He
As was almost inevitable, a large amount of apocryphal material was current among the English. We have a detailed account of Christ's ancestors and conception in the "song" on the Birth ofJesus. Fables of His enfances are narrated in The Childhood of
Jesus, in a style that startles from
infant
is
first
to last.
Christ as an
represented
as
unnecessary miracles.
exploits
is
oddest of
;
His boyhood
378
RELIGIOUS WORKS
try to
companions
their vessels,
The
short thirteenth-century
Judas
of Sir
is
who now
wild
and
fierce in
youth
in his
By
Of
most
striking
is
after the
made
to
carried to a lake in
the wilderness, where a rock opens and the corpse darts into
it
like
The
story of Titus
and
is
Vespasian, and
Veronica,
lines
third
quarter of
the
neighbourhood of
London), and
single
in a closely-allied alliterative
poem
entitled
The
Siege of Jerusalem.
The former
is
based
it
for the
most part on a
poems
of The Fall
and
Passion,
The
5000
Huinanae
over
lines
long
and
artificially
constructed.
and
by apocryphal
tales,
and one
who took
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
TJie Pearl,
379
by
telling
anew
familiar tales
from
resignation to the
Homilies
The change of government in England resulting from the Norman Conquest made very little difference to the common people. They performed much as before their humble round of
duties, told at leisure the stories they
to hear, sang about the fire the old ballads of their fathers,
service
in
church.
Saxon
bishops and high prelates were speedily displaced, but the inferior
clergy maintained their livings undisturbed, for these were not
desired by foreigners,
useless
in
To common
folk, then,
a fortunate circumstance,
alive
amongst them
in
something
The
clergy
had inherited sermons from Anglo-Saxon collections, and these they modernised and used regularly on the occasions for which they were intended, adding naturally to the store when need came.
The
sort,
ser-
Latin for
delivery before
Some
English
homilies,
and
thirteenth
centuries
us.
When
not mere
and such
same
style
and
spirit
is
that these
manifest.
No
real
obvious in
manner or
matter,
followed a continuous,
hidden, course.
practical
and
straightforward, suited to
illustrations,
calculated
no doubt to
stir
"
38o
RELIGIOUS WORKS
and the Physiologus rendered
its
moralised,
share of examples.
we
is
its
;
head, which
to
it
and
men
Christ
and we
when
we understand
lier
We
read also of
the adder that renews her youth by creeping through a perforated stone, leaving old skin behind her
:
we
wounds
when with
fivefold penitence
we make amends
homilies
contain
little
it
almost no
light
on the
as wild animals.
lairs
play,
In the
is set,
in the
second
snares of manifold wickedness, in the third the snare of trickery, in the fourth
that of pride, which catches both clergy and laity.
In another, Jeremiah's
are spotted
slanderers
pit is said to
adders, black
;
toads,
be the depths of sin. In the pit and yellow frogs. The first represent
and detractors
who
ill
the
last foolish
women, dressed
"These
will
it
women who
it
he binds on
;
it
so that
may smell sweetly and through many a mouse into the trap. Even
themselves with blanchet
(fine
so do many of these women they smear wheaten flour), that is the devil's soap and
;
is
is the devil's hiding-place. Thus they act in make themselves fair, and to draw lechers unto them, but they defile themselves therewith. Now, dear men, for God's love keep yourselves from
the devil's mouse-trap, and take heed that ye be not the spotted adders, nor the black toads, nor the yellow frogs.
In the
violent
alliterative
we have a The
author emphasises the thraldom, the pains of mind and body, the
constant vexations of a wife.
His tone
is
absolutely opposed to
"
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
381
that of the refined author of the Ancren Riwle, to whom the work has been absurdly ascribed. The homilist was surely of humble origin, and knew best the homes of the peasantry.
" And what if I ask besides, that it may seem odious, how the wife stands, who when she cometh in heareth her child scream, seeth the cat at the flitch,
at the hide
and her
calf
life,
by the
their
passage
life.
"Ask
I
about
manner of
thorns.
Soothly, soothly,
truth,
all
themselves and
acknowledge the
near
all
have them
glitters,
it
honey from
They buy
...
When
is
are
insufficiently
in the
dowered and
ill
provided
to
gentlewomen now
bridegroom of
chaffar
their
own
all
it
man
of
Well were
1
Wellaway What unworthy Jesu them were they on the day of their bridal borne to
be buried
the
pre-Conquest
Among
and take
This
veil.
;
" Hearken,
How
vastly inferior
Maidenhood by
soon ceased to
In
style
be
written,
preserved a
latter
writter)
at the
end
an
printed
Plays.
Sermon
Miracle
But
down
whose influence
the
use
of apocryphal legend,
382
RELIGIOUS WORKS
far-fetched
allegory
expositions
temporary application.
In sermons the foreign taste for rhyme early gained the day. As early as in the reign of Henry I. the Latin septenarius was employed in a conspicuous and influential English poem, known The departure from the old methods of as the Poevia Morale.
poetic writing was
There
is
picturesque
In com-
it is
nevertheless
and
effective.
The poem, moreover, has some of the old it interest. The author was of
and his appeal for holy means of averting sorrow hereafter, sounds
he follows the traditions of seems to have written in North Wiltshire,
an
living
on
earth, as a
sincere.
He
cherished.
book of homilies which the author entitled Ormulum, " because Orm made it." To judge from his name and
the
many Scandinavianisms
in
was of was a
He
Canon Regular of the Order of St. Augustine, and was stimulated to his immense undertaking by another Augustinian canon, named
Walter, his brother, he explains, in triple wise
and he worked
If bulk
it
he certainly could
plume himself justly, for though the unique manuscript of his book in an incomplete state contains over 10,000 long lines, that
RELIGIOUS WORKS
383
seems to have been only about one-eighth of its original length. His object he explains in the dedication to Walter
Ice liafe
wennd
me,
pohhtesst
tatt itt
mihle well,
Ennglissh
foIl3henn
woUde 3erne
lernenn.
wi]j]5
And
and fiUenn
it,
word,
dede.
First
in the
mass-book
for the
whole
year,
and
he
after
interpretation
and
application.
his
In so doing,
except what
is
insists that
own
necessary for the metre, and in truth he nowhere evinces originality of idea. His simple desire was to make it easy for the people " tunnderrstanndenn " the truth as taught by the Church.
^'Elfric
and
his
Saxon
disciples.
St.
Anselm, Abelard,
distinctly less
marked.
Few
traces
The
untiring zeal.
One needs
he sacrificed
Repetition
perfect
is
Little
is
left
unsaid.
constant.
The
task.
style
is
hopelessly diffuse.
With
monk
His
persistently
finished,
allotted
On and
If
on the paraphrase
glides like
an
oily stream.
Readers nowadays
to sleep.
whom
it
does not
repel
it
the spirit
of
Layamon
may be said to reappear in the fourteenth century in the author of Gawain and the Green Knight, Orm's is manifest in Gower. And the difference in merit is about equal perhaps in each case.
Yet we must not underestimate the value of the
poet's work.
384
RELIGIOUS WORKS
as the
To
The
precision.
short.
perpetuate
copied.
The
which part
is
preserved in
curiously on
odd
bits
of parchment in a bold
friend, rescued
script.
It is
one
pre-
and legends.
In the
same century, was composed a remarkable body of sermons of similar scope and plan to the Ormulum, but in short couplets, and far more forcible
North, however, in
the second half of the
and
interesting.
French influence
style,
is
in
metre,
phraseology,
and
Notable
is
the
Gospel paraphrase.
Isolated
large
Legend
joins
to contemporary taste.
poems of a homiletical character were composed in numbers in different parts of the land and at all times from
into detail here
is
To go
kind.
unnecessary.
They
are
all
much
of a
and magnify the love of God and the Virgin. Others move to repentance by emphasising the misery of human conditions and the vanity of the transitory world.
are mystical
Some
Some
Others
awake
fear
by enumerating the
VIII
,
RELIGIOUS WORKS
385
Morality
or the
Ten Commandments
is
Seven Deadly
tion of the
Religious instruction
provided in explana-
And
all this
rhymed theology,
not poetry.
Most
note-
worthy perhaps of these short sermons are those entitled Sinners Beware, Death, Long Life, Doomsday, and A Little Sooth Sermon.
The last-named
is a warning to evil-doers, among them false chapmen, bakers, and brewers who give wrong measure ; the proud young men that love Malkin, and those maidens that love
Jankin
those that
come
to
love, thinking
and
afterwards.
Naturally enough, the denunciatory or terrifying sermons of the thirteenth century are far less attractive to us than the persuasive
and
the
mystical.
Of
earliest,
in
we have
same
spirit that
its
Thus the
my
!
love,
my
is
darling,
nectar-drop,
my
balm
Sweeter
there that
the
in the mouth.
is
Who
is
may
not love
What
?
heart
!
may
Ah
.
who
For within Thee alone are all the things united that ever may make any man worthy of love to another. Jesu, my precious darling, my love, my life, my beloved, my most worthy of love,
not love Thee, lovely Jesu
.
.
may
my
heart's balm,
my
soul's sweetness,
Thou
art
lovesome in countenance.
Thou
cheer
An angel's
life it is
to look
upon Thy
face, for
if
Thy
the
it,
all
would
warm
might be
so,
more in woe and evermore look upon that blissful beauty than be in all bliss and forego the sight of Thee. Thou art so sheen and so while that the sun would be pale if it were compared with Thy blissful countenance. If I then
will love
any man
Thee,
my
dear
life,
mother's fairest
all
son.
Ah, Jesu,
my
my
2
delight.
386
RELIGIOUS WORKS
cmap.
The
tion
:
its
composi-
Pray
for
me,
my
dear
sister.
This have
I written thee
Our Lord.
;
And
therefore
when thou
art
and think as though He hung and may He through His grace open thy His pain
Him
and
to ruth of
particularly noticeable
in
how
strong everywhere
;
is
the
tendency to allegory
instances
it
and
in a few
We
Grosseteste's
we have an interesting allegory of the Redemption. But deserving of more particular mention here is the Soul's Ward, a metrical homily on Matthew xxiv. 43 " But know this, that if the goodman of the house had known in what watch the
Bispel
:
thief
would come, he would have watched, and would not have This is a free treatment suffered his house to be broken up."
of part of the
De Anima
of
Hugo
of
St.
Victor, of
which another
The master
His wife
is
is
man's Wit
;
(Intellect).
Will.
Her
servants
the
five wits
are
is
reckless
they seek to
treasure.
In the house
the soul
God's
it.
it.
Four cardinal
virtues guard
Prudence
inmates
doorkeeper
proper duties.
coming with At the request of Prudence he a thousand devils to draw sinners to hell. describes the plan. He pictures the damned in gruesome wise, emphasising the despair of the wretched souls in hideous torment. Each of the sister
Wit, God's constable,
treasure.
is
who comes
Then he
direct
Prudence proposes
within.
all
Fear must depart, however, while Love subject to Wit. The comof Will
mands of Wit
may come
to everlasting happiness.
RELIGIOUS WORKS
387
purposes,
As an example of a homilist using lyric verse for didactic we may take the case of William of Shoreham, who in the early fourteenth century wrote several pleasing poems on the Sacraments, the Deadly Sins, the Commandments, and the like, including a fine Song on the Joys of the Virgin, translated, it is
said,
is
from a
hymn by
Grosseteste.
now
line,
now
with middle as well as end rhyme. He uses also the rime couk and other minstrel metres. His poems, however, are less
to suppose.
He
for
the
populace, but
an
by ingenious argument.
well believe, that he
atheistic ideas
:
It is
not with
would be disposed
If
he examines
sin,
the Trinity,
for the
and
sake
it
was doubtless
who
new
sceptical.
his
near Otford, a
short
monk
first
by Walter
Evidently he
we
his
who read
poem on
and,
it
must be
said,
he was very
poem
is
whenRalph was
six
No
less
than
is
likely that
this
William of
Now on
solemn occasion
388
RELIGIOUS WORKS
chap.
some seventy shillings, we learn, were paid to minstrels who sang to the accompaniment of the harp. Thus did the clergy seek entertainment from without thus they became familiar with the
;
minstrel's arts.
Shoreham, imitating
their popular
methods, sugarswallowed
it
men
how
Drew
in English
The Prick of
Conscience.
is
poem of
and was written in the Northern dialect, though the majority of the numerous manuscripts in which it is preserved
each,
The
it
"I reck
And,
in truth, the
poem
as a that
poem
has
little
it
vigour and
earnestness
characterise
throughout,
and
is
The
matter, moreover,
titles
of
which are
as follows
Of purgatory
heaven.
heart
it
the beginning of man's life Of the Of death, and why it is to be dreaded Of doomsday ; Of the pains of hell Of the joys of
; ;
;
Of
Richard felt that if a reader took this matter well to might make his conscience tender, " and drive it to dread
and meekness and to love and to yearning for heaven's bliss, and to the amending of his misdeeds." This was possibly true in the
poet's time, but hardly to-day.
The modern
the book
many odd
and
some curious
bits of folklore
gatory, heaven,
with
full
at the resurrection
and judgment-day.
But he
no sign of humour, no
relief.
Nevertheless, the
RELIGIOUS WORKS
389
poem
its
as the
productive,
and (within
his
to advantage by the
modern commentator.
Adam
Clarke.
"\'arious
other
metrical
homilies exist
to
such
as
the
Three
Messengers of Death,
Christi.
How
The
so-called
sins.
right
;
ynow, ywis,
for litel
heuinesse
gesse.
ynow
to
mochel
folli I
The
from
:
They were
for the
by devout clergy
and show a
emphasis
combination of the
different
by examples of righteous
Two
that
prompted by individual
that dictated
one or another
for
saint,
and
didactic
The
poetic quality
is,
of course, unequal.
It
high excellence
when
There was no
escape from dull monotony when a single author tried to compass the whole domain of pious example, or was simply one of a
390
RELIGIOUS WORKS
in the mechanical job of compilation.
St.
chap.
crowd engaged
certainly
Chaucer
he would
determined
numerous
lives of saints as
he did of narrating
The
twelfth
and
centuries were
class.
saint's life
became
on the whole a
tical intent,
sterile
form of
poets.
lives of Guthlac, Juliana,
While
in the time of
Cynewulf the
of
independent poems,
to
later, in that
.(Elfric, it
prose.
was
still
in favour at the
lives
dawn of Middle
English production,
when
saints'
reappear in literature,
The
alliterative
and Catherine,
phrasing they have the vigour and dramatic force of the Saxon
style.
As
:
originals
sort,
The
They address
and
insulting.
They even
In their
sum up
the Testaments.
Both
If
in
unsympathetic.
state of
mind,
it is
hard to
But that would be to subvert sober judgment of their influence and to let prejudice disturb a consideration
refrain
from
ridicule.
of their
style.
It
is
genuine
vui
RELIGIOUS WORKS
in this early prose.
391
power
let
Would one
one read
this description
how he
when he appeared
to her in person
" And
there
hell in a dragon's
terrified
were
overgilt.
wicked wight of them wlien they saw ii. His locks and his long
of gold,
and
seemed of swart
In his horned head on either side, on his high hooked nose, thrust
out, exceedingly
out,
smothering smoke
bad in taste, and from his sputtering and out went his tongue, so long that he swung it all about his neck, and it seemed as though a sharp sword went out of his mouth, that glistened as a gleam and lightened all of flame. And all that
mouth sparkled
fire
stead
became
full
his infernal
shadow.
He
yawned with
and
to
Margaret soon
recovered from her very great terror, and prayed for aid.
his belly.
But
in Christ's
honour and
to his [the
damage, the rood-token, with which she was weaponed, saved her, and became his bane, so that his body burst to pieces amidhips, and the blessed maiden, wholly unmarred, without any pollution, went out of his
belly, glorifying aloud her
High Healer
in
Heaven."
would the reader learn the reason why such legends were popular, or how they were made known, let him consider the
Or
again,
God
just before
she
is
taken to heaven
my
life-leading or getteth
it
when
it
written,
and hath
in
it
or listeneth
Wielder of Heaven,
let all
them.
light or
Whoso
my name maketh
woman
my name,
her and hear her prayer, so that in the house be not born no mislimbed bairn, neither halt nor humpbacked, neither dumb nor dead, nor vexed of devils.
RELIGIOUS WORKS
my name
chap.
mentioneth and hath it on in mouth, lovely Lord, at them from death." Thereupon it seemed as though thunder dinned, and a burning dove descended from heaven and raised up the prostrate maiden with the rood, and promised to grant her prayer and even more than she asked. Thus spake the Lord " Wheresoever thy body or any of thy bones be, or the book of thy pain, let the sinful man come, and let him lay his mouth thereon, and I will cure him of his sins, and no evil wight shall dwell in the abode wherein thy martyrdom is written, but all of the house shall be glad in God's grith (peace) and in ghostly love." Now St.
doom
release
Margaret
is
in Paradise,
It
may seem
one
is
even
Certainly
it
minently exalted at
time were
all
famous
for
maiden
purity.
with alarm
how
frequently
young women
listened
and indulged
their fleshly
and
self-indulgence.
Chivalry
sin.
favoured
sentiment,
and
a hue and
attention of
cry.
They warn
Now
they
grim place to
bosom of God, so
far
is
above
men
that duty
made
of natural joy.
ties.
earth.
The
French poem
{c.
1050)
is
RELIGIOUS WORKS
of
393
St. Alexis, a moving story preserved in many forms, which, in French and English, verse and prose, illustrate the gradual change
its
improvement.
legends,
and,
as
which was
much
better
new The
romantic style of their narratives, contrasting with the more epical Saxon mode, soon gained almost exclusive sway. Under
the new influences the manner and metre of Enghsh legendary poems changed, though their old spirit often lingered. Early in
the thirteenth century were
dialects,
simple four-lined
strophic form
Maiden Margaret,"
" with words fair
St.
and
Still
sweet.''
Gregory, com-
posed
after a
more
lyrical is the
Eustace
In such
we have perhaps
many
large
found no
familiar to
adequate treatment
the people
vitality.
and were
at
only
in
succinct
summaries
sapped
of
As the number of
grew
in
saints'
accompanying or replacing
having extensive books of
the rank and
file
sermon,
the
convenience
of
saints' lives,
became so manifest
the
last
century two native legendaries arose, one in the south and the
other in the north of England.
couplets) was probably the
The former
(in
long
rhymed
394
RELIGIOUS WORKS
;
Durham.
The Northern
cycle
is
the more
artistic,
more evident in its clear, flowing style. Here legend proper is found combined with pious tale and homily in a way significant of the use to which the book was put. The Gloucester cycle, being a co-operative product, is for the most part impersonal and
mechanical.
Its
prevailing mediocrity
is
occasionally relieved,
which
is full
of
number of manuscripts in which it is found show great variation Along with the Northern cycle, of contents, order, and dialect. it held its own in one form or another throughout the fourteenth
century
;
and neither was reproduced by the early printers. it appears, was composed a much more important Latin compilation of the same kind, the Legenda
later prepared,
Aurea of Jacobus de Voragine, a prominent Dominican preacher, of Genoa in 1292, and died in
His work,
too,
was intended
in
churches.
was
for its
time a
dis-
extraordinary favour
of the
saints
therein
lauded,
it
bitter attack.
pure and
true.
lies that
was doubtless a been plunged deep in hell." desperate wretch, who surely has
that disturbed Christians with
He
such
lies
1380-90).
Unlike
its
sources,
it
RELIGIOUS WORKS
an independent, personal point of
tongue.
view, for private reading,
395
and
the
has more poetical value than any other legendary in the native
Shortly after Barbour's work
{c.
1400), appeared
and
on The
for
The
former, as the
title
indicates,
was
Like Barbour's,
Aiirea, but was
one
It was most frequently reproduced of mediseval English works. still a standard authority when printing was introduced, and no less than eighteen editions appeared between 1483 and 1532.
Limited to
women
saints,
for
made
in
style of Lydgate,
The author imitated the learned, who was then at the height of his
itself (or
fame.
version
rather a French
was
literally
translated
into
English, and,
with
saints'
lives
had appeared
varieties
many
on.
of
metrical structure,
Like Chaucer
in
and Barbour
fifteenth,
prominent writers
the
this
such as Lydgate and Capgrave, busied themselves with style of composition, writing as artists, however, not as
preachers,
big compilations
interest
and adding grace and vigour to themes which in the had been squeezed almost completely dry of
Native
There
and Ireland appear in the collections along There are no closer limits with those of Europe and the Orient.
saints of Great Britain
396
RELIGIOUS WORKS
chap.
Monk's Tale.
of the
Naturally there
:
is
narratives themselves
some
are
and grotesque.
best.
style.
As time advanced there was a degeneration Miracles became more and more prodigious,
Extravagance and gross-
and the
often
Fine
tales
were
graphy,
and
science,
if
not
otherwise
spoiled
by excessive
preachment.
The
and
bewil-
They
clearly contain
material of
They
compound
its
They
exhibit
dominance,
in
much
to knit together
people of
all
lands
in
common
devotion,
common
sympathy, a
common
hope.
The
lives of saints
English people, and not of any one race or class amongst them.
perform-
ance on the
stage.
in
frescoes,, stone
sculptures,
vin
RELIGIOUS WORKS
397
To
to lives of austerity
and renunciation,
in the
performance of duty, at
home and
We
can
against popery,
called
upon
to
denounce
the saints' lives because they were then accepted as true by the
faithful.
But
it
less intelligible
why
there
now
exist so
many
who walk
are
little
minds "
and
more than the romances of in much the same way, as various in nature and about as reliable in fact as the poems of heroic adventure with which they vied for popularity. They were composed by the same poets in the same metres, recited by the same minstrels in the same surroundings, read by the same people in the same manner, as the tales of King Arthur and Charlemagne. They flourished at the same time and reflect the
truth.
Legends, in
fact,
religion, originating
and developing
same conditions.
each other.
They met
Visions
Of
all
types of legendary
homiletic
literature
none
is
more
its
peculiar vogue
and influence
in the
consideration.
some minuteness what each is like, and imaginary joy and torment the world over show a marked resemblance. Oriental ideas of the state of the good or bad hereafter, like those
398
RELIGIOUS WORKS
when studied
chap.
in connec-
From
the death of
in the
canon of the
New
Testament.
John Not
abundantly flourish
and thirteenth centuries did the vision again ; from the fourteenth century date most of
The
earliest
English visions
known
records.
monk
man
In a three days'
angels, to witness
much
and
is
the sorrow of
full
hell,
when
body
not
without sore
afflic-
tion,
however, for
said that
little
on
is
later
exists
in
Anglo-French
it
The
vision of Drihthelm,
antici-
pates
the media;val
Continental
style.
presents
points
of
by Plutarch.
Here
the doctrine
of purgatory
is
definitely advanced, as
nowhere
else,
outside of
The two
companions enter a
vast
and
terrible valley in
of
is
human
souls.
Drihthelm
is
realm of the
blest.
jsajq sqi
jo
va\T33i
"spmS
s;
suj jo
uipmquQ
-sinos
UBiunq jo
"PP^ puB
jxiM^sq JSAoq
-ain^B
puB aoEj juBip^i jo Supq e 'spinS 9[uis e X[uo 3i\ ureSy "sSuiiuav uoxBg-oiSuy ui 'spsg;
si
Xjo}BSjnd jo
auupop
JO sjuiod
aqi 3-I3H
"qa-i^jnij;
Aq pa^unoosj
iB)uaui4U03
snisd^sdiix fo fots'yi
qim
aouEiqaissa.i
a[X)s
iBAajtpara
aq;
sajEd
-sajEjs ajnjnj
sjsixa
;i
qSnoq; 'puEjSug
u;
sauo aa;B[
ji
uoisia siqj^
SE
'a:3(ods
Xj^uiav
jnoqjiM 40U
Xpoq
siq oi
paujnpj jnos
siqi
uaqM ^nj
ui
'uiiq oj
aouEjj
'jijoav puB ajq Xjoq jo ueui e 'pooiq qsuj jo jaiujoj aqx "spjooaj apag qoiqM 'uipqiquQ puE
snasjn^ jo asoqj ajB sn oi umou5[ suoisia qsqSua isaqjBa aqx jE[n3EUiaA qsqSujj aqj ui asoq;
JO }soui ajEp Xjnjuao q^uaaijnoj aqi uioij
'.
qsunog XnuBpunqE
uibSb uoisia aq} pip saurnuao q}uaa}jiq} puE q}jpM} aqj ipun
10^ }uauiB}sax ai3N ^41 J uoubo aq} ui aoEid b papjooDB sbm uqof }S JO uoi}BpAa-5j aq} A\\io }nq 'snoiaumu XjaA aaaM }ios aq} paXofua Xisnonupuoo ajSM jo sSupuM jnjiouEj Bja jno ui XpBg suoi}Dnpoid oi}dXiBDodB pouad jEAaeipaai aq} jo pua aq} o} }suq[)
JO q}Bap aq} uiojj
aDuanjjui |Bn}nui
uEpsuqQ jo
sjraoM snoionaa
gee
Xj
(U^^fer^ OlrJei^
432
DIDACTIC WORKS
chap.
Lydgate and
Occleve,
undertaken
Of
the
former we
follower Burgh.
The book
itself
first
perhaps com-
some Mohammedan
Sir
was put
and
this
the same material in his Poesye of Princely Practise written for the benefit of Edward VL
Requiring but
slight
attention in such a
book
utility
:
as this, yet
and carving; books of hunting and fowling, precedence books of medicine and surgery, of " quintessence
;
and astrology; books of geography and travel; a translation of Palladius on husbandry and the like. These are all interesting in their way, and some of them excessively quaint and curious
being
almost- wholly
pedagogic,
and
their
this
not
helpful to
From
Edward L
dates a
Fragment on Popular
notice as the
first
Science, several
hundred long
lines in the
with
supposed
facts
and physiology, the source not having been as yet determined. Chaucer, it will be remembered, wrote an Astrolabe for his " little
son
"
one would get an idea of mediaeval science of every kind, the most compendious book of information on the subject is the De Proprietatibus Rerum of Bartholomew, an English Franciscan
If
who
DIDACTIC WORKS
of manners
431
and morals,
in truth just
Puer ad Mensatn: "compendious of sentence" but " barren of eloquence." If one would get a clear idea of social usages in mediaeval times, no documents are more valuable but to the name of literature they have but slight claim. That some knowledge of them is helpful in understanding the training and milieu of characters in fiction
what Lydgate modestly said of his
;
every reader of Chaucer is aware. good manners among the Canterbury pilgrims was the Prioress (" in curteisye was set ful much her lest ") ; but the Squire likewise was a model of the best training afforded a
as well as in real
life,
The
pattern of
noble youth.
poems of
of
humbler
folk.
We
understand better,
the mediaeval high and low, the questions of their daily solicitude, the quality of their ideal standards. the workaday
lives,
They
reveal,
spectacular
luxurious ease, the elaborate fiophistication, the "vain confabulations " of the courtly classes.
'
The
as
indicative
is
of
actual conditions in
England
:
at
that
they
long-perpetuated advice.
produced
in
later, to
that of the
accom-
plished Castiglione,
profit every
The Courtier is a book the reading of which would surely man. The same may perhaps be said of certain
works,
much
less
attractive
in
style,
a
430
DIDACTIC WORKS
Summer is comen with love to town. With blossom and with birdes roun. The nut of hazel springeth. The dewes darkeneth in the dale.
For longing of the nightingale, The fowles merry singeth.
>
chap.
The
poet hears the Thrush accuse women of various wrongs (fickleness, falsehood, uncleanness), citing such witnesses as Alexander, Adam, Sir Gawain, also examples of deceived men like Constantine and Samson whereupon the
Nightingale defends them stoutly, and finally puts the Thrush to shame by
folly in
saying
ill
of maidens and
when
womanhood,
and agrees
to leave the
alliterative
poems of Winner
Carpenter's
Tools,
and Waster and Death and Life (the former mentioned among the Visions) and The
which unite
spirited
in disapproval
little
poem
The
writing of
full vigour to Elizabethan times, when a number of dialogues, contentions, controversies, comparisons, and the like appeared. Debates served also to develop one sort of drama, illustrated by Haywood's Wit and Folly and Pardoner and Friar.
debates continued in
large
Tale of
and
that noble
work
man
and
King
Alfred, Chaucer,
Queen
very large
number of books
and
and usually
in verse
books
books
etiquetteadults books
IX
DIDACTIC WORKS
4^9
whom
strongly, but
to recog-
and
patriotic
who
speech.
we may
own
experience,
we may
believe
him
man whose native seriousness had reasserted itself a period of light-hearted indifference. Noteworthy is his
the Nightingale
reminds us of Clanvowe's
the Nightingale, but
poem
more
in Chaucerian style
the Nightingale
"
been
"
and
the
is lost
but upon
God
alone "
It is strange,
however,
latter
mouth of
Nightingale,
whom
Marie's Lai de Laustic (which was accessible to him also in Neckham's De Naturis Rerum), properly represented as a seductive bird. Dunbar, it may be said, in his Dance of the Sins, describes His termaa scene not unlike that in The Soul and the Body. gants in hell, we read, "full loud in Erse began to clatter.'' The Owl long before had betrayed the same prejudice when she
said of the frivolous Nightingale:
Irish priest."
"Thou
chatterest as doth
an
In
time of Edward
the Nightingale
Thus
pleasantly the
poem
DIDACTIC WORKS
possible of the other and the best of herself.
fair
chap.
nightingale
sitting
The
is
on a
blossoming branch of the hedge when she catches sight of the owl on an
old ivy-grown stock near by, and stops to express her contempt for the sullen
bird.
The owl
And,
the quarrel once under way, each pours upon the other bitter
life, style
comments
and purpose of singing. The owl appears to get rather the better of the argument, and the nightingale has to At last she tries to win by the clamour of use subtle shifts to hold her own. supporters whom she summons to her aid, and thereby a. company of bird A wren interferes to stop the strife and exasperates the owl to vehemence.
suggests that the case be then submitted to Master Nicholas.
This
all
agree
should be done
and of the Nightingale "that clepeth forth the fresheleves newe." But more helpful in interpreting the debate are the words of the
poet's contemporary, Giraldus Cambrensis, in his Topography of
Ireland, who,
when
and
falcons,
thus moralises
May we not compare to the first class of birds those who, indulging in sumptuous banquets, equipages, and clothing, and the various other allurements of the flesh, are so won by their charms that they study only earthly things and give themselves up to them ; and as they do not soar en high to gain the prize by resolute and persevering efforts, their conversation is on
earth and not in heaven.
Those, again,
may be compared
all
privations.
choose rather, by divine inspiration, to suffer hardships and And, since all virtue soars high, struggling upwards with all their their efforts, their aim and object is that recompense and reward for labours above which the violent take by force.
The
Owl and
the Nightin-
The former opposes permanent to transient gale is similar. pleasures, unselfish to lustful inclination, the earnest life to one
of indulgent ease, religious duty to worldly joy.
The poem
dialectics, for
is
which the medieeval university trained its students It seems to contain a modern, a personal note, surpassingly.
of the author with his conflicting
DIDACTIC WORKS
The
soul
427
"with
tristful
cheer" contrasts the former and the present its "mournful moan," blaming
sorry state.
Much mutual
in every wise.
The
victim
is
equipped with
hell-attire as for
a tourna-
devil's
him with blazing brands. life he had so loved the Forced at last to blow chase), and is pursued by a pack of keen hell-hounds. his horn, he assembles a horde of devils, who hurry him to the abyss of
made to ride a course while the demons Then 'he is forced to play the part of fox
(in his
is
cast
overwhelmed with
terror
and
rejoices at his
down and locked in. The dreamer is own salvation from such a fate.
sin
He
" Never
Christ's
mercy
We
Comus
Such are those thick and gloomy shadows damp Oft seen in charnel vaults and sepulchres. Lingering and sitting by a new-made grave As loth to leave the body that it loved
On
and
significant of the
is
that already
mentioned, The_
Owl and
the Nightingale,
an anonymous poem,
composed about 1220, containing nearly 1800 lines of spirited verse. The writer was a cultivated man, skilled in argument, and he presented the contrasting views of his characters with
uncommon
a
skill.
The
by both as wise and virtuous, whose merits were greater than one would infer from the recognition he had
extolled
man
It is
this
probable that
who took
means
to exalt
He
and
as over-
426
DIDACTIC WORKS
He
was
at the crucifixion.
The Jew
Englishman
But
through a
the
hill
Round Table
are at
games
that
he has been
Cross
thereby
When
an
illusion of the
is
destroyed.
The Jew
far the
is
converted.
the religious dialogues
Soul,
But by
is
most impressive of
which
stands apart from the rest because of passing popularity, and because in
its
best form
presents a
nature personified.
in French and sevwal other languages, as and late forms of Middle English verse.
The most
poetical
is
that
found in
a manuscript of
lines
c.
stanzas.
The opening
As
Forsooth
When
It turned,
So
It said,
"
Ah
wo
Wo
thou so.
?
"
IX
DIDACTIC WORKS
no
final
4^5
usually
conclusion
clerical
is
reached.
Both are
style
to
some extent
Proven9al
modelled on Latin
more
particularly
its
partimen and
Of Middle English
extant
{c.
1200)
is
Virtues, in
and Reason
its
In Ypotis, written in
calls
present
later,
a romance,
we
turns
out to
in
of
Rome,
and
instruction
is
The
wrote in
tale of
Holy Writ"
late
form of the
name
Cross,
and
in
of the Passion
the
narrated.
Disputation between
clerk,
Mary and
The
Law
in
of Jews
is
realistic, if
non-Biblical
That between
Good
Man and
the
Devil
is
sum
ments of the devil, who, disguised as a handsome youth, joins Good Man on his way home from divine service and seeks to pervert him, but who in the end must acknowledge his real self
The Dispute between a and return a "sorry ghost" to hell. Christian and a Jew, rather a legend than a debate, relates how
two learned divines, the one an Englishman,
Berwick, the other a Jew, meet at Paris and
Sir
Walter of
make
a bet of three
424
DIDACTIC WORKS
Definitely religious, or with a religious trend, are such English
as The Saw of St Bede Priest, Ratis Raving, and The Folly of Fools and Thews of Wise Men. The Sayings of St. Bernard deals warningly with man's three foes the world, the flesh, and
poems
the devil
while
St.
Bernard's
tract;
in Scottish verse
named Raymund,
gives practical
De
From
method
Among
sums of theology.
form
for riddles
Among
and
it
was a natural
flytings.
darius, but
much more
the Edda,
by means of which
much
towards
life.
Not
far
from iioo,
in English
composed but a
short while
before by
Honor^ d'Autun,
in
;
late as
Wynkyn
de Worde
of a
chap-book form,
and
found favour
more
These are usually short, cleverly by the name of "debates." constructed works, in which representative combatants argue the Though in them the method merits of opposing points of view.
of dialogue
is essential,
is
no consistency
in the
use of terms, we
may
and
debate to
which
DIDACTIC WORKS
of
tender age," was an authorised text-book for
in
423
"grammar"
instruction
schools.
English text accompanies the Latin and French, the latter being
the work of a
monk
!^v^rard
{c.
1250).
One
an example
Instrue preceptis
animam, ne discere
cesses
Nam
Ne De
homme
en checun age
Ky
And
Man's
like
a dead image
Witless
if it
were.
We
trans-
lation
disciple,
was printed by
Caxton.
An
the
is
The work
poem
begins with a
is
the begin-
ning of wisdom
then
in the
course of the
are emphasised
Similar in conception
.is
c.
the Dides
and Sayings of
the Philosophers,
compiled in Latin
in 1450 by Stephen 1410, and translated thence twice into English Scrope, " for the contemplation and solace " of Sir John Fastolf,
and
in
The
latter
the
first
book printed
in
England
in 1477,
as to
demand two
422
DIDACTIC WORKS
chap.
about prudence in speech, watchfulness in drinking, care in choosing friends, and wisdom in treating heirs. Several later
Middle English poems were conceived in a like spirit. How the Wise Man taught his Son emphasises particularly the attitude that the Son should take towards his wife. He is advised to chastise
her " with love's awe," the rod being "
fair
words
is
"
if
he rebuke
"raise a
liable to
smoky
poem,
ends
roof."
is
How
in
more
is
each
stanza
Good Wife taught her Daughter, a better the " Hendyng " style a proverb or precept " many hands make light work," or (e.g.
the
:
" bounden
he that
gift
taketh
"), last
of
all
being appended
My
lief (dear)
child."
In another form,
"good
wife "
is
Here the
refrain
is
more
Witness the
first
stanza
The good
She For For
said,
Holy Land.
My
and save thyself from shond (shame). do as I thee teach, I charge thee thou fond (try). With an O and an I, said it is full yore. That loth child lore behooveth,
to govern this house
to
And
lief child
much more.
The
poems appears
:
to
be a comsenti-
to separate
heathen Germanic
experience, pagan
Roman
ment.
In
\!n&
ABC
of Aristotle we
poem combining
excess
:
all three,
being to avoid
" a measurable
mean way
is
best for us
all."
According
Exceptionally popular in
all
the Distichs of Cato (originally composed in, the fourth or fifth This model century), of which numerous versions remain.
treatise,
revealing "
How
the wise
man
IX
DIDACTIC WORKS
421
never thy foe that thy foot acheth"; "Many a man for land wiveth for shond (shame) " ; " He is free of horse that never had
one "
bear
burnt child dreads the highest then is the boot nighest " ; "
;
"A
fire "
"
When
the bale
is
When
the cup
is fullest
then
it
fairest";
"The
Who
"
a matter of conjecture.
In the
and thus connected him with the combat of ancient and world-wide fame.
of
this
One
dispute begins
li
or " Marcoul
respont."
mentioned
in WidsiJ)
race
called
the
To
a Hunding, then,
and therefore
attributed a
so,
been
body of proverbial lore of the sort before us. If Hunding was transformed to Hendyng under the influence
figures as the
opponent of " le
vilain
"
some
This
collections
for example,
Le Respit
Vilain.
is
it
At
events,
it
can hardly
be, as
some
to Alfred,
forgotten.
:
political significance
the
Hendyng when the Nor has the difference of name poem is valuable chiefly as a revelatraining.
is
.
temper and
in
To
appended
in
the
manuscript
another similar
poem
which an old
man
is
pictured as sitting
him good
It
is
guidance for
life.
This too
is
poem
in the Exeter
Codex
known
as
420
DIDACTIC WORKS
or
chap.
verse
elaborated
in
stanzas
in
Though
this collection
King
Alfred,
some
at least of the
is
contains
is
equally old.
and
Li Proverbe au
and
that
attributed
Le Conte de
Bretaigne.
alliterative lines
find
rhyming
aabccb,
followed by a
"Quoth Hendyng."
;
The
last
manuscripts
show considerable
variation in contents
fifty- one
make
yet
poem
of
strophes.
The
fustic) contains
280 such;
alike,
many more
exist.
people crystallised in
also
no doubt the
will clearly
on
universal experience.
A couple
nature
I lent
poem
show
its
my
cloth,
me
bid
once serveth
so.
"Seldom comes
Strong (hard)
is
And
(heed),
That ne may without care Man's heart queme (please). " Dear is bought the honey that Quoth Hendyng.
is
Here
are
some of the
DIDACTIC WORKS
wisest
419
man
that -had
ever lived in
him the composition of fables of ancient origin. On the metre and setting of the so-called Proverbs (better the Precepts) of King Alfred, Mr. Stopford Brooke has written in the preceding volume of this series. Here then we need only indicate
ascribed to
its
substance
First in the
briefly.
poem
all
towards
God
then
;
them
in authority
The
Men
tell it
"a
wise
man
is
drink until he
for their
and wake
evil.
Wives chosen
" Many
a fair-seeming apple
bitter within."
husband must anxiously control his tongue, or his spouse will repeat his " Woman is word wod (mad), and hath a words when he least desires it. tongue too swift ; though she herself well would, she may it not wield."
Wife of Bath, who would not spare her husband at him beside.") A man must be master in his own house, and keep his wife busy. If a woman is idle and She weeps for anger oftener than for good, proud, she gets into mischief. Cold is usually a woman's and refrains from speech to work her will. counsel. But a good woman is a good guide. Friends should be treated One must not tell all one's thoughts, for friends often with discretion.
are reminded of the
their
(We
own
become enemies.
friend,
Many
advantage.
A
A
true
will
wise
man
all
his will,
its
whereas
"a
fool's bolt
soon shot."
wise
Age
cares.
The dead
world.
He
is
who doth
A
{e.g.
the Nightingale,
and others here and there separately and iri Gerald's Descrip-
tion of Wales).
Most
CHAPTER
IX
DIDACTIC WORKS
The
literature
of the
for the
most part
produced by
this true
clerks, or
everywhere manifest.
Particularly
:
is
they
were nearly
moralised
original,
They
are seldom
seldom
Most
are
The Norsemen
is
possess a precept
poem
One,"
in
represented as giving to
men
and perhaps
gnomic
them in daily conduct. Similar saws, poems embodying them (in addition to
In the
verses),
some of this material was united in an interesting poem and put into the mouth of King Alfred, whose figure, long revered by native Englishmen, had gradually attained to almost
twelfth century
mythic proportions.
Alfred
is
418
RELIGIOUS WORKS
book.
4I7
To
succeeding
writers
likewise
all
the subject
afforded
inspiration.
Dunbar
in
a vision saw
seven in
hell,
each
by " Mahoun
" to
make
interest
on.
Of
exceptional
pictures
them very
who Red
He
sees her
six
first
upon an
ass
Gluttony" on a
a
filthy
swine;
then "lustful
Lechery" upon
revenging
bearded
goat;
afterwards
"malicious
Envy" on
lion
;
a
last
ravenous
of
all,
Wrath
mire.
"
upon a
when he
stands
still
in the
Shakspere, moreover, had them in mind, especially Pride the chief, when in Henry VIII. he charged Cromwell to " fling away ambition," for " by that sin fell the angels." Other places
where the
or
in
English works,
carvings,
tapestries,
stained-glass windows,
unnecessary to enumerate.
indicate
and Examples
cited to
SE
4i6
RELIGIOUS WORKS
sort
chap.
of prototype to the
Confessio
tales
wrong-doing
is
most
represented as a
sloth as
And
Of
named
in
careful order.
pigs
we
fifth
read
the third
The first is called Too Early, the second Too Too Voraciously, the fourth Too Largely,
more than
in meat.
Daintily,
the
Too
Often, in drink
Thus
farrowed."
Or
again, the
jugglers,
devil's trumpeters,
the envious
his
manciples,
the
lecherous
the
lowest
in
his
court.
In
the
hell,
is
and
are elaborately
examined
first
in
many
" root
subdivisions.
"
Pride
It
here, as regularly,
treated
as
of the
rest.
placed
corresponding remedium.
Deadly Sins
as a
mould
for his
thought.
in
struggle
More
is
that
of Langland:
to
Repentance
is
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
Nothing Jesus Christ more quemeth (pleaseth) Than love in wedlock where men it yemeth (keepeth)
4^5
A good
Where
There
is
woman
is
man's
bliss
is ;
Of
all
that a
(name),
(joy)
As a good woman
Though not
too,
so tensely vehement as
Langland,
of the
Robert
time.
is
He
the rich.
at rich
He
men
shivering
sometimes only
assisors, deceitful
and
merchants,
tricky
traders,
and the
like,
he
roundly denounces.
vices,
their irreverence
and
their
neglect
of worship for
wanton amusement
after
their
over-their
riot.
We
ing
revolt
of the
peasants.
He
is
very outspoken.
In his
the
did
fools
and the
that
right.
Men
in his time
nobility,
and
and
in
reality:
"Lordings
there
He
enough of them;
proclaims:
of
to
few.''
too
"Woe
king."
evils
of his time
and
in
sympathy
The
414
RELIGIOUS WORKS
he urges a
readers
stricter
against
the
all
attendant
sins,
on
fairs
At tournaments
clerks
seven
he declares, be blamed.
who
joust are
much
;
to
and
is
groves.
it
Women
which
"
it
and
full
great
pride,
and
heart-
heaving.''
They must not indulge in popular superstitions that come to the cradles of new-born infants to
false
devil,
determine their weird; they must not put meat out for
gods, or believe
in
witchcraft,
They should
:
Be measurable
in all things
Of all wisdoms that shall {en)diire The most (greatest) wisdom then is
measure.
as lechery
is
;
but certainly,
if
his statements
widespread in England, even among the clergy. The if they must have a lover, to choose any
priest.
But howsoever men preach or spell, Of priests' wives men hear even tell,
Of other wives I will nought say, They do not wrong but all day.
deplores the extravagance of women's dress, the elaborate headgear, saffroned wimples, kerchiefs, trailing skirts, and other
He
; he thought that many displayed their figures lewdly, self-indulgent, that they spoiled their children by were too and But he approved of marriage vanity. and heedlessness
novelties
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
The Handlyng
413
Tale,
is
and an adaptation of
its
original,
not
a mere
translation.
occupies
large
but
it
differentiates
:
with anecdotes
it is,
Robert omits
inserts
six of William's
double
the
number
in
One
of these
tells
of a miser-parson in Cambridgeshire
another
of a Norfolk
a third of a Suffolk
man who
was taken out of purgatory by two masses that his. wife got
sung
for
him
(in this
tale
and one of
certain
dishonest
executors
own
neighbourhood, Kesteven,
"false executors
who
end wickedly").
doing in their
his hearers.
vicinity,
Robert brought
home
to
Of
all
his tales
none perhaps
is
more
striking or has a
more
It is
preceded by the
following words
In church, or in churchyard.
Of sacrilege he may be
Or Or
afraid
interludes, or singing,
AH
is
While the
Robert
is
and
definite in advice.
He
412
RELIGIOUS WORKS
William represents himself as a humble
place where was neither "burg ne cit6,"
little
French
is
very poor.
significant person
than
William of Wadington,
their translators.
Robert of Brunne
is
Dan
No more
common
people.
undertook
this
book.
For many be of such manner That tales and rhymes will blithely hear In games, in feasts, and at the ale,
to
list [to]
To
folly.
made
this
rhyme.
may
And therein somewhat for to hear To leave all such foul manner, And for to kunne (be able to) know
That they ween no
sin
therein
be
in.
Robert of Brunne was no rapt mystic, no abstract philosopher. His horizon was limited ; but within his range of vision he saw Evidently averse to pedantry and cant, he spoke clearly.
Like Bishop Grosseteste, of whom he gives us interesting information, he too delighted in the The story of Arthur and the tales of bygone harping of lays. In Britain he was able to recount enthusiastically in his old age.
popularly with simplicity.
such a
man
condescension
RELIGIOUS WORKS
This meditacioun
I putte
it
4"
ay under correcioun
for I
Of clerkes,
Therfor I
am
nat textuel
make
protestacioun
to correcioun.
That
wol stonde
own
Though he seems
life,
to have
been
to
there
is
no evidence
This edifying
treatise
on the journey
to Canter-
As the pilgrims near the holy shrine, it is fitting for them to become serious, in contemplation of their supposedly pious purpose, and the Parson is represented as choosing this means to put them in the proper mood. Gower, for his Mirour de I'Omme and Confessio Amantis, utilised some treatise on Virtues and Vices, which resembled Le Somme le Hoi, and (more closely) a French Mireour du Monde, but which was more amplified than either.
In connection with these works should be examined another
didactic treatise of a similar character, the
Handlyng Synne of
We
the
Mannyng
to
history.
rhymed
chronicle, written
familiarise
common
This work was not completed until 1338, but then the
1303, he had in
that
Like
the
Robert's
also a translation
from
of Wadington, whose
Manuel
offers
des
rendering of the
Friar
Lorens.
king, a
man
in
the
most refined and courtly surroundings, a who handled his native language with
41
RELIGIOUS WORKS
we
find dull,
chap.
adulterated ethics
and no graphic
worthy of
illustrations or
its
pious monotony.
is
But
still
we
it
must acknowledge
that the
Somme
praise, for in
faith, as
then accepted
set forth,
clearly
and methodically
with
much erudition, moreover, and some elegance. This no doubt commended it to the clergy, and accounts for its frequent reproduction.
It is unsafe,
were often
Secular
so as to
become
familiar to thousands,
faithful
in writing, while
scribes
which remained comfortably in the monastery or private safe from destruction by over-use or exposure.
nothing but a free redaction of Lorens' Somme, and various conjectures were
made
works
it
and so
on.
aside.
Though
it
remains undiscovered,
a Dominican,
it
by William
a work on
who
died
in
1255,
with
penitence by
Raymond
The
latter affords
phraseology.
The
is
in
reality a digression.
closely, in general
scheme
features.
at least, a Latin or
at will
in
subordinate
He
literal exactness.
RELIGIOUS WORKS
409
Ailred's
book of
is
of Conscience), by
Dan
Michel, of Northis
is
The
it is
production
far
it
from
text
commensurate with
original work,
linguistic worth.
Not only
not an
The
We
it
have a manu-
own
handwriting, and in
its
he gives us exact
was, he
He
tells us,
Augustine
at
home
in
Kent,
and cleanse them in this life.'' Dan Michel does not say that this work is not his own, and the fact that it is but a translation from the French is a modern discovery. Now, however, it is well known that it is based in its entirety on a treatise usually entitled Le Somme des Vices et des Vertus, which was composed in 1279 by Friar Lorens (Laurentius
"that they might
Callus) at the
know how
command
St.
Louis.
its
composi-
Rot, or
Li Livres
Roial des
edification
nobility in
popularity, for
no work of
Several
Europe
for
two centuries
Dan
Book
In Caxton's time
it
it still
to perpetuate
of The
treatise of this
To
us
it
4o8
RELIGIOUS WORKS
to
Church
religious
St.
rapture.
The
Hermits and
Gentleness, tenderness,
and
is
growth
of mysticism.
common
people.
We
pedlar crying his soap and the rich mercer selling his
valuable wares.
foolish sports,"
more
We
to
Envious
men
are
compared
who know
and scowl."
as " the
make wry faces The author occasionally uses a popular proverb, cock is keen (brave) on his own dunghill " and in one
;
is
the eye
is
he
I love,''
which
in
one manu-
The Ancren Riwle is preserved also in Latin and French, and It is, at all events, the English version may not be the original. one of the most valuable monuments of early Middle English In it we find a considerable intermixture of French prose.
words, but nevertheless a form of the language near to late West-
Saxon.
The
style
is
We
regret exceedingly
The Rule
exists not
was modernised
Of
c.
516,
we
gnd North,
in
Old and Middle English, of the South prose and verse, more or less literal and complete,
RELIGIOUS WORKS
407
spoke very sweetly and such pleasant words that they might have raised the
to
life.
many mighty
kingdom,
to be
works before her eyes, and showed her his power, and offered to make her queen of all that belonged
nothing.
Was
' '
his scullion.
last said,
him
that he at
Lady, thou art attacked, and thy foes are so strong that without
thou canst not by any means escape their hands, so that they
I will for
help of
me
may
that seek
thy death.
forsooth that
receive
it
among them
win thy heart.
I shall
receive a mortal
wound; and
if
I will
to
Now
show thee, that thou love me at The king did so in every point.
arose from death to
if
life.
least after
my
death,
not while I
all
am
alive."
He
But by a miracle he
Wou'd
things
This King
is
who
as
in this
n.
manner wooed
and showed
were some-
And He,
came
deeds,
to prove
His
He
was worthy of
love, as knights
He
engaged
in
shield,
in battle, like a valorous knight. This which covered His godhead, was His dear body, that was extended on
and narrow
beneath, because, as
foot.
. . .
men
There are three things in a shield the wood, the leather, and the So was there in this shield the wood of the cross, the leather of Again God's body, and the painting of the red blood that covered it so fair. After the death of a valiant knight men hang up his shield the third reason. So is this shield, that is, the crucifix, set high in the church, to his memory. up in a church, in such a place in which it may be soonest seen, thereby to remind us of Jesus Christ's knighthood, wliich He practised on the cross. His
painting.
lemman beholdeth
pierced, that
is,
thereon
how He bought
to
let
His shield be
to
let
her openly
how
deeply
He
loved her,
show her His heart, and and to draw her heart to Him.
show
became
theme of succeeding centuries, was and stimulate particularly the women of the
406
RELIGIOUS WORKS
mouth of the on his ears
;
chap.
the
it is
upon
the
his eyes,
and
part
of
it
all
be bridled.
light
is
put in
mouth and on
the
tongue
for there
is
in talk,
we begin
tongue
is
wadeth
many words.'' In another place we find this graphic illustration: "'The devil,' we are told, 'is a liar and a father of lies.' She, then, who moveth her tongue in lying,
on from few
to
and rocketh
it
significant
in
Obviously,
romance
no and
strict
line
the
figures
of
religion,
as
was
most
natural,
because
both
in
embodied
romantic
were
together
ever
present
mediaeval minds.
tales
The
of
and
to
whom
gay
in the
world
and
longed
enticingly presented
an experience of romantic love similar to that so there. They were now encouraged to
;
There was a lady who was besieged by her foes within an earthen castle, and her land all destroyed, and herself quite poor. The love of a powerful king was, however, fixed upon her with such boundless affection, that to solicit her love he sent his ambassadors, one after another, and often many together, and sent her jewels both many and fair, and supplies of food, and She received them all as a the help of his noble army to keep the castle.
careless creature, that
to her love.
was so hard-hearted
?
any nearer
What
He came
her his
fair face, as
all
men
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
to
4$
maidens
beware especially of
idle priests.
still less."
"Believe secular
men
little,"
woman
;
to feed
a prating gossip
who
tells
her
all
a magpie
it
that chatters to
so that
is
common
men
sajing,
" From
mill
bring tidings.'
a sad tale
that a nunnery,
which
But would
windows
bolts at
The
more
at
The domestic and social duties of the nuns are somewhat They need not deny themselves all satisAinong the things to be factions; they may keep one cat.
naively indicated.
confessed regularly are such sins as the following, which end " of play, of scornful laughter, of dropping crumbs, or the list
:
grow mouldy, or
rusty,
or rotten
which we ought
through heedlessness."
The
author,
it
is
clear,
He
and
Bernard of Clairvaux.
conversant,
course,
thoroughly
and he shows
with
spirit
much
given to
and
to elaborate allegory.
Commenting on
that he
false;
is
the words of
St.
religious,
and
he deceiveth
'
good man
writes
is
"He
saith
right well,
not only in
404
RELIGIOUS WORKS
Their retreat was
at
chap.
Tarente
in
of Chichester, then of
and Durham, who was born at Tarente, who endowed the foundation there, and whose heart was buried there after his
death in 1237.
The
author was
strictly
He
rejoices that
time.
to be found in England in his But he implies that there was a great deal of bickering
no heresy was
Knowing
order of
that the
nuns would
certainly
make answer
James,
was to keep
Herein, he
adds, "is religion, and not in the wide hood, nor in the black,
He
distinguishes sharply
rule,
of the
latter, to
He
vow to keep anything as commanded except obedience, chastity, and constancy in their abode.
not to
It
is
It
was the
not the forms, of religion that this sympathetic, broadecclesiastic desired to inculcate.
minded
and clear-headed, a man of good with the ways of the world, he was an
his friendly
counsel.
is
He
can be
where he
hated,
among
ness,
is
Men
should stop
the
any
fists."
He
begs the
RELIGIOUS WORKS
to
403
by
Paradise of Raoul de Houdenc, the Tournament of Antich7-ist Huon de Mery, or such English works as Winner and Waster
Vision of Tiers
and The
Tlowman.
The
style
of allegorical
first
half of
Human
and
work which was translated into English in Lydgate's time and forms a sort of prototype of the famous
Christ,
a tedious
The
concerning
Bristow,
Guy
together
and
with
the
the
Otherworld journey of
interesting
to
Thomas
of
of
St.
Erceldoun
exceptionally
Voyage
Brendan, the
latter
of which
still
appealed
and
found a
safe abiding-place.
Books of Edification
Books of
English.
edification, rehgious rather than didactic, yet
both
at
and
Those
in English
then prevailing;
and
their
literary
interest
is
far
greater
may be mentioned
from the
title,
rest in the
purpose of
its
production, as indi-
cated by the
Rule of Nuns."
This
man,
young
for
in
the spring-time of
had forsaken
all
of the
402
RELIGIOUS WORKS
chap.
Ages among the morbidly devout. What people in a trance, or under the influence of religious ecstasy, imagined they saw, they could easily persuade their credulous selves and their fellows was in fact true, and there was no reluctance -on the part of most to
accept as a divine revelation the definite statements they made,
dwelt,
fuller
and
A
is
and
incomparably
finer
account
may be found
hereafter,
in
and exalted
depicted the
vision of the
life
happy
wherein
in the
Lamb
New Jerusalem.
Apoca-
The
description of the
St.
lypse of
suggested.
beautiful,
joys,
no matter how-
conversion of evil
men
and stimulate devotion to dutiful works as dire warnings of eternal woe for offenders and for this, as well as for other reasons. The Pearl was not so popular as works of vastly less merit. Of all
;
English visions
it
is
by
far
of course,
more grandly and executed with nobler art than Nothing like it, we since.
be undertaken again
invisible "
;
may be
for
nowadays,
if
we
to
some
letter
of the after
is
life
only answer
we
"thou
and
hell."
We
above
in
all,
the Romance of
prolific
progeny of
Dream
VIII
RELIGIOUS WORKS
401
one of
his plays.
There to
repeated exposure
The
when
St.
Vision
of the
Monk
it
appears,
St.
Hugh
of Lincoln.
The
The
St.
more
strikingly of
a revelation by
'
Julian to a
is
husbandman
to
The
author
is
supposed
be Ralph of Coggeshall.
Most
interesting
sat
where fiends
about
priest,
The
last, it
acquaintances
life,
pleads
who had died that very year. He acts as and accepts bribes, then is forced to swallow and
Visions
The
and
the Seven
Deadly
Sins, of
which we
Such accounts
as these of purgatory
and
hell
measure
for the
life
malities of
Middle D
400
RELIGIOUS WORKS
the description of which the author passes almost beyond the limits of endurance.
cruel
Tundale was an Irish nobleman, handsome and and vainglorious, who preferred to give money
jesters rather than to priests,
strong, but
to jugglers
fitting
and
that day,
and of course
it
was but
reward.
he should have a
foretaste of his
future
One
all
when
in anger
him by a
friend,
who, being
absolution,
by sorrow for his misdeeds, sought a means of and for that reason ventured into a subterranean cavern near Lough Derg in Donegal, which Christ had revealed to St. Patrick as an entrance to the Otherworld. He saw enough in this brief visit to show him the wisdom of leading a virtuous and pious life on earth. Other knights take warning
afflicted
Sf. Patrick's
in con-
French verse
dictine
monk, Henry of Saltrey, time as Tundale. His concoction gained very wide credenccj and various early English and Continental scholars refer to the legend as a real event. It is accessible in three Middle English
versions,
who turned a Latin form into The Latin author was a Benewho flourished about the same
one of the
last
Sir Owain's situation, it will be one in the Auchinleck MS. observed, differs from that of Tundale, who simply sees what he sees in a trance, in that the hero (like Ulysses, ^neas, and
Orpheus)
tale.
visits
tell
his
The
awesome
see,
mystery.
Certainly
it
pious veneration.
There,
complete armour of
vm
RELIGIOUS WORKS
Of Middle English
visions, that of St.
399
Paul
differs
from the
rest in
not a
new
it
or
supposedly
new
creation.
Modelled
on
the
first
Apocalypse of
century),
tury,
St.
took
was expanded
Latin
in the
ninth,
much power
in
latest
in the thirteenth.
Four
Each contains a terrible picture damned. At the very gates of hell are
own
their necks,
obliged to fast
when
commemorative of
Over
fifty
their sins.
Still
better
it
known was
its
manu-
scripts of
in
An
preserved
and the
result has
been
truly called
Genuinely
of purgatory, in which
it
who
their shapes
and who flow through like wax, then regain and undergo the same process repeatedly as before ;
the lake
full of monsters spanned by a spiked bridge, not the breadth of a hand but over two miles long, which robbers must
traverse with what they have stolen ; the huge beast Acheron, which swallows thousands of the covetous at once ; not to mention the special abode of the arch-fiend Lucifer in hell, in
DIDACTIC WORKS
temporary with Roger Bacon and Thomas Aquinas
it
433
the
result,
lectures that
numerous young
all
who
and
for
Europe
of Higden,
It
who was
chaplain
early as
of Sir
1495.
was printed as
throws most
all
and by a host of
physiology,
contemporaries.
beliefs
Here we
concerning
astronomy,
chemistry,
all sorts
of side-lights on
his information
from various
authorities,
;
and natural
history
;
and Arab
;
writers for
astronomy
Con-
modern
drew extensively
to
From
Not because
John's
style,
but
and incidentally
brief descriptions
to illustrate
may be
given his
of a
maid
and a
cat,
which we are at
liberty to regard
as the result of
personal observation.
Of a Maid.
complexion
;
Men behoove
and
to take heed of
fair
maidens
for
;
they be tender of
small, pliant,
of disposition of body
shamefast, fearful,
Touching outward
demure
of speech, and well ware of what they say, and delicate in their
apparel.
And for a woman is more meeker than a man, she weepeth sooner. more envious, and more laughing, and loving and the malice of the And slie is of feeble kind, .and she soul is more in a woman than in a man. maketh more lesings (untruths), and is more shamefast, and more slow in working and in moving than is a man.
And
is
2 F
434
DIDACTIC WORKS
Of
the
Cat.
chap, ix
He
is
full
before
him
and
is
led
full
by a
straw,
and
;
is
sleepy,
and
mice
and
smell than by sight, and hunteth and rusheth on them in privy places
and
when he
play.
In time of love
And
he maketh
;
ruthfiil
is
hardly
hurt
when he
he
is
is
it
when one proflFereth to fight with another and thrown down off an high place. And when he
were proud
thereof,
hath a
fair skin,
as
and goeth
is
fast
about
and
when
changed,
less
if
we
are
our observation of
than of yore.
peculiarities is
greater.
no keener
read with
We
all
" beclipped
about by
the
sea,''
England
is full of mirth and of game, and man ofttimes able to mirth and game, free men of heart and with tongue, but the hand is more better and more free than the tongue.
England
CHAPTER X
SONGS AND LYRICS
Lyrical poetry
in
is
of
many
kinds,
There
still
however,
for
con-
sideration
collected
number of short poems which might be a mediaeval "Golden Treasury of Songs and
shall turn
poem
on some
Middle English
classes
lyrics
may be
and
ecclesiastical, popular,
the production in
Yet no such
the
inevitable clerks were
not recognise
clerks,
transgression of limits
minstrels,
for
monks were
and
and
all sorts
Moreover, ecclesiastics
in both classes
occupied themselves
Furthermore, no
now
style
with religious,
now with
Ecclesiastical
;
poems favour
the complications
striking
But
it
is
how
special domain.
The songs
436
sensuousness
troubadour
verse,
while
those
of
artificial
product
will
be added a
refrain
metre and in
much
the same
In general,
Middle English
as
polish, they
make up
for in sincerity.
All
show Many,
form a definite
to
be
sure, espe-
West Midland
is
district,
evince a tendency
to alliteration
but this
than as
method of
finest
structure.
The
lyrics
of the
period
reached their
senting
line.
form in
artistically
direct
prototypes
of
much
of
modern
English verse.
Just as the
first
winsome
spirit
seems
it it
new
birth five
hundred years
later,
when
Again was
revisits for a
moment
came
to Whitby,
origin
inspired
by
ar
The
in
memory.
Of him
all at
it is
when
the sun
in the
heavens, he lay bowed in earnest prayer before the altar of the Virgin,
when
very beautiful, with raiment shinirrg white, in figure not large, resembling
The
petitioner
was possessed by
Soon, however, the two drew near with slow steps, and Our Lady
"We
"protect thee to the end of the world, and Godric threw himself at her feet, and
Thereupon the holy ones laid their hands on head and stroked the hair from his temples, and the whole place was filled
X
with sweet fragrance.
437
which she sang before him as liefore remembered it all the days of his life.
in his
Next the mother of mercy taught him a new song; a pupil, and he sang it after her and When he had the text and melody fast
vexation threatened to overcome him, to sing the same, giving him this assur-
ance
if
thou wilt
call
on
me
with
this prayer,
me
at
making repeatedly over his she and her companion vanished, leaving behind
Then,
after
them the most wonderful fragrance. This tale, with tears flowing from his eyes, Godric more than once related to Reginald, monk of Durham, by whom it was recorded, together with the text of the song, as follows
:
Sainte Marie,
uirgine,
Moder
Onfo,
flur,
mine
sinne, rixe in
min mod.
self
Bring
me
to
winne with
God.
embrace and bring him aloft with thee into the kingdom Mary, Christ's abode, pearl (cleanness) of maidens, flower of mothers, remove my sin, rule in my mind, aid me to reach to God Himself."
St.
life
of
birth in
Durham.
We
possess
two other songs attributed to him, one composed on the occasion of the appearance to him of his dead sister, who in
was allowed to return to earth to assure him of her salvation, and another concerning a vision that he had of St. Nicholas, whom he saw with angels singing at the grave of
answer to
his prayer
Christ.
He joined
we examine
is
in their song,
which
St.
Nicholas commended.
Virgin,
is
If
Godric's song to
:
the
we observe
anticipates in
that
it
is
in stanzas,
embellished by
it
rhyme, and
fired
by mysticism
that, in fact,
and
spirit
Very
similar
438
chap.
attributed
manner of life. come down so late to find parallels Only a little after Godric's time {c. 1210) to his prayer-poem. was written A Good Orison of Our Lady, a "lay" skilfully wrought in some 170 long lines of fluent verse, "found," we are informed, by a monk, possibly first in Latin.
followed St Godric's
But
it is
not necessary to
It begins
"
Christ's
mild mother,
St.
Mary,
all
light of
my
life,
my dear
lady
to thee I
my
The poet
their
declares that he will sing love-songs to her incessantly, for she has
She is bright and blissful above all women, "blossom" before the throne of God. High is her throne above the
;
cherubim
the angels
make
them in a land of indescribable mirth, Her from golden bowls pours out to them eternal life with angelic joys. company are all radiant in white ciclatouns and wear golden crowns red as roses and white as lilies, gleeful in the presence of their Lord and His queen.
richest gifts to her friends, ennobles
She
is
the well-spring of
life
heaven
is full
;
of her
for
it
bliss,
mercy.
The poet
to him.
is
he has forsaken
that
was dear
to shield
He
his
Many
translated,
and
salutations to
in
Our Lady,
the
Ave
centuries.
An
example of the
sort,
:
of Heaven's
bliss.
Sweet flower of Paradise, mother of mildeness. Pray Jesu thy Son that He me rede and wiss (guide)
So
my way for
it
to go, that
He me
is
never miss.
The
in the
metre,
may be
observed,
seven accents and a caesura after the fourth, found most accurately
Ormulum, which by
as the "
became what
is
known
Common
Metre."
With
it
should be compared
half of the thirteenth
that of another
first
X
century, from
439
district,
where French
first.
rhymes
in the
second
oreysoun
From
I
sliame thou
me
shield, e de ly inalfeloun.
;
Thou art fair and free, e plein de doacour Of thee sprang the blee, ly soucrein creatour ;
Maiden, beseech
I thee vostre seint secour.
Meek and
more melodious
that
is
Of one
so
fair
and
is
light,
parens
et pttella,
me,
tarn pia.
That
may come
to thee,
Maria.
Eva peccatrice.
te genetrice.
salutis.
The
Lady, flower of
Thou bore Jesu, Heaven's king, Of all thou bearest the prize.
Lady, queen, of paradise,
electa.
gratia divina.
es effecta.
stabat mater of
uncommon
tenderness
is
extant in six-line
lines
stanzas,
rhyming
aabccb.
In stanzas of eight
the
"five
And
poems
love-
of " love-longing
she inspired.
Most notable of
Rune
of the Franciscan
Thomas
of
440
Hales,
composed
it
young
she might by
The author
is false
and
fickle, that
famous
away
is
meadow-grass.
None
so rich, none
shall not
is
so free.
That he
Never may it his warrant be, Gold nor silver, estate, array.
No
matter
how
swift,
he
may
not
flee.
Nor defend his life any day. Thus is this world as thou mayst see. Even as the shadow that glides away.
He who
His love
is
is
blind.
inconstant, untrue.
Where
and such
as she.
Hector with
his sharp
meyne.
And
They are glidden out of the reyne. As the shaft is from the clee (sling).
It is as if
Christ.
If she only
He
is
of hue,
how
glad of cheer
is turned to cold. The knew His good ways, how fair and and mild of mood, how lovesome
and how
Him.
contrary,
He
asks no dowry.
attire,
On
the
beloved in incomparable
take her to a
dwelling fairer than ever Solomon wrought, built on a sure foundation, where
all is bliss.
Christ's sight.
He
her
jewel of greatest price, "set in the gold of heaven,'' which shineth above all
it
pure, she
Christ
is
The
to other
X
maidens.
as
it
441
with sweet voice, and do
to
her sing
it
bids.
to let her
come
His bridal-chamber in
heaven.
my
soul "
is
the keynote of
Two,
entitled
The
particularly
is
impregnated
rapturous
The
"Jesus' spouse."
He
begs to
Of
the
which we learn
like
extravagant ecstasy.
More attractive to us are the several graceful songs in which we hear a truly subjective note, where a definite impression is
evoked by a suggestive scene, the temper being rather that of the
secular
lyric.
Thus,
for example,
When
And
I see
blossoms spring,
A A
sweet love-longing
Enters
my
heart anon,
That
It
gladdeth
all
my
song.
wot
mid iwys
My joy
and eek
my
bliss
To Him
alone belong.
He
on the
cross,
and the
in a
sight
earnest devotion.
poem,
freshness
:
A charming Song on
Summer is come and winter gone, The days begin to grow long
442
me
That
is
so mild
of hand.
Thoughts on the
and con-
suitably
poem
my
care,
Now
waxed bare
When
Of our
Perhaps the best of
it
cometh
in
my
it
thought
worldly joy,
how
goeth to nought.
all,
however,
is
is
Now shrinketh rose and lily flower. That whilom bore the sweet savour. In summer, that sweet tide ; There is no queen so strong in power. There is no lady so bright in bower That death shall not by glide.
Whoso
will lust of flesh forego
And
Heaven's
bliss abide.
On Jesus
he
his
thought bestow,
After this introduction, the author tells straightway of his feelings one morning when, leaving Peterborough in gay mood, he begins to think of his folly and prays the Lord to save him from the loathsome house wrought for the devil." He sees that he is to gain sweetness and soundness of spiritual nature by penance, which is the medicine of the Virgin, the best leech in
'
'
the world.
More
plainly personal
is
man
the prayer to his "high lord," his in " the sere, the yellow leaf," who
spirit
of the Anglo-
Saxon Wanderer:
443 and
less
counted."
His
money
are
all
gone.
"When
and
go halting
turn
in the hall," so
he complains,
"my
He
!
is
now
away
as if
and eld
(old age)
woe
two
Follow
me
so fast,
Meseems my
so
?
How may
While
his life
it
longer last
was
evil,
gab and
liar
guile),
his
comrades,
his
latimer, sloth
He
and prays
for succour.
misery
and looks
Heaven.
Possibly by the same writer is a longer poem, entitled Maximion, likewise in strophes of varying length, and on the same general theme, the change of earthly conditions and the
transitoriness of the joys of the world.
Chaucerian Court of Love, and Skelton, connecting him with Seneca and Boethius in the Garland of Laurel,
mentioned
in the
mad
ditties
how
the
first
Elegy of Maximian.
verse of this mournful character one turns with relief
From
impregnated with
and the courtly poetry of France. Of the folk-song proper we have no good example left unless it be the familiar one of the Cuckoo, wherein the advent of
the spirit both of the native folk-song
summer
is
robustly sung
Summer is y-comen in, loude sing cuckow Groweth seed and bloweth mead and springeth the woode now. Sing cuckow
!
!
444
Well singest
now.
This song
is
particularly
is
interesting because
the music to
which
in
it
was sung
monk
of Reading, in Berkshire,
the founder of the so-called " First English School " of music. It is described as " the earliest secular composition in parts which
a Canon, or Round,
now known as the Reading Rota; as melodious as an Italian Fa la of the best period, and, considering the date at which it
was written, wonderfully
trained writers to
free
accompany
for
their art-lyrics,
airs in
mind.
is
To
poem
of
troubadour
style,
example,
attached
following
refrain
The
author of this
poem
offers
allegorical,
He
counsel in tro
and
is
Thus he concludes
For her love I cark and care. For her love I droop and dare For her love my bliss is bare.
(decline).
And
all I
wax wan.
in sleep I slake.
all
night I wake,
I
make,
refrain,
more
445
When
The
little
On
I live in love-longing
am
in her bandoun.'
A
I
lent,'
poem
Very graceful likewise are the six-line stanzas of another short in which is expressed the anguish of a lover who dares not
The
I
were a thrustlecock,
bountyng,' or a laverok,^
Sweet bride Between her kirtle and her smock I would me hide.
Gemma
Eccksiastica,
tells
an
amusing anecdote of a
refrain of a similar
priest
song ringing in his ears, chanted at the altar " Sweet lemman, thine ore (mercy)," instead of Dominus vobiscum Gerald
many
other lyrics of
In Johon we have a
with a different one.
carefully- written
song in
five stanzas of
was favoured
written.
in the
Here is also fulness of alliteration, such as West Midland district where the poem was
and with certain
The
'
Power.
^
3 Turned.
Alighted.
Blackbird.
Lark.
446
same author seems to have been -rhyme strophe beginning "With longing I am led," in which he tells of his amorous madness, and imagines that all heaven would be in his lady's embrace a sentiment expressed in another poem of similar nature and metre
notables of story.
By
the
written
a clever song in
tail
concerning The Beauty of Ribbesdale, who, to judge from the poet's phrases, was beyond compare in feature and form. One can
but
feel that
one
is
immersed
reading descriptions of " the fairest wights," " and beauty making
beautiful old
rhyme
in praise of ladies
dead and
valiant knights."
In stanzas of four long lines with the same rhyme are preserved two love -complaints,
North-East Midland.
thus
When
And
the nightingale singeth, the woods waxen green, Leaf and grass and blossom springeth, in Averil, I ween,
love
is
to
teen (grieve).
have loved
all this
may
love
no more,
To me is love no nearer, and that me rueth sore. Sweet lemman, think of me, I have loved thee yore.
The
other complaint
is
characterised
by being
in dialogue,
My
She
death I love,
is
my
life I
me
well seen.
it is
All I
fall
summer when
green,
me
nought, to
whom
shall I
me
fast.
mene.
me
last
so
That
ween
to
walke wod,
if it still
longer
My
sorrow,
my
What
helpeth thee,
my
sweet lemman,
my
life
The
; ;
447
fool,
with thee
I will
not chide.
day when
I will
love thee.
Never shame
it
will
be great
shame
to be
to her if
he dies
is,
where he
since he
Again she reproves him for a fool watclicd by her falher and kin, and if they two
and he
slain
:
so he
may win
me show;
Now
am
as sorry a
man
a
as blithe a while
ago
Fifty times
we
many
man
Waylaway
I
Why
all
sayest thou so ?
My
grief thou
makest new
loved a clerk
full true.
He
I
my
life,
the sooth I
tell
to you.
M'hile
I
was a clerk
in school, well
have suffered
of lore,
Far from home, and eke from men, near no friendly door, Sweet lady, have pity on me. Alas I can no more
!
love
woundes
suffer
ill
all
For thou
art
mine and
my kin am thine
me
still,
thy wishes to
fulfil.
estrif,
in
whom
she meets in a
forest.
From
verse.
we have an
ironical
poem
and
mocking the
of a
He
among them
Norman
whose " book of ladies' love," an imitation doubtless of the Provengal leys damor, had taught him his fault.
certain other songs of
These poems, however, are artificial in comparison with Midland origin, among which perhaps the
is
best
448
Lent
That
bringeth
Each
fo\vl
song singeth.
against deceivers.
too
is
month
of May,
and
poems of
it
would seem,
as a conven-
means
The
it
was especially
taste,
interested.
The
and
all sorts
and English)
that his
book con-
Here we
King
Horn, the Proverbs of Hendyng, the Debate of the Body and the Soul, and the oldest of English miracle-plays. The Harrowing of
Hell.
But most interesting are the forty English songs which accompany them, eight of which are political, fourteen secular, and We are most fortunate to have this body of eighteen religious. mediaeval lyrics thus preserved. Harleian MS. 2253 is as valuable
for the study of lyrics as the
Another
older,
little
is
Digby 86
in the Bodleian, in
is
which a second
extant.
Both of these
lyrics
included
were not
all
same
time.
449
are
and
district
the
many
short
like)
poems
(prayers,
orisons,
Hail -Marys,
and the
contained in the important Vernon MS., written late in the fourteenth century.
a collection of
is
These poems,
however, are
all
and the
may
well be post-
we come
division;
for
is
is
And
:
in
best
qualities
is
numbers
in early England,
no
but in no
in similar form.
Only
one ballad
but another
story,
is
is
poem
of the same
sort, likewise
based on apocryphal
considered as
and these were far from being isolated works. Langallusion to the rhymes of Robin Hood and Randolph,
Battle of Otterburn was fought
Earl of Chester, shows that such things were current before 1377.
The
on August
19, 1388,
it
and
must have
It was h propos of been composed before Chaucer's death. Chevy Chace, which treats the same theme, that Addison wrote in the Spectator the following significant words
:
"When
songs and fables that are come from father to son, and are most
2G
450
in
chap, x
common
it
which
passed;
for
is
universally tasted
and approved by a multitude, though they of a nation, which hath not in it some
nature
in with
is
the
it,
and gratify the mind of man. Human same in all reasonable creatures and whatever falls will meet with admirers amongst readers of all qualities
;
. .
andjionditions.
" I
the
essential
and
the Gothic
than this
the
first
pleases all
kinds of palates, and the latter only such as have formed to themselves a wrong
artificial
taste
upon
little
fanciful authors
and
writers of epigram.
Homer,
is
an epigram of
trary,
who would neither relish nor comprehend Martial, or a poem of Cowley so, on the con:
is
the
delight
of the
common
to
please
all
plain,
it
recommend
to the
will
CHAPTER
CONCLUSION
It
will
XI
not
require
many words
Ages.
all
The
made acquainted
with practically
ficance,
and he
is
in a position
and
last
so
can be determined
This
cannot have
from the
documents now
available
as
evidence.
for
it
restrictive clause
escaped notice
how
made
in the
sorts of
the
Layamon's BnU^
all in their
original forms.
And
it
should be constantly
serves to
make more
tolerant
it
our
critical
judgment
of particular works,
whom
in
made
appeal.
is
among
well-to-do
Of Geoffrey of Monmouth's
Museum
1360,
alone,
and
Of English
perhaps the
works, on
the other
hand, written
451
before
452
CONCLUSION
chap.
wealthy book-buyers.
scripts of
At a
no lack of manu-
them most
and decorated.
The
inference
is
development of our
literature
was retarded
ment
so
we would
to
no doubt, because
Plainly,
made
in
the
first
instance."
must understand their authors' special mission, the province committed to their control, the extent of their delegated
authority.
One must
aimed
that
in
general
they
substance or form,
and the polite. These latter, the learned and the polite, though they wrote almost exclusively in what we now regard as foreign tongues,
undoubtedly
reflect best the
spirit
of the
Middle Ages.
lectual
it
We
to consider
intel-
and
artistic life
of that period
a most important
and when
the
period,
should be remembered,
institutions
when
being
the
laid,
foundations of modern
literary
English
were
Only when we
shall
when we
can we
men
of the
time because from a variety of causes Latin and French were the
CONCLUSION
examine these with increasing pains
453
developed more varied and more refined modes of expression, together with a broader outlook, greater catholicity of temper, and
a less parochial
spirit in the
is
domain of literary
art.
great
literature
favoured in England before and after the Conquest. To regard the writers of the fourteenth century and later as the lineal
descendants of Anglo-Saxon
precursors
is
fundamentally
false.
Chaucer did not exhibit the spirit of early times reawakened after a slumber of centuries, but was the product of conditions secured
by
rule.
English
literature did
not go
end of
it,
the
same
in essentials of style.
The whole
effect the
voice,
had helped
to
change.
So blended
is
knowledge of ethnic
racial currents to
of the
diverse
But
its
in
the
due
anxious, to withstand.
sadly misrepresented.
and
ecclesiologists
and
dissenters
on the
Both
parties
have based their judgments on incomplete or inaccurate knowledge of the actual conditions of mediaeval
forgotten that "all that glitters
is life.
not gold";
that
The Middle
reality as well as
454
CONCLUSION
pomp and
pageantry.
They
men.
But
is
and
historical
Middle Ages
allure the
They
constitute the
in litera-
much was
its
kind.
the
names of very few distinguished writers in the vernacular can be mentioned but no one will deny that many poetic themes which
;
then originated
literature;
may be counted
and it is not a question easily answered, whether that more valuable to the world, more significant in the history of civilisation, which discovers and displays the ore of the imagination, or that which takes what is placed in its hands and perfects its form. At all events, the Middle Ages, when poetic material
age
is
of the finest quality was laid bare, even though not altogether
separated
from
common
dross
and
dirt,
are perhaps
more
in-
any subsequent period, because they were a time of new planting and fresh burgeoning, of
structive to the historian of letters than
in the vigour
of their youth.
And
Are haunting
my memory
still
A boy's
And
One
is
constantly reminded in
reading mediseval
English
child
Though a
woodland
retreat.
and ignorant
CONCLUSION
45S
By
and, though at
mocked
at
Table
for his
all
them
by
his strength of
will.
For a time
but he soon
him
and
trial,
found occasion to
start
marked by steady progress towards exalted achievement. After older and more accomplished warriors had abandoned the
quest of the Grail, he kept pressing on, until finally he solved
that holy mystery
and
human
who,
success.
Elizabethan literature
may be
likened to a mature
man
liberally
By foreign study and cosmopolitan associations his South. knowledge increased, his standards became more justly fixed, and The years of his individual powers grew more clearly marked.
this
after career,
it
stimulated
restrained
him to lofty undertaking, while at the same time it him from crudity and excess. The Middle Ages were
essential
"The
in
its
merit
of
mediaeval
its
art,"
an architect has
of
instinctive creativeness,
this is true also
call
And
is
popular mediaeval
breathing morn."
"the
of incense-
The age
left
of chivalry produced
zeal,
men who
with
wrote
virility
and
Such
writers,
"that great
poem
which,"
"all
456
CONCLUSION
chap, xr
built
We
the
have here been occupied more with the matter than with
in the
manner of poetry
in the
former
we find its most real contribution to modern times. But the manner also it is important to regard closely before making a
final
In another
volume the
styles will
be more
fully discussed.
Then,
too,
more may be
affections, the
product
its
of
the wholesomeness of
its
its
freshness of
simplicity, the
steadiness of
its
its ideals.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX
Historical Events
1066-87
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
; ; :
APPENDIX
French
Note.
are
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
English
Middle English works mentioned below is indicated by the letters or words Thus in parentheses. S.^L=South Midland; S.W.=South-West N.M.S.=--North Middle South; N.E.M.= North - East Midland In JC. = Kentish.
;
wiih an asterisk are neither nor Anglo- French. AH of them, however, will be seen to have some connection with linglish productions. The dates assigned are in general as stated in the last edition of Uaston Paris's Litceraturc _fran(aise au ntoycn age.
iiiarkeil
Norman
many
is
1066 *Chanson de Roland sung at Hastings. (Present form, c. 1080 Oxford MS., c. iryo Rhyined, c. 1165.)
1066-1154
Anglo - Saxon
i.
Chronicles
;
c. 1 060
*Pilerinagc tie Cltarletiiagne. Laws of William the Conqueror. Prose Psalters of Oxford and Cambridge. *Saints' Lives Sermons in Verse
Not
preserved
to 1121 ; ii. 1122-31 iii. 1132-54 (Peterborough). Anglo-.Saxon MSS. copied. Songs l^allads Lays Proverbs Epic Tales by Leo-
fric et al.
Be^'es
Ren art
11
West - Saxon
Gospels
Kpic).
:
19
c. 1
c.
130 1120
Blelieris : G^ste de Gaivayne. Philippe de Thaiin Couiput. Bestiaire. ,, ,, Songs of Luc d e la Barre
Aelfric'b) Homilies rewritten. Short Religious and Didactic Poems Paternoster, Creed,
:
(against
Henry
L),
etc.
Benoit Vie de St. Brendan. Elieof Winchesterand Everard of Kirkham Met. trans, of Cato. Wace Short Poems.
:
140 David (Lost) Poem on Henryl. Estolre des Bngleis. 1148 (iainiar Wace ; Brut. c. 1155 1150-60 * Tltehes, Eneas, Scpt Sages. IJenoit de Ste. More Troie. c. iz6o Lancelot (Ulrich's source).
c. 1
c.
: : :
150
Songs of
St.
Godric of Dur-
ham (t
1150-1200
1170).
Distichs of Cato,
Robert Bifiuet
Lai du
:
*Crestien de Troyes
Cor. Trans, of
;
Ovid
1160)
lot
{c.
;
;
Tristan
C/ii'L's (i
1
1170 1200
Poema Morale
I'iees
170)
Ivain
(c.
1172)
and
I'irtues (S.E.).
c. 1205 1200-50
Layamon's Brut,
Homilies
(Wore),
459
460
ENGLISH LITERAT^TRE
Historical Events
1187 1152-go 1157-82
1 1177
Latin
_^. 1175
_/?.
of Henry with hts sons. Saracens take Jerusaleni. Frederick Barbarossa. Valdemar the Great of Den-
Wars
1180
J?. 5185
Henry
of Saltrey.
etc.
_^. 1190
Nigel Wireker,
mark.
De PhiWde et Flora,
Political
Adam
of St. Victor.
Poems and
Satires.
fl.
H69-75
1119-74 1135-1204
1189-99 1189-92
Crusade
in
Acre
taken
Richard
Germany.
Saxo Grammaticus.
Averroes. Alain de I'lsle.
1157-1217 1 1193 1 1 198? 1 1201 ? t izoz? _/f. 1189 _/?. 1200 T^. 1235
Ji. 1200 Ji. 1207
fl.
fl-
III.
Fourth Crusade. Loss of Normandy, Anjou, Maine, and Touraine. Albigensian Crusade.
Interdict.
^.
Ralph of Diceto. Richard of Devizes. Jocelin of Brakeland. Gervase of Tilbury. Richard of the Temple. Ralph of Coggeshall. Geoffrey de Vinsauf. John of Garland. Roger of Wendover. Bartholomseus Anglicus.
St.
Edmund
Rich.
ti259
i 1245 1 1253 1 1257? 1 1267 Jl. 1250
Matthew
Paris.
1215 1170-1221
II82-I226
Magna
St.
Charta.
order
founded,
1210
1216-72 1216-19 1220-24 1212-50 1228-29 1226-70 1236
confirmed, 1223.
III. 1 127s 1214-94 \ 1293 t. 1265-1308 i25o?-i3i2 i258?-i328
c.
Henrv
Duns
Scotus.
1255-62 1258
c.
ti266
1270 1264-74
1272-1307 1285-1314 1276-84 1279
marries Eleanor of Provence. Jerusalem finally lost. Sorbonne founded. Sixth Crusade. Henry renounces claim to Continental possessions except Aquitaine and Gascony. Hanseatlc Lea^e._ First proclamation in English. The Mad Parliament. Balliol College founded. Wars with Barons. Mise of Amiens. Battle of Lewes. Parlt. of Simon de Montfort Battle of Evesham. Manfred. Seventh Crusade. Merton College founded.
Henry
Jl. 1300 1290-1349 1281-1345 1275-1345 1 1349 1290-1349 1 1349 1 1360 \ 1361 fi. 1330 _/?. 1330 1 1347 1 1364 Jl, 1363 1 1384 ? 1 1422
Rishanger. Nicholas Trivet. Walter of Hemingburgh. Richard Rolle of Hampole. Richard of Bury.
Walter Burleigh. William of Ockham. Thomas Bradwardine. Robert Hotcot. Richard FitzRalph. John of Gaddesden. John of Trokelowe.
Henry
Blaneford.
Adam Murimuth.
Ranulf Higden. Henry Knighton. John of Fordun. Thomas Walsingham.
Edward
I.
; ;
APPENDIX
French
1173 *Gamierdu Pont St. Maxence. c. 1175 Benel : Vie de SL Thomas, 1160-74 Wace : Roman de Rou. 1174 Jordan Fantosme : History, 1172-76 IJenott : Chronique des Dues. 1175-85 *Marie de France: Laz's (c. Ysopet {c. 1180) 1175) Espurgatoire St, Pairiz.
c.
;
461
English
Sinners
Beware ; Death ; Love 'Song of Out Lady; Wooing o/Our Lord; Passion of Our Lord ; Orisons,
etc.
c. c.
(S.W.).
*Amis
(2
versions)
Axicassin
et
NicoUte. ""Lambert li Tort : A lexandre. Biblical Paraphrases Lives of Saints Met. Homilies
Psalters, etc.
Samson de
de
c.
Bestiary (N.E.M.).
Ancren
Riivle (Dorset).
:
ii8o
Simon de Fresne
St.
George.
1244 1250
*L.i Proverbe au vilahi. c. 1180 *lJ6roul ; cont. c. laog. c. 1185 Hugh of Rutland Hipponti:
When
c.
c.
1190
don
Poem on Conquest
1250-1300
Sainte. c, 1200 * Roman de Renart (part), *Andr^ de Coutances. *Jean Bodel. , Chardri (1200-20?). X200-1300 Chansons de Geste Lays Fabliaux Lyrics Debates Lapidaries Bestiaries Religious and Didactic Verse Dits Poems on Courtly Love Secular Verse Lives of Saints Pious Tales Ser-
Assumptio Mariae. Political Songs and Satires Religious and Secular Lyrics Pious Tales Saints' Lives and Legends Religious and
1250-75
Layamon, B.
c,
'
monsB
1258 1258
S.W.M.)
"
of Cokaygne
(S.).
Blauncheflour
Eustache
:
le
Moine.
*Renaud de Beaujeu
plain.
Guiti'
Floire
r/o/w(S.E.MO.
Birth of /esiu^ Childhood of Jesus (S.). Stacions of Rome (S.E.M.)
1213
1215
Ydoine. *Mantel Mautailli. Mystery of Resurrection, *Guillaume de Palerme. * Dolopathos. Guillaume le Clerc: Bestiaire. Angier : Dialogues of St. Gregory, etc. *ViIlehardouin ; Congueste de Constantinople,
A madas et
Maximion Evangelium Nicodenii (So. )Lay Folks' Mass Book (N.) Little
(S.
Estoire
del Evangile
E. M.)
l^.'W.yi.)
Cm
Cato Caio Major (S. from N.) Dispute between Jesus and Scribes (K.) Dispute bet-ween Thrush and Night;
ingale
(S.
).
c*
Crestien's of *Continuators Perceval: Gerbert, Manessier, Wauchier de Denain. Quesie del 1220 *Prose Romances Lancelot Graal t,
Fragmenton Pop.ScienceQA^,
Castle of Love (S.E.M.).
Legend Cycle
(N.).
462
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Historical Events
1290
: :
APPENDIX
French
Tristan Sa^es. *Comte de
zierbes.
463
English
Gloucester
c.
Perceval Se^t
Bretaigne
:
Legend
:
Cycle
Pro-
1298
^Salomonet MarcQul,
1218-25 *Gautier de Coinci Miracles de Noire Dame, c, J 224 *ViedeGuillaitine le Marichal.
:
c. TTXyf c.
1300
c.
c.
1237 *Guillaume de Lorris : Roman de let Rose1240 *Grand St. Graal. *Sidrac. 1243 124s *Gautier de Metz : Image du
1302 1300-25
c,
(S.W.M.). Robert of Gloucester Chrotf icle iS.W.M.). Song of Husbandmen (S. ). Surtees Psalter (N.) Prose Psalter (W.M.). Havelok the Dane (N.E.M.). Poems in Auchinleck MS.
{1330-40): ^:VC?)7a'('(S.E.M.) Sir Degare (S.E.M.) Z,^ Freine (S.E.M. ?) .?af(r
(?)
Ckastel
of
Vivain and (N.E.M.) Caivain (N.) Horn Child (N.M.) Gwy of IVarivick
(4 versions, S.
?M.)
(3
Beves
French Redactions
Romances
Satirical
of Hampton
versions,
N.?M.) 5^z/ Wise Masters (2 versions, S.E.,N.) Seven Sages (S.E.M.) Sir Otuel (S.E.M.) Roland
Homilies, Legends, Saints* Lives Pious Tales, Miracles of Our Lady Debates Mysteries and Miracles
Books of Instruction
Edification Fabliaux. *Roman de Renart.
1264
L^ics
Pennyivorth
c,
of Wit
and
1310
Elegy on Edward
Political
Poems
etc.
Sermons,
Corset.,
Legends,
1267
Pierre of
Peckham
Miroir.
c, c%
*Brunetto Latini Trisor. *Rustician of Pisa. *Rustebeuf. *Philippe de Beaumanoir, *Adam de la Halle. *Jean de Meung Roman de la Rose. *Adenet CUotnades. *Marco Polo Travels. *Le Chdtelain de Covet. Walter of Bibbysworth. Pers de Langtoft. Vie de St. Louis, *JoinviIle *Jacques de Longuyon Voeux
: ^ : : : : :
1312-27 T 1327
^-
133
J^- 1320
(K.).
^33-49
Richard
Rolle of
^338 i34o
1333-52
^*
Hampole
(E.M.).
Dan
Michel
Ayenhtte
:
of
du Paon.
1330
Poems
^34
1380 *Chandos
du
^*
(N.M.). Tale ofGamelyn (E.M.). Poems on Alexander (W.M.). Allit. Morte Arthure
1337-1410 *Froissart. Sir Thos. Gray'. Scalacronica. 1 1369 ic. 1474 Jehan de Waiurin : RecuciL
^35
(N.W.M.). of St. Paul; Trentails of St. Gregory; How Good Wife taught her Daiighier ; Haiu Wise Man taught his Son (S. E. M.). Ipotis A B C of Aristotle Metrical Treatise on Dreams. Dispute between Mary and
Vision
Cross i^.'^.U.).
Man
: ;
464.
ENGLISH LITERATURE
About 1400
Scottish (1450-1500) Eger and Gritn Lancelot of the Laik Rauf Coilyear Roswell and Ballad of Nine Nobles Lillian^ etc. Scottish Writers (above men-
Sir GowffkterQ>i. E. yL.)Eari of Tolouse iti.E.M.)/easie 0/ Sir Gawain (S.M.) ^'/> Cleges ('ti.}A.)Laifd Troy Book Morie Arthurs (S.M. ?)^om^- of RoIa7id {S.^.M.)Sir Ferumbras (S.I) Siege 0/ Milan {^.^Duke Rowland and Sir Oiiuell (N.)-~So2vdaM 0/ Babylon (E.M.) Thomas of Erceldoun (N.) Vision of Tundale (N. ?).
1400-50
tioned)
Wyntoun
(Chronicle,
c.
1425)
(c. x^6ct-c.
"Blind ^^rry" (Wallace, c. 1488) Dunbar Henryson (Fables, c. 14761525) 86) Sir Gilbert Hay (Alexander, 1459).
English Writers (above mentioned): Lydgate Occleve (Oe Regimine, 1413) Troy Book, c, 1410, and Thebes, 1412-21 Falls, 1424-33) Audelay (Legends, 1426)
Partheno^e^ a versions (S.S.M.)ly^wiV* of Low Degree {^M-Ay-ipomedon (M.) Sir Triantour{^.yi..)^TorreHi of Portugal (ii.U.) Robert of Sicily (S.M.I) Sir Generides, 2 versions, one c. 1430 (M.) Partenay (N. M.) Bulk of Alexander^ Holy Grail^ Merlin 1438? (Sc.) Lovelich
R. Misyn (tr. of Rolle, 1434-35) Capgrave Hardyng Chronicle to 1417) Osbern Bokenham {Chronicle, c. 1465) Benet Burgh (Dist. (Legends, 1443-46) Caio, 1461-65) Fortescue(tf. 1476) Malory
(t 1464,
(Morte Dartkur,
Caxton
etc.
:
(S. M. )
Sir Peny (N .)
Speculum Hutnants
English (1425-50)
Salvationis
Gesta
Romanorum
in
Ponikus et Sidone (c. 1450) Book ofKnight of La Tour Landry (1422-61) Thornton
MS.
Recuyell Troy Sayings (xi,Tf) Chronicles (14,^6) Godeffroy Reynard (1481) /'p^Bologne of (1481) chronicon (1482) Cato (1483) Fesiial(\^%-^ Golden Legend (1484) ^sop (1484) Morte Darthur (1485) Cha?-les the Great (1485) Paris and Vienne (1485) Four Sons
(1430-44).
1400-1500
Monk and Boy Tale of Basyn Cuckold's Dance How a Ploivman learned his Paternoster Child of Bristow Merchant and his Son Tale of an Incestuous Daughter Felon Soive and Friars of Richmond Huntyng of the Hare Why I can't be a NunDebate of Carpenter's Tools
don
Lives of Saints Legends Pious Tales " Mirrors " Rituals ^Jest-Books Debates Political Songs and Satires Books of Instruction and Utility (Heraldry. Venery, Medicine, Grammar, Husbandry, Urbanity, Nurturcj Courtesy, Cookery, etc.) Religious, Didactic, and Secular Lyrics Ballads. Wright's Chaste Wife Miller ofAbyiig-
of Aymon (c. 1489) Blanchardyn (c. 1489) Eneydos (1490), etc. Other Romances in Black-letter Editions Salomon and Marcolf (c. 1492) Helyas
(c. 1500) Apollonius (1570) Robert the Devil^Sii- Degare Seven Wise Masters Valentine and Orson Virgilius Friar Bacon Patient Grissel (1619)- Lord Berners Arthur of Little Britain;
Melusine
Huon of Bordeaux
Robinson
Lincoln,
:
(1525-33)
Thomas
George d
Seven
Champions,
(c.
etc.
(N.)ABC
of Aristotle
and Gawain Weddyng of Sir Gawain Guy and Colbrand King Estmere King Arthur and the King of Cornwall Sir Lionell MerlinKing Arthurs beath-~
Robin Hood,
etc.
1620; date of poems uncertain, fromc. 1300 on) Sir Lambewell Carl of Carlisle The Green Knight Turk
:
APPENDIX
46s
English
English
Dispute
between
(Sc).
etc.,
Christian
(Sc.
and Jew
Vernon
Sermons,
80
etc.
Parlnnent Winner
and
c.
1370
ff.
(W.M.). Cleanness ; Patience; Pearl; Gawain and the Green Knight (y^M.).
Barbour's Bruce (Sc.) Legends (Sc). Langland Vision, A, 1362;
:
V.
137s
c. c.
Libeaus Desconus (S.E.) Octavian (S.E.) Octavian (N.) ipomedon (2 versions ; N.M., N.W.M.)-Z Bone
1382 1387
B, 1377; C, c, i3g8(W.l\i.). Wycliffe : Trans, of Bible. Lydgate's Esnpus. John of Trfeves (Trevisa) :
1387)
Rerum
(Babces
Books
Booh,
of
-of
Courtesy
etc.).
Books
etc.).
Sermon
Plays.
c.
_
against
Miracle
Ckei'alere
? Golagros
Assigne
(M.)
1400
and
Gawain
Parish
APPENDIX
II
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
WORKS REFERRED TO BY ABBREVIATED TITLES
Abbot.
Anglia.
ArchEeol.
Wulcker
Archiv.
Archiv fiir das Studium der neueren Sprachen und Literaturen, ed. et al., Elberfeld and Iserlohn, 1846 ff. ; Braunschweig, 1849 ff. Bann. Bannatyne Club Publications, Edin., 1823 ff. Bbddeker. Altenglische Dichtungen des MS. Harl, 2253, ed. Karl Boddeker,
L. Herrig
B., 1878.
Camd.
Ch.
S.
Camden
ff.
Child.
Chaucer Society Publications, L., 1868 ff. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads,
Boston, 1882-98.
ed. Francis
James Child,
5 vols.,
E.E.T.S. [E.S.] Early English Text Society Publications, 1864 ff. [E.S. Extra Series.] Ellis. George Ellis, Specimens of Early English Metrical Romances, rev. (This work was J. O. Halliwell, Bohn's Antiquarian Library, L., 1848. first published 3 vols., L. 1805. This one-volume edition is cited because
more
accessible.)
Eng. Poets. Works of the English Poets from Chaucer to Cowper, eic, ed. Samuel Johnson and Alexander Chalmers, 21 vols., L., 1810. E. St. Englische Studien, ed. E. Kolbing, Heilbronn, 1877 ff. ; J. Hoops, Leip., 1900 ff. Erl. Beit. Erlanger Beitrdge zur englischen Philologie, ed. Hermann Varnhagen, Erlangen, 1889 ff. Fnrnivall. Early English Poems and Lives of Saints, etc. , ed. F. J. Furnivall, B., 1862.
Gross.
C. Gross, Sources
to
the earliest
Times
, ;
APPENDIX
Harv. St. N. 1S92 ff.
.
II
467
Hazlitt
Rem. Remains of the Early Popular Poetry of England, Carew Hazlitt, 4 vols., L. 1864-66.
, ,
W.
Hist. Litt.
Ilorstmann.
Hisloire Littiraire de la France, P., 1733-1898. Altenglische Legenden, etc. ed. Carl Horstmann, Paderborn, 1875
;
Altenglische Legenden,
Early Metrical
Tales, ed.
Poetry of Scotland, etc., rev.W. C. Hazlitt, 2 vols., L. 1895 ; A Penniworth of Witte, etc. (Auch. MS. poems). Abbot., 1857 (referred to under
respective dates).
Sir
Frederic
Madden, L.
ff.
Mod. L. N.
P. B. Beit.
Modern Language
Beitriige
Notes, ed. A.
M.
Elliott et
al.,
Bait.,
1886
ff.
zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, ed. Hermann Paul and Wilhelm Eraune, Halle, 1874 ff. P.F.MS. Bishop Percys Folio Manuscript, ed. J. W. Hales and F. J. Furnivall, L., 1867-69.
Percy Soc.
Philol. Soc.
Philological Society Transactions, L., 1854 ff. Piiblicalions of the Mod. Lang. Association of America, ed. Pub. M.L. A. C. H. Grandgent, A. M. Elliott, Bait., 1S84 ff. J. W. Bright, 1893 ff.
; ;
ff. ff.
M.
Rel. Ant.
Wright and
J.
O. Halliwell, L.
1845.
Ritson.
Ancient English Metrical Romances, ed. Joseph Ritson, 3 vols., L., (The revised edition is 1802 revised ed. E. Goldsmid, Edin., 1884.
;
referred to because
now more
accessible.
Ritson, A.S.
Ancient .Songs from the Time of King Henry IIP. to the Revolu(Revised edition tion, L., 1790; rev. ed. W. C. Hazlitt, 5 vols., L., 1877.
referred to.)
Robson.
1842.
ed.
Romania, ed. P. Meyer and Gaston Paris, P., 1S72 ff. ed. P. Meyer and A. Thomas, 1902 ff Roxb. Roxburghe Club Publications, L., 1814 ff. S.A.T.F. Societe des anciens textes fran9ais Publications, P., 1875 ff. Sc.T.S. Scottish Text Society PubHcations, Edin., 18S4 ff. --/ Collection of Early Prose Romances, ed. W. Thorns. J. Thorns, L., 1828. The Thornton Romances, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camd., 1844. Thorn. Roms. Ward. H. L. D. Ward, Catalogue of Romances in the British Museum, 2
Rom.
468
Weber.
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Metrical Romances of the XIII. ,
vols., Edin., 1810.
XIV.
and
X V.
Centuries, ed.
Henry Weber, 3
-Wright, P.S.
Songs of England,, from the Reign of John to that of Wright, Camd., L., 1839 E. Goldsmid, Edin., 1S84. Political Poems and Songs from the Accession of Edward III. to Wright, P.P. that of Richard III., ed. T. Wright, Rolls Series, L., 1859-61. Wright, A.L. Anecdota Literaria, ed. T. Wright, L., 1844. Wright, S. L. P. Specimens of Lyric Poetry composed in England in the Reign of Edward I., ed. T. Wright, L., 1842. Z.R.P. Zeitschrift fiir romanische Philologie, ed. G. Grober, Halle, 1877 ff.
Political
ed. T.
Edward II.,
Z.F.S.L.
1891
und Litcratur,
ed.
G. Kdrting
Abbreviations of names of places : Bait. , Baltimore B. , Berlin ; Edin. , Edinburgh; L., London; Leip., Leipzig; N.Y., New York ; Oxf., Oxford;
;
P., Paris.
may
be found
in
auf dem
Gebiete
der germanischen
Leip., 1883
ff.
Note.
The
it.
name
title
that of an
editor follows
Discussions of a
work
are preceded
by "
of."
English Literature
Brandl, A.
Strassburg, 1893,
Courthope,
W.
J.
Diet, of National Biography, L. Stephen and S. Lee, L., 1885-1904. Eng. Lit., Illustrated Record, \,., 1903-4. Garnett, R., and Gosse, Ed.
An
Jusserand,
J.
J.
i.,
Hist.
litt.
du peuple
anglais. P.,
i.
ii.
1904
Eng.
ed.,
L.
Korting, G.
Morley, H. Pollard, A.
i.
Grundriss der Gesch. der engl. Litt., 3rd ed., Miinster, 1899. English Writers, iii.-v., L., 1888-90. W. In Chambers' Cyclopedia of Eng. Lit., new ed., L., 1901-3,
Short Hist, of Eng. Lit., L. and N.Y., 1898.
31-119, 150-162.
Saintsbury, G.
Snell, F.
W.
Age of Chaucer,
Hist, de la
;
L., 1901
Age of Transition, 2
ed.. P.,
Taine, H.
litt.
angl.,
2nd
1866-71
tr.
H. Van Laun,
Edin., 1871
new
ed.,
N.Y., 1875.
Ten
Brink, B.
1st ed., tr..
Vol. L,
;
2nd ed., A. Brandl, Strassburg, 1899; H. M. Kennedy, N.Y., 1888; Vol II. Pt. I., W. C.
D. Schmitz, 1896.
Robinson, 1893
Et. II., L.
APPENDIX
Warton, T. WUlker, R.
Hist, of Eng. Poetry, ed.
11
469
W.
(B)
Frbnch Literature
Philologie,
ii.,
Grbber, G.
Grundnss derrom.
Hist, de la
lilt,
Strassburg, 1898,
Lanson, G.
Paris,
dge, 3rd ed.. P., 1905 ; MedicEval French Literature, L., 1903 (Temple Primer) ; La poisie dtt moyen dge, 2 series,
litt.
G.
La
fraitf.
au moyen
Pohnes et Ligendes du moyen dge. P., 1900. ; de JuUeville, L. Hist, de la litt. fraiif., P., 1896-99. Suchier, H., and Birch-Hirschfeld, A. Gegch. derfranz. Litt., Leip., 1900.
P., 1885, 1895
Petit
CHAPTER
On
preface to
Petit
I. INTRODUCTION
literature in
(pp. 1-25)
general, cf. G. Paris's de JuUeville's " Histoire," vol. i. On various aspects of life in the Middle Ages, see "Social England," H. D. Traill, L., 1893, illus. ed. 1901 ; and "Companion to English History (Middle Ages)," F. P. Barnard, Oxf., 1902. On the universities, see H. Rashdall, "The
Middle Ages," L., 1895. On the Auchinleck Walter Scott and Prof. E. Kblbing to their editions ol Sir Tristrem (Edin., 1804 ff. Heilbronn, i882).-^On the Thornton MS., see Thorn. Roms. On the minstrels, cf. W. K. Chambers, "The
Universities of
Europe
in the
MS.,
by
Sir
i.
26-110)
For a detailed bibliography of the majority of the works mentioned in this chapter, see G. Grober, " Ubersicht ilber die Lat. Litt. von der Mitte des 6. Jahrhunderts bis 1350 " ; in " Grundriss der rom. Phil.," Strassburg, 1893, ii. i, esp. pp. 181 ff. See also T. Wright, " Biographia Britannica Literaria, Anglo-
Norman
History," L.,
Literature of English
individual authors.
Norman Conquest,"
under
K.
O. Norgate,
J. the Angevin Kings," 2 vols., L., 1887. Jacobs, "Jews of Angevin England," L., 1893. W. Stubbs, "Lit. and Learning at the Court of Henry II." (in "Seventeen Lectures," vi., vii.), Oxf., 1886. Gairdner, "Early Chronicles of Europe (England)," L., 1879. "AngloLatin Satirical Poets and Epigrammatists of the Twelfth Century," ed. T. Wright, Rolls Series, 2 vols., L., 1872. "Latin Poems attrib. to W, Mapes," ed. T. Wright, Camd., 1841. Wright, P.S. M. Bateson,
; ;
470
ENGLISH LITERATURE
"Mediaeval England" (Story of the Nations Series), N.Y., 1904. ^J. S. Brewer, " Monumenta Franciscana," Rolls Series, 2 vols., L., 1858-82. A. Jessop, "The Coming of the Friars," L., 4th ed., 1890. E. Lavisse, "Histoire de France," P., 1901 ff. (esp. vol. iii. by Ch.-V. Langlois). History of Classical Scholarship from, the Sixth Century J. E. Sandys, B.C. to the end of the Middle Ages," Cambridge, 1903. G. Saintsbury, History of Criticism," etc., 3 vols., Edin., 1900-4. H. H. Milman, "History of Latin Christianity," 8 vols., N.Y., i860. B. Haureau, " Histoire de la philosophic scolastique,'' 3 vols.. P., 1872-80. F. Ueberweg, "Grundriss
"A
"A
der Geschichte der Philosophic," 8th ed., M. Heinze, E., 1894-1902 (4th ed. trans. G. S. Morris, 2 vols., N.Y., 1872-74). R. L. Poole, "Illustrations of
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. J. Earle and C. Plummer, 2 vols. ,'Oxf. 189299 (ed. B. Thorpe, with trans.. Rolls Series, 2 vols., L., 1861). For Gesta Herewardi, etc., see Gross, Nos. 1780, 1443, 1378, 1379. For the Book of T. Stephens, " The Lit. of the Kymry," 2nd Ely, see Gross, No. 1372. ed., D. S. Evans, L., 1876. D. Hyde, "A Literary Hist, of Ireland," N.Y., 1899. For Icelandic sagas, see G. Vigfusson, " Sturlunga Saga," I.
,
Gross, 35.
E. MuUer, 3 vols., 1839-58; A. Holder, Strassburg, 1886; "First Nine Books," tr. O. Elton and F. York Powell, L., 1894. For quotations
P.
from Dr. Lane Poole (p. 50) and Mr. Robert Steele (p. 91), see "Social England," 1894, i. 336, ii. 76. For that from Mr. Joseph Jacobs, see illus.
ed.
,
i.
670-71.
On FitzStephen,
Proven9al literature, see Stimming, in Grober's " Grundriss," ii. 2 F. Diez, " Leben und Werke der Troubadour"; "Die Poesie der Troubabour," 2nd ed., K. Bartsch, Leip., 1882, 1883 ; J. H, Smith," The Troubadours at Home," 2 vols., N.Y., 1899 ; " Lives of the Troubadours," tr. Ida Farnell,
On
H. Suchier, in "Geschichte," pp. 56-96. On Welsh literature, work cited above. On Icelandic literature, see, together with G. Vigfusson, as above, Vigfusson and F. York Powell, "Corpus Poeticum Boreale," Oxf, 1883, and P'innur Jonsson, "Den oldnorske og okUslandske Litteraturshistorie," Cop., 1894. Snorri's Edda, Cop., 1848 ff. "Die Lieder der Edda," B. Sijmons and H. Gering, Halle, 1888 if.. On Italian literature, see T. Casini, in Grober's "Gundriss," ii. 3; A. Gaspary, " Gesch. d.
L.,
1896;
see Stephens,
tr.
ital.
Literatur," B.,
1885-88;
d.
ital.
Zingarelli, Turin,
O. Bacci,
"Manuale
"Gesch.
B.
Wiese and E.
Percopo,
Leip.
and Vienna,
1899.
;
On
tr.
,
German
literature, see
W.
Mrs. F. C.
On Spanish
On
vols., N.Y., 1886; W. Golther, "Gesch. d. deut. Litt.," Nibelungenlied, ed. K. Bartsch, 6th ed. Leip., 1886; 1893; tr. W. N. Lettsom, L., 1850 ; G. H. Needier, N.Y., 1904. 7% Cid, ed. Ram6n Men^ndez Pidal, Madrid, 1898 ; A. M. Huntington, N.Y., 1897-1903.
Conybeare, 2
Stuttgart,
literature, see
ii.
2.
Geoffrey of
Monmouth,
; ;
APPENDIX
II
471
on Bleheris and Thomas, see below, Ch. III. ; on the Aturen Riwle, see below, Ch. VIII. ; on The Owl ami the Nightingale and other debates, see below, Ch. III. and Ch. IX., under Debates on Richard RoUe, see below, Ch. VIII.; for the "History of Friar Bacon," etc., see Thorns; cf. D. Comparetti, " Vii^lio nel medio Evo," Florence, i8g6. On Chaucer's learning, see T. R. Lounsbury, " Studies in Chaucer," N.Y., 1892, vol. ii. The quotations from the Philobiblon are from the translation of E. C. Thomas, L., 1888; King's
;
CHAPTER
" La
J.
III.ANGLO-NORMAN
AND ANGLO-FRENCH
1899
O. Scheibner, " Ueber
LITERATURE
lilt,
(111-139)
P.,
Vising,
la
i
versification
Studien,"
England," Goteborg, 1900 " Grundriss," 2nd ed., i. "The A.N. Dialect," N.Y., 1904. Lois de Guillaume le ConqiUrant, J. M. Matzke, P.
2
;
" Franska-Spriket
ib.,
Paul's
Romance (pp. 115-118) Robert Biquet Lai du Cor, F. Wulff, Lund, 1888. Marie de France Lais, K. Warnke, 2nd ed., Halle, 1900 see
:
:
below,
XV.
121.
p.
475;
cf.
Schofield, Harv.
St.
and N.,
v.
22;
Pub. M.L.A.,
Thomas:
:
476.
Tristan, J. Bedier, S.A.T.F., 1902-5; see below, p. L. Weston, Rom., xxxiii. 333 ff., xxxiv. 100 ff. Suchier,
" Geschichte,"
p.
132
Introd. ; Rom., xxiv. 472; Journal des Savants, 1901, J. Ulrich, S.A.T.F., La Folic Tristan, see Bedier's ed. of Tristan. pp. 714-15 ; below, p. 477. Horn et Rimenhild, F. Michel, P. , 1845 ! Brede and Stengel ( Ausg. u. Abhand.
viii.),
Roxb.,
cf.
below,
p.
477.
Za"
de
Havelok,
cf.
Madden,
P.,
le
Roman. Studien, iv. 411 ff. On Aelof SluA Waldef, see Schofield, "The Horn and Rimenhild," Pub. M.L.A., xviii. 5a Guy de Warwick, in cf. O. Winneberger, Schonemann, Leip., 1842 ; see below, p. 477 Frankfurter neuphil. Beit., 1887, pp. 86 ff. Boeve de Haumtone, A. Stimming, Hugh of Rutland, Ipornedon, Kolbing and Koschwitz, Halle, 1S99. Amadas et Ydoine, Breslau, 1889 ; see below, p. 478 ; cf. Ward, i. 728 ff. Hippeau, P., 1S63 ; see G. Paris, "Fumivall Miscellany," L., 1901, p. 386. Eustace of Kent see P. Meyer, "Alexandre," below, p. 478. Richard Wistace Coer de Lion, see below, p. 479 ; Eng. poem to be edited E.E.T.S.
Story of
;
1833;
see below, p.
477;
Kupferschmidt,
Maine, F. Michel, P. and L., 1834; Foerster and Trost (Rom. BibL iv.) Rom., xxi. 279. Fulk FitzWariiu, in "Nouvelles en prose du XIV cf. Siecle," L. Moland and Ch. d'Hericault, P., 1858; Hist, de Foulques FUzWarin, Fr. Michel, P., 1840; Th. Wright (with Eng. tr.), Warton RusTiciAN OF Pisa : see Ward, i. 367. On Guillaume Club, L., 1855.
tf Angleterre, see
Rom.,
xxix. 155 S.
472
:
ENGLISH LITERATURE
For the fabliaux written in England, see J. E^dier, Tales (p. Il8) "Les Fabliaux," 2nd ed., P., 1895; on the Roman de Renart, see below, Marie: Fabeln, K. Warnke, Halle, 1900; Espurgatoire St. p. 479. Patiiz, T. A. Jenkins, Philadelphia, 1894; Chicago, 1903.Adgar: Marten
ix.), Heilbronn, 1886 ; cf. Rom., xxxii. 394 ff. William of Wadington Furnivall, Roxb., L., 1862; E.E.T..S., cf. Chap. VIII. 119; cf. Hist. Litt. xxviii. 179 ff. ; Rom., xxix. 5, 47 ff. Chardrv J. Koch (Altfranz. Bibl., i.), Heilbronn, 1879 cf. I^om., xv. 357 ; " Barlaam and Josaphaz, Eng. Lives of Buddha," L., 1896. BozoN J. Jacobs, Contes Moralisis, L. T. Smith and P. Meyer, S.A.T.F., P., 1889; cf. P. Harry, " A Comp. Study of the jEsopic Fable in N. Bozon," Cincinnati, 1905. Historical Works (119-127) Gai.viar Estorie des Engleis, T. D. Hardy and E. T. Martin, Rolls Series, 1888-89 " David, see end of Gaimar's poem. Wace, Roman de Brut, Le Roux de Lincy, Rouen, 1836 cf. R. H. Fletcher, Harv. St. and N., x. 1906; Roman de Rou, Andresen,
1877-79
Forsch.,
tr.
i.
cf.
Rom.
Wright, Rolls Series, L., 1866-68. Garnier Vie de St. Thomas, C. Hippeau, P., 1859; cf. E. fitienne. P., 1883; P. Meyer, Fragments, S.A.T.F., P., 1885; Chronicle, Fr. Michel, Surtees Soc, Gross, No. 2229. Jordan Fantosme II, L. and Edin., 1840; R. Hewlett, "Chrons. of Reigns of Stephen," etc., Rolls Series, L., 1886, iii. 212 ff.; cf. Rom., x. 306; Eng. Hist. Review, Jan. 1893, viii. 129; A.N. Poem on the Conquest of Ireland, Fr. Michel, L., 1837 ; Song of Dermot and the Earl, G. H. Orpen, Oxf., 1892. Villehardouin :
477.
: :
Pierre de Langtoft
Chronicle, Th.
Joinville
Vie de St.
Ambrose
G. Paris (Doc. in^dits sur I'hist. de France), P., 1897. Hist, de Guillaume le Marichal, P. Meyer, P., 1891-1901. Le Prince Noir, H. O. Coxe, Roxb., 1842; Fr. Michel, L., 1883; Trivet: Fretuh Chron., to be edited, Luick, E.E.T.S. cf. Skeat's Chaucer, iii. 400. Brutes, see R. H. Fletcher (under Matter of Britain) ; cf. Rom., xvi. 154. Caxton Chronicles, L., 1480, etc.; Sir Thomas Gray: Scalacronica, J. Stevenson, see Gross, No. 1733.
;
:
Jehan de Waurin
Rectieil,
W. Hardy and
E. L. C.
Camd., L., 1844. See, in general, Wright, Political Poems and Satires (pp. 127-129) La Paix aux Anglais, see P.S.- La Bonti des Femmes, Rom., xv. 315. Hist. Litt., xxiii. 449; La Charte aux Anglais, see Rom., xiv. 279. Vows of the Heron (1338), in Wright, P.P., i. I ff. Religious Works (pp. 129-130) See, in general, S. Berger, " La Bible fran9. au moyen 3ge," P., 1884; J. Bonnard, "Les Traductions de la Bible en vers franyais au m. a.," P., 1884; cf. Rom., xv. 265, xvii. 121, P. Meyer, "Notices et Extraits," xxxiv. i; M. Gaster, " Greeko-Slavonic, Ilchester Lectures," L., 1887. Apocalypse, Rom., xxv. 174 ff. Oxf. and Camb. Psalters, see Fr, Michel, " Libri Psalmorum," Oxf., i860; Le Livre des
'
APPENDIX
II
473
des Rois,
Psaumes, P., 1876; cf. Z.R.P., xi. 513, xii. I ff. ; cf. Les Quatres Livres Le Roux de Lincy, P., 1841. On Robert of Gretham, see Rom.,
(pp. 130-132) : A bibliography of French appear in Hist. Litt., xxxiii. 337-78. Wace Vie de St. Nicholas, Delius, Bonn, 1850 Conception de Notre Dame, Mancel et Tr^butien, Caen, 1842. Voyages Merveilkux de St. Brandan, Fr. Michel, P.,
1878; cf. C. Wahlund, "Die altfr. Prosaiibersetzung von B.'s Meerfahrt," Upsala, 1901. On Modwenna, cf. H. Suchier, Vie de St. Auhan, Halle, 1876. Vie de St. Auban, R. Atkinson, L., 1876. Denis Pvramus Vie de
St.
Edmund
;
le rey,
T. Arnold
" Mems. of
St.
ii.
135
cf.
Rom.,
x.
Estoire de St.
Aedward
le rei, PI.
Luard,
L., 1858. Hugh of Liiuoln, see Hist 436 ; Child, iii. 233 if. Guillaume de Berneville St. Gilles, G. Paris et A. Bos, S.A.T.F., P., 1881. On the legend of St. George, see Chardry Set J. E. Matzke in Pub. M.L.A., xvii. 99 ff., xvii. 264 ff. Dormans, see above, p. 472. Angier Vie de St. Grigoire, P. Meyer, Rom.,
Litt., xxiii.
xii.
145
:
If. ;
Dialogues of Greg,
the Great, T.
GowER
Mirour de POmme, Works, G. C. Macaulay, Oxf., 1899, i. Didactic Works (pp. 132-133) Philippe db Thaun Li Cumpoz, E. Mall, Strassb., 1873; Bestiaire, E. Walberg, Lund, 1900; cf. Reinsch,
:
:
"Das
le
Clerc," Leip.,
1890;
Lapidaries, etc.,
cf.
L. Pannier,
"Les Lap.
P.,
1882.
Abhahd., xlvii. Walter of Bibbysworth cf. Rom., xv. 262, xxxii. 44. Lm Lumiire as Lais, cf. Rom., xv. 287. Secret des secrets, see Rom., La Petite Philosophie, see Rom., xv. 255, xxix. 12, Image xxiii. 314. du monde, see Rom., xxi. 481. Sidrac, Hist. Litt., xxxi. 285. See, in general, A. Jeanroy, " Les Lyrics and Debates (pp. 133-136) Origines de la Poesie lyrique en France au moyen Sge," 2nd ed.. P., 1904. For Richard's <?-i;^, see K. Bartsch, "La Langue et la Litt. fran9.," A. Horning, P., 1887, pp. 311 ff. On Luc DE LA Barre, see Ordericus, Bk. xii. Cf. Steffens, " Die Altfranz. Lieder-Hs. Douce 308," Archiv, xcvii. ch. xxxix. 283, xcviii. 59, 343, xcix. 77, 339. P. Meyer, Rom., xxix. 1-84. On Lyrics
in England,
cf.
Rom.,
Roman
1890.
de la Rose, see
Grossetbste Chasteau iV Amour, Weymouth, 1864. On tl.e Langlois, "Origines et Sources du R. de la R.," P.,
iv.
Tr. ed.
et Florence, and Melior et Idoine, see W. A. Neilson, " Origins and Sources of the Court of Love," Harv. St. and N., vi. 38. For Debate of the Body and Soul, see " Reimpredigt," H. Suchier, Halle, 1879; Balades, cf. Rom., xiii. 519, xx. I, 513, xxix. 636; below, p. 485. GoWER Works, G. C. Macaulay, Oxf., 1899, i. 335 ff. Drama (p. 136) Das Adamspiel, K. Grass, Halle, 1891 (Rom. Bibl., La Resurrection du Sauveur, Monvi.); cf. G. Paris, Rom., xxi. 275. merqu^ et Michel, "Theatre fran9. du moyen Sge," 1839, p. 10. Cf. Petit de
: :
On Blanche/lour
474
JuUeville,
ENGLISH LITERATURE
" Les Myst^res," 1880, and in " Histoire," ii. 399. On Brunetto Latini, see Rom., xiv. 23. Maniire de Langage, see P. Meyer, " Revue
;
supp. in 1873.
(pp.
140-144)
" Mittelenglische Grammatik," i. Halle, "Hist. Gram, der engl. Sprache," i., B., 1900; F. 1896; Kaluza, M. Kluge, in Paul's " Grundriss," 2nd ed., i. 926 ff. W. W. Skeat, " Principles "The of English Etymology," 2 series, Oxf., 1887-91; Emerson, O. F. Hist, of the Eng. Lang.," N.Y., 1894; Lounsbury, T. R. "The Hist, of the Eng. Lang.," rev. ed., N.Y., 1901 Puttenham, Richard or George: "The Arte of Eng. Poesie," L., 1589, ed. E. Arber, L., 1869.
L.
: : ;
: :
Morsbach,
CHAPTER v. ROMANCE
See,
in
(pp. 145-319)
general:
Billings,
A. H., "Guide
to
the
Mid.
Eng.
Met.
Saintsbury, G.
Ker,
W.
P.,
"The
Flourishing of
"Epic and Romance," L., 1897. Romance and the Rise of Allegory,"
Matter of France
(pp. 146-159):
See,
in
general,
Cautier,
L.,
" Bibliogr. des Chansons de Geste," P., 1897 ; " Les Epopees fran9aises," P., Nyrop, C, "Storia dell' Epopea Francese nel medio Evo," tr. 1878-92, iii. Florence, 1886. (fr. the Danish), E. Gorra, Paris, G., " Hist, poetique de Charlemagne," 2^ ed., P., 1905 cf. on Eng. chansons of Charlemagne, Rom., Weston, J. L., "The Romance Cycle of Charlemagne," L., xi. 149-53. 1901. Das altfranz. Rolandslied, E. Stengel, Leip., igoo ; " Song of Roland," O'Hagan, L., 1880 " The Song of Roland, a Summary," etc., A. Way and tr. J. tr. I. Butler, Boston, 1904 frag, of The Song of Roland, F. Spencer, 1895 Karls des Grossen Reise nach Jerusalem, S. Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxv. King Arthur etc., E. Koschwitz, Leip., 1900; cf. G. Paris, Rom., ix. 1-50. P.F.MS., i. 59; Child, i. and King Cornwall, Madden, pp. 275 ff. 274; cf. K. G. T. Webster, E. St., xxxvi. (1906). Ralph Collier (see under Matter of England). 0^/, Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxix ; Abbot., 1836 ; Duke Rowlande and Sir Otuell of Spayne, Herrtage, cf. Ellis, pp. 357 ff. E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxv. ; for Fillingbam MS. cf. Ellis, pp. 373 S.Roula7id and Vemagu, Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxix.; Abbot., 1836; cf. EUis, pp. 346ff. r^e Sege of Melayne, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxv. ^.^e Sowdone of Babylone, etc., Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxviii. Roxb., 1854. Sir Ferumbras, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxiv. cf. Ellis, pp. 379 S. Charles the Grete, Herrtage, E.E.T.S., xxxvi., xxxvii. .ffKa;rf de Montauban, or the Fotire Sonnes of Aymoun, O. Richardson, E.E.T.S., E.S., xliv., xlv. Huon de Bordeatix, S. Lee, E.E.T.S., E.S., xl., xli., xliii., I. retold by R. Steele, L.,
1895.
APPENDIX
II
475
Matter of Britain (pp. 159-258) : See, in general, Fletcher, R. H., " Arthurian Material in the Chronicles, especially of. Great Britain and France," Harv. St. and N., x., Boston, 1906. MacCallum, M. W., "Tennyson's Idylls of the King," Glasgow, 1894. Newell, W. W., "King Arthur and the Table Round," Boston, 1897. Nutt, A., "Celtic and Med. Romance," L., 1899. Paris, G., in Hist. Litt., xxx. (1888). Paris, P., "Les Romans de la Table Ronde," P., 1868. Paton, L. A., "Studies in the Fairy Mythology of Arthurian Romance" (Radcl. M:, xiii.), Boston, 1903. Rhys, J., " Studies in the Arthurian Legend," Oxf., 1891. Weston, J. L., " Legend of Sir Gawain," L., 1897 ; " Legend of Sir Lancelot du Lac," 1901 ; " Legend of Sir Perceval," 1906 ; " King Arthur and his Knights," 1899. GiLDAS De Excidio et Conquestu Britt., " Mon. Germ. Hist.," 1894, xiii. i-no; "Ruin of Britain "-(Eng. and Lat.), H. Williams, L., 1899-1901 ; tr. Giles, "6 O.E. Chron. " L., 1901, pp. 295 ST. Nennius Hisi. Britonum, Mommsen, in "Mon. Germ. Hist.," 1894, xiii. in ff. ; tr. Giles, "6 O.E. Chron.," L., 1901, pp. 383 ff. ; cf. H. Zimmer, "Nennius Vindicatus," B., Mabinogion, tr. Lady Charlotte Guest, 3 vols., L., 1838-49; i vol., 1S93. 1877 (A. Nutt), L., 1902 ; Temple Classics, 1900 French tr. by J. Loth, P., 1889; of. A. C. L. Brown, "The R. T. before Wace," Harv. St. and N., vii. Geoffrey of Monmouth Hist. Reg. Brit., A. Schulz, Halle, 1854 183 S. tr. Giles, "6 O.E. Chron.," L., 1901 ; S. Evans, L., 1903. On the Arthurian names in Italy, see P. Rajna, Rom., xvii. 355. Marie de France: Lais, K. Warnke, 2nd ed., Halle, 1900; tr. J. L. Weston, "Four Lays," L., 1900; E. Rickert, " Seven Lays," L., 1901 ; W. Hertz, " Spielmannsbuch," 2nd ed.,
Stuttgart, 1900
cf. J.
cvii.
835-63.
Crestien de Troyes: Cligis, Wendelin Eric and Enide, 1896. Yvain, 2nd
i<)02.-^Lancelot,
Guillaume
(ii.-vi.).-^
d' Angleterre,
Roman de la Charrette, W. J. A. Jonckbloet, The Hague, 1850. Sir Thomas Malory: Morie Darthur, H. O. Sommer, L., 1889-91; Temple
Classics,
I.
1899.
Perceval
le
Gallois,
Ch.
Globe
Strachey, L.
and
1897.
N.Y., 1899; A.
W.
Sir Breton Lays in English (pp. 179-201); Launfal, Ritson, ii. i ff. ; Erling, Kempten, 1883; M. Kaluza, E. St., x. 165-190; 5'2VZan(/z'a/,R. Zimmerman, Kbnigsberg, 1900; ICittredge, Amer. Journ. Phil., x. 1-33; P.F.MS., i. 142 ff., 522; cf. Schofield, Pub. M.L.A., Sir Orfeo, Ritson, iii. 3 if. ; O. Zielke, Breslau, 1880; cf. XV. 121 if.
:
Kittredge,
Am.
Journ.
King
Orfeo, Child,
i.
215
ff.
Sire Degarre, Abbot., 1849; P.F.MS., iii. 16 ff. ; cf. Ellis, pp. 158 ff. (For Sir Gowghter, K. Breul, Oppeln, i886 ; cf. Tydorel, see Rom., viii. 29 ff.).
M. A. Potter, " Sohrab and Rustum," L., 1902; J. L. Weston, "Three Days' Tournament," L., 1902. Robert the Devil, Hazlitt Rem., i. 217 ff. Fr. text, E. Loseth, S.A.T.F., P., l<)Ol.Einare, Ritson, ii. 183 ff. A. B. Gough, L., 1901 ; cf. Gough, "The Constance Saga," B., 1902
"La
Manekine," Suchier,
S.A.T.F.,
P.,
1884-85.
Freine,
Weber,
476
'
ENGLISH LITERATURE*
hi.
ff.
;
355 ff- ; H., Varnhagen, Anglia, Patient Grissell, P.F.MS., iii. 421
cf. Ellis, pp. 538 ff. 415 ff. The History of Patient Grissell, H. B. Wheatley, L., 1885 (Folklore Tracts, ser. \. d,). The Erie of Toulous, Ritson, iii. 105 ff. ; G. Ludtke, B., \%%\.The Boy and the Mantle, P.F.MS., Child, i. 257 ff. H. D. and H. G. Webb, Chiswick, 1900 cf. ii. 304 ff. Rom., xiv. 343. The Cukwolds Dance, Hazlitt Rem., i. 35 ff. ; cf. Child,
;
i.
257 317
ff. ff.
i.
Cycle
J.
Thomas Pymer, Child, T/iomas of Erceldoune, see below, Ch. VII. see Child, passim. of Tristan (pp. 201-214) Thomas Le Roman de Tristan,
: :
1902-5; cf B^dier, "Tristan ert Yseut," P., 1900. Gottfried von Strassburg Tristan, R. Bechstein, Leip., 1869; tr. W. Hertz, Stuttgart, 1901 ; tr. J. Weston, L. and N.Y., 1902. Eeroul :
On
La Chievre,
;
see
Rom.,
xvi.
362; cf G.
Legendes," pp. 113 ff. ; ElLHART VON Oberg, Tristrant, F. Lichtenstein, Strassb., 1877 Quellen u. Jorsch., xix. Roman en Prose de Tristan, E. Lbseth, P., 1891. Sir Tristrem, Sir Walter Scott, Edin., 1804 ff. ; E. Kolbing, Heilbronn, 1882; Sc. T.S., i886. Syr Gawayn and the Grene Khyght, Cycle of Gawain (pp. 214-234)
Paris,
" Poemes
et
revised 1897; tr. J. L. iv. The Grene Knight, Madden, 224, 242; P.F.MS., ii. Weston, L., 1898. The Turke and Gowin, Madden, pp. 243-55. ^y" Gawen and the 56 ff. .P.F.MS., iii. 275 ff. Carle of Carlyle, Madden, pp. 185-206; cf pp. 256 ff. Avowynge of King Arther, etc., Robson, pp. 56 ff. Awntyrs of Arthur, Madden, pp. 93-128; Robson, pp. I ff. ; cf Bulbring, Archiv, Ixxxvi. Golagros and Gawane, Madden, pp. 129-83 Sc. T.S., Edin., 1892-97 ; 385 ff. The Jeaste of Syr Gawayne, Madden, pp. 207-23. Anglia, ii. 395 ff. Wedding of Sir Gawen and Dame Ragnell, Ritson, i. ex. ff. ; Madden, P.F.MS., i. 103 ff. Child, i. 288 ff ; cf G. H. Maynadier, pp. 297 ff. "Wife of Bath's Tale," L., 1901. Libeaus Desconus,V^\\s,oxi,\\. 1-90; P.F.MS., Leip., 1890; tr. J. L. Weston, L., 1902; cf Schofield, ii. 404 ff. ; Kaluza, Ywain and Gawain, Ritson, i. 115 ff. ; G. Schleich, Harv. St. and N., iv. Oppeln, 1887; cf A. C. L. Brown, "Ywain," etc., Harv. St. and N., viii. cf 1-147; Pub. M.L.A., XX. 673 ff. Eger and Grine, P.F.MS., i. 341 ff. Sir Perceval of Galles, Thorn. Roms., i. ff. repr. W. Morris, Ellis, pp. 546 ff.
pp.
Madden,
L., 1895.
459, xvi.
furt a.
Lancelot, cf Rom.,
Lanzelet, K. A.
x.
465,
xii.
Hahn, Frank-
M., \%^t,.Livre d'Artus, cf M. Freymond, Z.F.S.L., 1900, xvii. P. Paris, " Romans de la Table Ronde," 1868-71.Z Morte Arthur, Roxb., L., 1819 Furnivall, L. and Cambridge, 1864 ; J. D. Bruce, E.E.T.S., Lancelot of the Laik, J. Stevenson, E.S., Ixxxviii., 1903 cf Ellis, pp. 143 ff. Maitl., 1839; Skeat, E.E.T.S., vi.
1-128
; ;
Cycle of the Holy Grail (pp. 240-248) Crestien Perceval le Potvin, Le Mons, 1S66-70 (new ed. in prep, by Baist). Le SaintCnza/jE.HucherjLeMons, 1864-68. Wolfram von Eschenbach: Parzival
:
:
Gallois,
APPENDIX
II
477
L. Weston, L., 1904;
cf.
and
tr. J.
A.
Nutt, "Studies on the Legend of the Holy Giail," L., 1888; "Legend of the Holy Grail," L., igo2 ; E. Wechssler, " Die Sage vom heiligen Graal,"
Halle, 1898
(full
bibliography).
On
prose Perlesvaus,
1902; on
Robert de Boron,
H.
Cycle of Merlin (pp. 248-252) -.Merlin, G. Paris and J. Ulrich, S.A.T.F., P., 1886 cf. Ward, i. 278 F. Lot, " Etudes sur Merlin," Annates de Bret., April, July 1900; Rom., xxxi. 473; L. A. Paton, Raciel. M., xiii. passim. Merlin,Vl. E. Mead, E.E.T.S., x.,xxi.,xxxvi., cxii. H. Lovelich Merlin, Kock, E.E.T.S., E.S., yiaii.-Arthour and Merlin, Abbot., 1838;
P.F.MS.,
viii.
;
i.
417
ff.
Death of Arthur
M. Banks,
above,
Kblbing, Leip., 1890; cf. Ellis, pp. 77 ff. (pp. 253-258) -.-Morte Arthure, E. Brock, E.E.T.S.,
L., 1900.
ii.
Matter of England
hild, see
p.
471.
On
ff. ;
Oxf., 1901.
I.e.
i.
King
Horn
Childe, Ritson,
ii.
216
Caro, E.
xii.
Hall,
Child,
1897.
Hind Horn,
;
187 ff. ; cf. Schofield, Pub. M.L.A., xviii. i ff. ; Rom., xxxiv. 142 note. Havelok the Dane, Roxb., 1828 ; Skeat, E.E.T.S., E.S., iv. Holthausen, L., Athelston, Rel. Ant., ii. 1901 ; re-ed. Skeat, Oxf., 1902; cf. above, p. 471. 85; Zupitza, E. St., xiii. 33 ff. Guy of Warwick, TurnbuU, Abbot., 1840; Zupitra, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxv., xxvi. ; E.E.T.S., E.S., xiii., xlix., lix. ; cf. Guy and Colebrande, P.F.MS., ii. 509; Guy and Phyllis, Ellis, pp. 188 ff. Guye and Amarant, P.F.MS., iii. 36 ff. ; cf. above, P.F. MS., ii. 201, 608 ff. 1838; Kolbing, E.E.T.S., p. ^Ti.Bevis of Hampton, TurnbuU, Mait., cf. Ellis, pp. 239 ff. ; cf. above, p. 471. Cerf of E.S., xlvi., xlviii., Ixv. Robin Hood, and other ballads on R. H., see Child, v. 39 ff. Gamelyn, Skeat, Oxf, i?,S^.Adam Bell, etc., P.F.MS., iii. 76, and Child, ii. 14 ff.
; ; ;
Rauf
W. HandCoilyear, Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxix. ; Sc. T.S., 27 Tanner of Tamworth, Child, v. 67 ff. Miller of Browne, Baltimore, 1903. P.F.MS., ii. 147 ff. Randulph, Erl of Chester, Mansfield, Child, v. 84 ff. P.F.MS., 1258 f(.John de Reeve, P.F.MS., ii. 550 ff.; cf. Child, v. 69-70. Matter of Antiquity (pp. 282-298) :Dares Phrygius, Sleister, Leip., Dictys CretensiS Ephemerides Belli Ti-ojani, Meister, Leip., 1872. 1873.
; ; ; :
new
ed.
for
S.A.T.F.
in
Colonne
Hist. Dest.
Strassburg,
II.
A. Wager, N.Y.,
1899;
Destruction of Troy, Panton and Donaldson, E.E.T.S., xxxix., W\.; Laud Troy Book,]. E. Wiilfing, E.E.T.S., cxxi.,cxxii. Barbour: Troy Book, Horstmann (" Barbour's Legendensammlung," ii. 215), Heilbronn,
Archiv,
Ixxii.
cf.
Caxton Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, repr. Sommer, L., 1894 ; G. Hamilton, " Indebtedness of Chaucer's T. and C. to Guido," etc., N.Y., " Essays on Chaucer," Ch. S., 2 ser., 29. Lydgate : 1903 ; W, M. Rossetti,
1881.
:
; ;
478
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Romance of Thebes, Eng. Poets, i. 570 ff. ; Roman de Thibes, M. Constans, S.A.T.F., 1890. Caxton Eneydos, Culley and Furnivall, E.E.T.S., E.S., Ivii. Cf. Rom., xxi. 281 Dernedde, " Ueber die altfranz. Dichtern bekannten epischen Stoffe aus der Altertum," Erlangen, 1887 ; H. O. Taylor, " Classical
:
298-305)
Grand dans
la
litt.
fran5.
"
du moyen Sge," P., 1886 ; E. A. Wallis Budge, Camb., 1889 ; ibid. " Life and Exploits of Alex, Alisaunder, Weber, i. i ft (Allit.) Alisaunder (frag-
Wars of Alexander, Roxb., 1849; Skeat, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxi. Roxb., 1849; Skeat, E.E.T.S., E.S., xWn. Alexander Book, Laing, Bann., Sir Prose Alexander, not printed; cf. Thorn. Roms., p. xxvi. 1831. Gilbert Hay Buik of King Alexander, cf. Herrmann, " The Taymouth Castle MS. of Sir Gilbert Hay's Buik," etc., B., 1898 ; extracts in The Forraye
ments),
:
On
V. Jones, Pub. M.L.A., June 1905. Merchant's Second Furnivall and Stone, Ch. S., Tale, or Tale of Beryn, Eng. Poets, i. 641 ff. 2 ser. xvii., xxiv. On the O.F. Berinus, see "Orient u. Occident," T.
Introd.
;
cf.
H.
S.
ii.
310.
:
Apollonius, King of Tyre, Ashbee, L., Other Romances (pp. 305-319) Patteme of Painefull Adventures, repr. New Rochelle, 1870 cf. Twine
;
:
N.Y., 1903; cf. GOWER, Qonfessio Amantis, G. C. Macaulay, L., 1900-; for A.S. versions, see Archiv, xcvii. 17 ff. ; cf. E. Klebs, "Die Erzahlung von Floris and Blauncheffur, Laing, Abbot. Apollonius aus Tyrus," B., 1899. (Auch. MS. sel.), 1829; Hausknecht (Sammlung engl. Denkmdler, v.), B., 1885 McKnight, E.E.T.S., xiv. cf. Ellis, pp. .453 ff. ; Rom., xxviii. 348, 444. Partonvpe of Blois, Roxb., 1862, 1873; cf E. Kbibing, "Beit, zur vergl. Sir Gesch. der romant. Poesie u. Prosa des Mittelalters," Breslau, 1876.
Rem.,
ii.
21
ff.
ii.
The Squyr of Lowe Degre, Ritson, iii. 138 ff. ; E. Mead, Boston, 1904. Ipomedon, Kbibing, 279; cf. Ellis, pp. 505 ff.; above, p. 471. Roswall
W.
and
Lillian, Laing, Edin., 1822; Early Metr. Tales, 1826, pp. 265
cf.
Ellis, pp.
578
if.
1865; Wright, E.E.T.S., Iv., Ixx. Amis and Amiloun, Weber, ii. 367 ff. Kbibing, Heilbronn, 1884 ; cf. Ellis, pp. 584 ff. Octavian Imperator, Weber, Octavian, Halliwell, Percy S., 1844; iii. 155 ff. ; Sarrazin, Heilbronn, 1885. Sir Triammr, Utterson, Early Pop. Poetry, i. Sarrazin, Heilbronn, 1885.
5
491
cf.
P.F.MS., ii. 78 ff. cf. Ellis, pp. 46 ; W. Victor, Marburg, 1893, 2nd ed. iS^. William of Palerne, Madden, Roxb., 1832 Skeat, E.E.T.S., E.S., i.
ff.,
L., 1825
1846
ff.
Le Bone
iii.
M. Trautmann, " Alteng. allit. Gedichte," Halle, 1876; Rom., vii. 470 ff., King of Tars, Ritson, ii. 147 ff. E. St., xi. i ff. Torrent of viii. 627. Portyngale, E. Adam, E.E.T.S., E.S., Ii.; Halliwell, L., i?./\2. Sir Eglamour
;
Sir Isumbras, of Artois, Thorn. Roms., 1844; G. Schleich, B., 1901. Utterson, i. 73; cf. Ellis, pp. 497 ff. ; G. H. Gerould, Pub. M.L.A., 1905.
APPENDIX
11
;;
479
Robert of Cysille, Hazlitt Rem., 1864, i. 264 ff. ; Horstmann, 1878, pp. 209 ff. cf. Ellis, pp. 474 f!. Siege of Jerusalem (to be ed. Kaluza). Vengeauiue of
Goddes Dcth, or Siege ofJerusalem (to be ed. Bergau) ; cf. F. Bergau, " Untersuchungen," etc., Kiinigsbcrg, i')0\. Godeffroy of Boloyiie, Colvin, E.E.T.S.,
E.E.T.S., E.S., vi. J^/j'flj, Thoms, K.Melusine, Donald, E.E.T.S., E.S., Ixviii. /'oc/w/o)', Slceat, E.E.T.S., x.xii. (rev. 1S99), Archiv, cvii. 106 ff. Richard Coer de Lion, Weber, ii. i ff. of. Ellis, pp. 2S2 (f. above, p. 471. Parlement of the Three Ages, Gollancz, Roxb., L., 1897. Ballet of the Nine Nobles, Laing,
Cliepclere Jssigiie, Oihhi,
iii.
E.S., Ixiv.
I
1S22, pp. 2
ff.
cf.
"
Biiik of
Barbour Bruce, Skeat, E.E.T.S., E.S., xi., xxi., xxix., Iv. Sc. T.S., xxxi.xxmi.BlancItardyn, Kellner, E.E.T.S., E.S., Wm.Clariodus, Mait., 1830. Valentine and Orson, L., 1 571. Paris and Vienne, facsimile of the Caxton ed. of 14S8, Roxb. Lib., L., \%(&. Arthur of Little Britain, Utterson, L., 1814. For other romances, see Thorns, 3 vols.
CHAPTER VL TALES
E.
(pp. 320-348)
J.
(pp. 321-323)
;On
Furnivall,
Clouston
;
etc.,
Ch.
S.,
,
ser.
vii.
;
a., xv.
xx., xxii.
Introd.
L.,
ff.
1894
V.
on Pardonei's
Tale, see
i.
477
Dame
378.
Sirith, Matzner,
103 ff
et
Interludiuin de
Clerico
Puella,
;
Ant.,
i.
145 ff
Wright's
volume
;
cf.
E. St.,
xii.
A. Clouston in Introd. to
;
this
Robson, pp. 27-56 G. 257 if. Sir Ainadace, Weber, iii. 241 Stephens, Copenh., 1S60 ; cf. Rom., xviii. 197. Sir Cleges, Weber, iii. 329 ff. ; tr. J. L. Weston, N.Y., 1902. Fabliaux, etc. (pp. 323-326) See J. Bedier, " Las Fabliaux," 2" ed.. P.,
:
1895; Petit de JuUeville, Ilistoire, ii., ch. 2; cf. Rom., xxiv. 135. Land of Cokaygne, Matzner, i. 147 Furnivall, pp. 156 ff T. Wright, "Altd. Bliittern," Penniworth of Witte, Laing, 1S57 Kolbing, E. St., vii. iii. How i. 396.
; ; ;
vii.
i.
n8
193
ff.
Ritson,
;
"Anc.
of the
ff.
;
Hazlitt Rem.,
Mylner of Abington,
Hazlitt
A/ery Jest
L., pp. 105
ff.
cf.
Earbazan,
cf.
;
Varnhagen, E. St., ix. 246. Tlie Frere and the Boye, Hazlitt, Rem., iii. 54 ff. P.F.MS., "Loose Songs," pp. 9 ff. Ilalliwell, " Early English Miscellanies," L., 1855, pp. 46 ff. Wright, L., 1S36. How a Sergeainit wolde lerne to be a Prere, Hazhtt, Rem., iii. 119 ff. Dan Hugh MonI;, Hazhtt, Rem., iii. 130. Plowman's Paternoster, Hazlitt, Rem., i. 209 ff. cf Anglia, ii. 388. The Basin, Rem., iii. 42 ff. Tournament of Totcnham, Rem., iii. 82 ff. Felone Evans, "Old Ballads," L., 1810, iii. 270 ff. Sowe, etc., Robson, pp. 105 ff. cf. Colkelbie Sow, Laing, 1S95, i. 183 ff. Liunlyng of the Hare, Weber, iii.
; ;
48o
277
ENGLISH LITERATURE
.A
ffundred Merry Tales,
(pp. 326-330):
W.
C. Hazlitt, L.,
1887. SAakespeare's
Pious Tales
xcviii.
Miracles of
ff.
138
ff.
Archiv,
Ivi.
221
On
Our Lady, Morris, E.E.T.S., Sir Hugh, cf. Child, iii. 223 ff. ;
etc., L., 1849; J. Jacobs, "Jewish Ideals," etc., L., Oure Leuedi Psauter was founde, Horstmann, 1881, pp. 499 ffGood Knight and Jealous Wife, Horstmann, 1881, pp. 329 ff. De Mir. Beat. The Eretnyt and tlu Outelawe, Kaluza Mar., Horstmann, 1881, pp. 502 ff. E. St., xiv. 165 ff. ; cf. also xix. 177 ff. ; cf. Le Clievalier au Barizel, Barbazan, "Fabliaux," 1 808, i. 208-42. Incestuous Daughter, Horstmann, 1 881, pp. 334. ff. ; Archiv, Ixxix. 421 ff. ; cf. Ixxxii. 204 S.The Childe of Bristowe, Hazlitt Rem., i. no; Horstmann, 1881, pp. 315 ff. ; cf. The Merchant
How
and his Son, Rem., i. 132 Smyth and his Dame, Rem.,
;
,
Halliwell,
iii.
"NugEC
S.The
The Gast of Gy,G. Schleich, B., 1898. Beast-Fables, Beast-Epics, and Bestiaries (pp. 330-337) -.Jatakas,
201
ff.
:
V. Fausbbll, 7 vols. , L. 1877-97 5 Tales from Pali, tr. R. Morris, 1888 ; E. B. Cowell, Camb., 1895. Bidpai Fables, S. de Sacy, P., 1819; tr. J. Jacobs, L., 1888, 2 \o\s.Panchatanlra, Kielhorn and Buehler, 5 pts., Bombay, 1869 ; Fr. tr. A. Dubois, P., 1826. For AviANUS, Phaedrus, Odo, etc., see Avianus
Hervieux, " Fabulistes Latins," etc.. P., 1884-89, 5 vols, (i., ii. Phsedrus iii. cf. O. Keller, Jahrb. f. dassische Phil., 1862, Leip., Suppl., ; iv. Odo) Lydgate vol. iv. 307-448. -^For Marie de France, see above, p. 472.
;
ff.
Holland
Bute of
Laing, Edin., 1823 ; A. Diebler, Chemnitz, 1893. Henryson: The Moral Fables of jEsop, Laing, Edin., 1865; Sibbald, i. 90, " Henryson's 94, 100, loi ff. ; Diebler, Anglia, ix. 337, 453 ; cf. Diebler, Fabeldichtungen," Halle, 1885. Caxton ^jop, J. Jacobs, L., 1889. Romance of Reynard the Fox : Netheriandish, E. Martin, Paderthe Howlate,
:
1876; French, Le Roman de Renart, Potvin, P., 1891 ; German, Reinhart Fuchs, J. Grimm, B. 1834 ; Goethe, Reineke Fuchs, Munich, 1846 ; " Isengrimus," Halle, 1884 ; L. Sudre, " Les Sources du R. de cf. E. Voigt, R.," p., 1892; Petit de Julleville, ii. ch. i; Caxton, ed. Arber, L., 1878, No. I E. Goldsmid, Edin., 1884; mod. H. Morley, Carisbrooke Lib., iv., L.,
born,
,
1889, pp.
Percy
43-166. 7X Fox aiuithe Wolf, Matzner, i. 130 Rel. Ant., ii. 272 ; 1843 ; on Chaucer's Nun's Priest's Tale, see K. O.
;
Petersen, Radcl. M., x., Boston, 1898. Physiologus : For the Latin text and
and rhymed
d'Arch^ologie," 1851, ii. 85-100, 186-232, des Physiologus," Strassburg; iii. 203-288, iv. 55-87 ; cf. F. Lauchert, "Gesch. " Bibl. der iSSg. Anglo-Saxon poems o( Panther and Whale, Grein-Wiilcker,
versions, see
Cahier, "
M^anges
angelsachs. Poesie,"
iii.
Rel. Ant.,
ff.
;
ibi^lo.Bestiary, Matzner, i. 55; cf. Anglia, Morris, E.E.T.S., xlix. ; i. 208 ff.
;
ix.
cf.
above,
:
p.
473
(Bestiaire).
Gesta Romanorum, Latin texts, Oesterley, Collections (pp. 337-348) Madden, Roxb., B., 1872; English texts, Herrtage, E.E.T.S., E.S., xxxiii. ;
APPENDIX
1S38. Cf. Latin
II
481
see Skeat's
Stories, Percy S., 1842. On Chaucer and Boccaccio, Chaucer. Lydgatb : Falls of Princes, ct Koeppel, "Zwei Mirrour for Bearbeitungen Boccaccio's De Casibus," Munich, 1885.
Magistrates, J. Haslewood, C, 1875, 2 vols. ^JACQUES DE ViTRY : Exempla, T. F. Crane, Folklore Soc, 1890, xxvi. ^tienne de Bourbon: Liber de Septem Donis, Lecoy de la Marche, P., 1877. Bromyard Summa Predicantium, 1518. HoLCOT Super Libras Sapientice, Reutlingen, 1489.
:
see below,
p.
484.
Gower
Confessio
Amantis, Macaulay, E.E.T.S., E.S., Ixxxi., Ixxxii. ; same, Oxf., 1901, vols, ii., iii. ; Selections, Macaulay, Oxf., 1903. Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry, Wright, E.E.T.S., xxxiii. ; Fr. orig., Montaiglon, P., 1884. Seven Sages, Wright, Percy S., 1846; Gomme, Wynkyn de Worde's version, L., 1885; Weber, iii. 3 ff. cf. Ellis, 405 ff. Varnhagen, E. St., xxv. 321-25 (Scottish version) Napier, Pub. M.L.A., xiv. 459 ff. For fuller bibliography, see K. Campbell, " Seven Sages," Baltimore, 1898 ; new ed. in press, Albion Series, Boston. Painter Palace of Pleasure, J. Haslewood, L., 1813 ; J. Jacobs, Heptameron, Soc. des Bibliophiles franj., 1853. L., 189a
; ; ;
CHAPTER
On
the
VII. HISTORICAL
WORKS
:
(pp. 349-373)
Chronicles
Eng. Hist.," L. and N.Y., 1^00, passim. Layamon Robert of Gloucester, Chronicle, A. Wright, Rolls Series, L., 1887 ; 1847. Thos. Bek OF Anglia, x. 308, xiii. 202; Archiv, Ixxxvii. 217. cf. Chronicle, Perrin, Gottingen, Castelford cf. 1890 (in prep, for 'E.'E.H.S.). Rhymed Chronicle of England, Ritson, iii. 18; cf. E. St., xv. Robert Mannyng of Brunne The Story of England, Zetsche, 249. Anglia, ix. 43 ; Hearne, 1725 Furnivall, Rolls Series, L., 1887. John de For Trevisa: tr. of Polychronicon, Babington, Rolls Series, L., 1865. ^John Hardyng, editions of the following see the numbers in Gross Chronicle, No. 1787 ; John Capgrave, Chronicle, No. 1731 ; John Fordun, Scotichronicon, No. 1775 ; Andrew of Wyntoun, Chronykil of Scotland, No. 1869. For Songs on Berwick and BannockPolitical Poems (pp. 363-368)
burn,
etc.,
:
cf.
Fabyan, New
Wright, P.S., pp. 286, 293, 295-96, 298, 303, 307, 3iS.Smg against Ritson, A.S., the King of Almaigne, Percy, " Reliques," ii. I (Tauchnitz ed.) 12-13 ; Wright, p. 69 ; Boddeker, A.D., pp. 98 ff. ; Miitzner, i. 1^2. Song on the Flemish Insurrection, Wright, pp. 187 ff. ; Boddeker, pp. 112 ff. ; Execution of Sir Simon Eraser, Boddeker, p. 12 Hazlitt, pp. 44 fT. Kin^s breaking of Magna Charia, Wright, p. 212 ; Ritson, A.S., pp. 25 ff.
toft
Wright, pp.
253
ff.
Lawrence Minot
Ballads, J.
Hall, 1897
W.
1884; Ritson, L., 1825. Adam Davy: Five Dreams about Edward IL, Furnivall, E.E.T.S., Ixix. 11-16. Thos. of ErcelDOUNE Prophecy, Brandl., B., 1880 ; Rel. Ant., i. 30 ff. ; Murray, E.E.T.S.,
Scholle, Strassburg,
:
, ;
482
Ixi.
ENGLISH LITERATURE
(5 texts).
On
ii8o2, p.
Banister, see Ritson, " Bibliographica Poetica,'' L., see H. Morley, " Eng. Writers," iii. 200, L.,
P.S., pp. 149
flf.
1888. Cf. Wright, P.P. Satires (pp. 368-373) -.Song of Husbandmen, Wright,
:
ff-
>
also Boddeker, pp. 100 ff. Retinues of Great People, Wright, pp. 237 ; Nego, Wright, pp. 210 ff. pp. 153 ff. ; Boddeker, pp. 106 ff., 135 ff. HwoH lioly chirche is under fote, Morris, E.E.T.S., xlix. 89 ff. Evil Times Winner and Waster, GoUancz, in "Parleof Edw. II., Wright, pp. 323 ff. pent of Three Ages," L., !?,<)';. Syr Peny (A.), Rel. Ant., ii. 108; Hazlitt Jiem., i. 159 ff. ; (B.), Ritson, A.S., pp. iij ff. ; Wright, "Poems of W.
Camd., L., 1841, pp. 359 ff. Why I cannot be a Nun, Furnivall, Soc, 1862, pp. 138 ff. Satire on the People of Kildare, Rel. Ant., ji. For other 174 ff. ; cf. W. Heuser, " Kildare Gedichte," Bonn, 1904. satirical poems and songs, see Fairholt, " Sat. Poems," Percy S., xxvii. ; Wright ; Rel. Ant.
JVIapes,"
Philol.
CHAPTER
Gospels, tr.
VIII. RELIGIOUS
WORKS
(pp. 374-417)
Early English
Psalter,
and Exodus,
273
;
Morris, E.E.T.S.,
i.
cf.
Anglia,
v.
vi.,
extr.
in Matzner,
:
75
ff.
Anglia,
cf.
43
Archiv,
387-92.
On
CoMESTOR
Historia Scholastica
Cursor Mundi, R. Morris, E. E. T. S. Ivii. Ixix. -Ixii. Ixvi. Ixviii. 133; Eng. St., xi. 235 ff. ; Hupe, "Cursor Studies," E.E.T.S., \ni.Assumptio Mariae, Lumby, E.E.T.S., xiv., xliv. ; E.E.T.S., xiv. 75, no; E. St., viii. cf. E. St., vii. I ff. Other forms 227 ff., 461 ff. Furnivall, B., 1862. Birth of Jesus, Horstmann, 1875, pp.
Appendix A.
Horstmann, pp. 101, in, 161, 349 ff. ; for the Infancy of E.E.T.S., cxvii. 637 ff. ; E. St., ii. 117 ff. ; Archiv, Ixxiv. 327, Ixxxii. 167, Ixxix. 441.^i&f, Rel. Ant., i. 144 ; Child, i. 242-44 Matzner, Cleanness and Patience, R. Morris, E.E.T.S., i. 38, 92 ff. i. 113.
64
ff.
;
see also
cf.
Christ,
Homilies
xicxiv.
Aelfric: Homilies, R, Morris, E.E.T.S., xxix., (pp. 379-389) ; Hali Meidenhad, O. Cockayne, E.E.T.S., xviii. Sermon against
ii.
Miracle-Plays, Matzner,
Tracts
222
ff. ;
Rel. Ant.
;
ii.
42
ff.
^John
Wycliffe
and
Treatises, etc., R.
Vaughan, L.,1845
"
"Select Eng. Works," T. Arnold, Oxf., 1871 ; F.' Matthew, E.E.T.S., Ixxiv. Poema Morale, Furnivall ; Morris, E.E.T.S., xxxiv., xlix., liii. ; Zupitza, Anglia, i. 6 ff., iii. 32 ff. ; crit. ed. Lewin, Halle, 1881. Ormulum, R. M. White, L., 1852 ; re-ed. R. Holt, Oxf., 1878, 2 vols. ; cf. E. St., i. I, vi. 1-27. Old Kentish Sermons, Morris, E.E.T.S., xlix. pp. 26 ff. Old English flomilies, Morris, E.E.T.S., xxix., xxxiv. ; cf. W. Vollhardt, " Einfluss der
lat.
geistl.
Edin., 1862;
1888; English Metrical Homilies, 1. Small,G. Gerould, "Study of North Eng. Horn. Coll.," Oxf., 1902.
,
7^
E.E.T.S.,
xlix. pp.
i86
ff.
;. see. the
same
for
APPENDIX
other homilies mentioned.
cxvii.
II
483
.1 Itiytel tretys of Love, Furnivall, E.E.T.S., Horstmann, E.E.T.S., cxviii. Feastdays of the Church, Morris, E.E.T.S., xlvi. pp. 210 ff. Laineniacio Sancti Bernardi, Kribel, E. St., viii. 85 ^.Compassio Mariae, Napier, E.E.T.S., ciii. 75 ff. ;
Hours of
the
Cross,
ff.
XV.
thohte,
Sunday, Rel. Anl.,ii. 241 ff. Of a mon motheu Boddeker, pp. 1S4 ff. Morris, " .Specimens," ii. 46 ff. Wright, S.L.P., pp. 41 ff. Paraphrase of Psalm /., Kolbing, E. .St., ix. 49 ff. Abbot., Signs of Judgment, Stengel, Halle, 1S71 ; Mjitzner, i. 120; P. B. 1857.
220
ff.
; ; ;
XV
;
V.
413; Furnivall, pp. 7 ff. Antichrist, etc., Morris, Ebert's Jahrb., cf. T. Wright, "Chester Plays," ii. Anglia, iii. 534 ff. ; 147 ff. P. B. Beit., vi. 413 ff.; E.E.T.S., Ixix. 92 ff., xxiv. iiS ff.; Signs of Death, etc., E.E.T.S., xlix. Messengers of Death, E. St., xiv. 182 ff. ; Archiv, Ixxix. 432 cf. Rel. Ant., i. 64-65. A"/ /bwj- of Hell, E.E.T.S xlix.; Archiv, Ixii. Percy S., xiv. 1844. Commandments, E.E. P., pp. 15-16 Archiv, 403 ff. civ. 302 ff. Rel. Ant., ii. 27 ff. E. St., i. 214 ff. Seven Deadly Sins, Furnivall, E. St., ix. 42; Laing, "Poems from Auch. MS.," pp. Si ff. ; pp. 17 ff.
Beit., vi.
191
ff.
vi. 332 ff. ; Five Joys of t/ie Virgin, Rel. Ant., i. 136 ff. E.E.T.S., xlix. 87 ff ; Boddeker, iSSi, pp. 21S ff Wright, S.L.P., pp. 94 ff. Dan John Friar Henrys iuytel Sarmoun, E.E.T.S., cxvii. 476 ff. Gaytryge's Sermon, E. St., vi. 416 E.E.T.S., xxvi. 1-14. How to hear Mass, E.E.T.S., cxvii. 493 ff Grosseteste Chdteau d' Amour, Cooke, Caxton Soc, 1S52 ; Anglia, E.E.T.S., xcviii. 407 ff. Weymouth, Philol. S., 1S44. xii. 311 ff. Sawles IVarde, Woohing of our Lord, Morris, E.E.T.S., xxix. pp. 245 ff., Poems, 268 ff. ; cf. E.E.T.S., x.xiii. 263-69. William of Shoreham
Ebert's Jahrb.
1849; Konrath, E.E.T.S., E.S., lx.xxvi. Richard Rolle OF Hampole: Perry, E.E.T.S., xx. ; cf. E. St., iii. 406, vii. 468. Pricke cf. Horstmann, "Yorkshire Writers," L., of Conscience, Morris, B., 1S63 1895; E.E.T.S., cvi. Psalter, H. R. Bramley, Oxf., 1884; cf. Anglia, viii., Anz., 170; xi. 326; cf. H. Middendorf, " Studien zu Rolle," etc., MagdeNicholas of Hereford Transl. of Psalms, Forshall and burg, 1S88. Madden, Oxf., 1850; cf. Kbrting, " Grundriss," p. 132. Seven Psalms, KA\tt and Kaluza, E. .St., x. 215 ff. King Solomon's Book of Wisdom, Furnivall,
Wright, Percy
S.,
;
:
Lay Folks' A7.^ Solomon's Coronation, pp. 96 ff. E.E.T.S.', Ixix. 82-95. Prayer Book, Littlehales, E.E.T.S., cv. De Emendacione Vitae {li. Misyn), R. Harvey, E.E.T.S., cvi. See, in general, Legends and Lives of Saints (pp. 389-397): C. Horstmann, "The Early Eng. Legendary or Lives of Saints," E.E.T.S.,
(Gloucestershire), Southern Legends, cf. Anglia, xi. 543 Ae. Leg. 1875, xix., " Sammlung Ae. Leg.," 1S78 (MS. Vernon, etc.); Northern Collection, " Ae. Leg., Neue Folge," 1S81, pp. 1-173 cf. E. St., i. OsBERN BoKENHAM Liz'cs of Saints, Horstmann, Heilbronn, 293-300.
Ixxxvii. (57 Lives)
;
:
in
1S83
Roxb., 1S35
cf.
E. St.,
xii.
ff.
cf.
B., 1883.
; ;
A
L., 1861.
ENGLIsk LITERATURE
Scottish Legends, Metcalfe, Scot. T.S., 1896,
;
xxv.,
xxxv.-xxxvii.
{jg,
vols.
St.
cf.
Anglia,
viii.
i.
102.
ff.
Beket, St.
Festial, cf.
Christopher, etc.,
Miitzner,
170
For
Johannes Myrc,
cix.-cxxvii.
Visions
E.
St.,
i.
See,
in general, E.
E.E.T.S., xlix. App., iii. E.E.T.S., xcviii. 251 ff. ; Archiv, lii. 33 ff. Kblbing, E. St., xxii. 134; cf. H. Brandes, "Visio St. Pauli," Halle, 18S5. Vision of Timdale, TurnbuU, Edin., 1843 ; A. Wagner, Halle, 1893. Oweyn Miles, E. St., St. Patrick's Purgai. 113 ff., ix. I ff. ; D. Laing, Edin., 1837, pp. 13-54. tory, Horstmann, 1875, 149-211 ; Kolbing, E. St., i. 57 ; Abbot., 1837 ; cf. T. Wright, " St. P.'s Turg.," L., 1844 ; G. P. Krapp, "Legend of St. P.'s Purg.,"
Bait.,
1899. Fww
St. Pauli,
etc.,
Bait.,
1900.
Monk of Evesham,
cf.
Arber's Reprints,
xviii.
1861
(Lat.
text),
i. ;
Schofield, Pub.
xix. 154-215.
Ancren Riwle, Morton, Camd., (pp. 403-417): Ir. Extracts in Matzner, ii. 5 ff. ; Napier, Journ. Germ. Phil., ii. 119 1853 King's Classics, 1905 cf E. St., iii. 535 ff., ix. 115 ff. P. B. Beit., i. 209 ff. T. Miihe, "On A. R.," Gbttingen, 1901. Benedictine Pule for Nuns of cf. Gbttingische Gelehrte Winteney, Plampshire, Schrber, Halle, 1888
; ; ; ; ;
Books of Edification
Bbddeker, E.
St.,
;
ii.
60; Koch,
Ayenbite
of Jnwyt, Roxb., 1835; Morris, E.E.T.S., xxiii. ; cf. E. St., ii. 27 ff. ; R. W. On Chaucer, Parson's Evers, "Ayenb. of Inwyt," etc., Erlangen, 1883. On Gower, see Tale, see K. O. Petersen, Rad. Mon., xii., Boston, 1901. R. E. Fowler, " Une source fran9. des poemes de Gower," Macon, 1905.
302.
Dan
Michel
Robert Mannyng of Brunne: Handlyng Synne, Furnivall, Roxb., 1862; Bonaventura Meditations, J. M. Cowper,
:
E.E.T.S., E.E.T.S.,
^Johannes Myrc Instructions for Parish Priests, E. Peacock, Speculum Humanae Salvaiionis, Huth, Roxb., 1888; xxxi. Mirror of St. Edmtcnd, I. Perry, E.E.T.S., xxvi. 15 R. Prick or Spur of
Ix.
:
Lme, E.E.T.S.,
221
ff.;
xcvii. p.
268
How
Man
Myroure of Oure Ladye, Blunt, E.E.T.S., E.S., xix. Orologiuin Craft of Deying, etc., Lumby, Sapientiae, Horstmann, Anglia, x. 323 ff.
E.E.T.S., 43.
(pp. 418-434)
(pp. 418-424)
i.
Proverbs of
cf.
King Alfred,
i.
102
ff. ;
Rel. Ant.,
170;
P. B.
Beit.,
240
ff.
Anglia,
iii.
370.
Kemble,
i.
i.
Matzner,
304
ff. ;
Anglia,
iv.
180, v. 5
; ; ; ; ;
APPENDIX
Kemble, "Dialogue,"
etc., pp. 270. L., 1892 (facs. of Antwerp, ed. 1492).
11
48s
King Salomon
How
the
and
Marcolf, E. Duff,
Wise
48
Man
ff. ;
viii. 52 ff. 189; Furnivall, Queen's Academy, L., 1868, i. 48. rXu Good Wyfe wold a Pylgremage, Furnivall, E.E.T.S., E.S., How the Goode Wif Taught hir Doughter, Hazlitt, i. 178; viii. 39-43.
ii.
ff.
E.E.T.S.,
i.
xxxii.
E.S.,
E.E.T.S.,
A B C
xxxii.
telle,
xxxii. 36; E.S., viii. 44 ff. ; cf. E.E.T.S., E.S., xxix. 511. of Aristotle, Strutt, "Sports and Pastimes," L., 1841 ; E.E.T.S., 11-12 E.S., viii. 65, 66 ; Archiv, cv. 296. A Man Ihad xuld of treeothe
;
Lytel ii. 165. Cato, Nehab, B., 1879; cf. Anglia, iii. 383. Colon and Cato Major, Goldberg, Leip., 1883; Anglia, vii. 165; E.E.T.S., cxvii. 553 ff. Disticha Catonis, tr. Benedict Burgh; cf. M. O. Goldberg, Caxton Prose Cato, see Goldberg and Napier, Leip., 1883, pp. 45, 49.
Rel. Ant.,
Proverbes of diverse Profetes, etc., E.E.T.S., cxvii. 522 ff. Archiv, xcv. 163. Sawe Dictes attd Sayings of the Philosophers, facs. Wm. Blades, L., 1877.
J.
of St. Bede, Sayings of St. Bernard, E.E.T.S., cxvii. De Cura Rei Faiiiiliaris, Ratis Raving, Foly of Fulys, etc., ib., R. Lumby, E.E.T.S., xlii. E.E.T.S., xliii. Vices and Virtues, F. Holthausen, Dialogues and Debates (pp. 424-430) E.E.T.S., Ixxxix. J^o^w, Horstmann, 1881, pp. 341, 511 ff.; H. Gruber,
:
Disputation between
612
ff.
Morris,
ff.
Archiv, cv. 22
"Legends of
Mary and the Cross, E.E.T.S., cxvii. Holy Rood," E.E.T.S., xlvi. 131 ff. Disputation between Child Jhesu and Maistres of the lawe
the
;
E.E.T.S., cxvii. 479 ff. cf. xxvi. ; of Jewes, Horstmann, 1875, 212 ff. Dispute between a Good Alan and the Devil, E. St., viii. 259 ff. ; E.E.T.S., Between a cristenemon and a Jew, Horstmann, 1878, 204 xcviii. 329 ff. E.E.T.S., cxvii. i,%^^Debate of the Body and Soul, see T. Wright, "Latin Poems attrib. to Walter Mapes," Camd., 1841, pp. 95, 321 ff. ; M.E. versions, Boddeker, 1881, 235 ff. Matzner, i. 90 ff. ; Linow, Erl. Beit., i. 25 ff. Stengel, "MS. Digby 86"; cf. Anglia, ii. 225 ^.Vision of Philibert, etc., Warton Club, 1855, 12-39; >o<J- rendering, F. W. Child, Camb., 1888. Owl and Nightingale, Stevenson, Roxb., 1838; Wright, Percy S., 1843;
; ;
cf.
Noelle,
extr.
ff.
241
50
ff. ;
Anglia,
iv.
207. 77i
"Nugae Poet.," L., 1844, pp. 13 ff.; Hazlitt, Books of Instruction and Utility (pp.
Furnivall, E.E.T.S., E.S.,
iii.;
79.
430-434)
Book of Curtesy,
E.E.T.S.,
xxxii.
K. Breul, E.
St., ix. 51
:
ff. ;
Lydgate Stans Puer ad Mensam, 77 ff. ; Halliwell, Percy S., iv. 1842. Babees Book, etc., Furnivall, E.E.T.S., xxxii.; E.E.T.S., E.S., viii.; cf. Burhenne, "Stans Puer," etc., Hersfeld, 18S9, pp. 16 S.Questiones bytwene
t/ie
Maister of Oxenford and his Clerk, Horstmann, E. St., viii. 284 ff. Wulcker, A.E.L., ii. 191. Lydgate: Secrees of Old Philisoffres, R. Steele, E.E.T.S., E.S., Ixvi. OccLEVE De Regimine Principum, T. Wright, L.,
:
Ixi.
cf.
F. Aster,
"De
Reg. Prin.,"
etc.,
486
Leip.,
ENGLISH LITERATURE
1888.
See
Science of Cirurgie,
Planets,
xviii.
Lanfranc numerous pieces in Rel. Ant., passim, von Fleischhacker, E.E.T.S., cii. Influence of the
:
Hahn, Archiv,
ff. ;
cvi.
351
ff.
Medical
Herbarium
293
ArchsEol., 1844, 349 ffReceipts, Holthausen, Anglia, xix. 75. Apuleii, H. Berberich, Heidelberg, 1902. Advice to Travellers,
Horstmann, E. St., viii. 277. Stacions of Rome, Furnivall, E.E.T.S., xxv. Fragment on Popular Science, T. Wright, "Pop. Treatises on I ff., 30 ff. Science," L., 1841 ; Matzner, i. 136 ff. Bartholomeus Anglicus, De ProprietcUibus Rerum, tr. John DE Trevisa W. de Worde, 1491 ; Berthelet, 1535 ; Batman, 1582 ; extracts in R. Steele, " Mediaeval Lore," L., 1893.
:
(pp. 435-450)
Cantus Beati Godrici, Zupitza, (pp. 435 ff.) Good Orison of Our Lady, R. Morris, E.E.T.S., xxxiv. Rel. Ant., Blessed be ihu levedi, Morris, E.E.T.S., xlix. 195 ff. 191 ff. Wright, S.L.P., pp. 93 ff. ; Matzner, 102 ff. ; Boddeker, pp. 215 ff. i. S3-S5- Other songs mentioned in the text and many others are found in Boddeker (MS. Harl. 2253); Rel. Ant.; Matzner; Wright, S.L.P. Morris, E.E.T.S., xlix.; Horstmann, E.E.T.S., xcviii. (Vernon MS.); Morris, E.E.T.S., Furnivall, E.E.T.S., xxiv. Furnivall, E.E.T.S., cxvii. M. Jacoby, "Vier M.E. Dicht.," B., 1890; liii. 255 ff Furnivall, E.E.P. Varnhagen, Anglia, vii. 282 ff., iii. 275 ff., J. Hall, E. St., xxi. 201 ff. ; ii. 352 ff. G. G. Perry, E.E.T.S., xxvi. 75 ff. ; Napier, Mod. L.N., iv. 274 ff. ;
E.St., 423.
ff.
Boddeker; Wright, S.L.P. ; Ritson, A.S. ; for the lyrics mentioned. Some are found in the " Oxford Book of Eng. Verse," A. T. Ageyn mi wille I take my leve, Varnhagen, Quiller-Couch, Oxf. 1904.
Secular:
See
Anglia,
viii.
In Praise of Women, Kblbing, E. St., vii. loi ff. ; cf. 394; Laing, Auch. MS., Abbot., 18.57, pp. 107 ff. ; Rel. Ant., passim.
vii.
289.
INDEX
ABC (Chaucer),
Adam, 136
A B C of Aristotle^
Adam
Bell,
377 422
Adam de la Halle, 96 Adam du Petit Pont, 53 Adam of Evesham, 401 Adam of St. Victor, 65
Addison, 449
Amadas et Ydoine, 117', 37^ Ambrose, 125 Amis and Amiloun, 15, 233, 309 Amis et Amiles, 309 Ancren Riwle, 71, "97, 381, 385, 403408, 5:6 AndrS de Coutances, 119
Angier, 132
Adenet Adgar,
le
Roi, 304
n8
32,
45,.
Aelof, 31, 258, 260, 264 j^neid, 297 Aesculapius, 92 ./^op, u8, 331
Aesopxis,
332
409
Alain de I'Isle, 76 Alb&-ic de Brianyon, 299 Albertano of Brescia, 77 Albertus Magnus, 81, 82, 87, 88, 104 Alban, St., Life oi, 131
Albin, St., 350, 351 Alcuin, 17, 49 Aldhelm, St., of Salisbury, 16, 18
Antiquary, The, 91 Apocalypse of Golias, 58, 402 Apocalypse of St, John, 129 Apocalypse of St. Peter, 399 Apollonius of Tyre, 306 Arabian Nights, 321 Arcadia, 67 Architrenius, 6o-6r
Aristotle, 33, 49,
Sir,
II.,
200
Pope, 26
Neckham, 6i, 62, 88, 336 the Great, 77, 298-304 Alexander the Great, Buik of, 303,
304 Alexandre de Bernay, 300, 303 Alexandreid, 77 Alexis, St, Life of, 393 Alfaragan, 91 Alfred, King, 143, 144, 418, 430 487
52, 81, 82, 92, 100, 422, 432, 433 Arnold, Matthew, 162, 214 Arnold of the Newe Toun, 92 Ars Metrica (Bede), 75 Ars Rhythmica (Garlandia), 74
94,
Art of English
Arthur,
5,
Poesie,
140
197.
198.
352
300, 314
Arthur, 255
488
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Benolt, 122, 124
Arts and Discipline of Liberal Learning' 49 Arviragus, King, Life of, 194 Arviragus, Lay of, 180, 195-196 As You Like It, 280 Ascham, Roger, 247 Asser, 35, 276 Assumption of Our Lady, 376 Astrolabe, 432 Athelard (Adelard) of Bath, 61, 63, 64 Aucassin et Nicolete, 23, 93, 307 Auchinleck MS., 14, 81, 153, 181, 325. 330. 370. 400 Audelay, John, 399
Augustine,
St., 17, 49,
Benolt de Ste. More, 122, 289, 290, 291, 292, 295 Beowulf, 23, 31
287-288,
Berachyah Nakdan, 64
Bernard, St., of
40s. 424
Clairvaiuc,
51,
52,
Bernard de Ventadour, 68 Bernard of Cluny, 65 Berners, Lord, 157 Bdroul, 202, 203 Bertran de Born, 68 Bertran de Born, the younger, 68 Beryn, Tale of, 32a
Bestiaire, 132, Bestiary, 336
336
Beves, 73, 258 Beves of Hampton, 15, 31, 260, 271, 274. 27s. Biquet, Robert, 116, 180, 197
3"
A, 386
of,
223
126
Avows
Awntyrs of Arthur at
Tarn Wad-
I'
Orgueilleuse d* Amour,
416
Babrius, 331 Bacon, Francis, 109
Blind Harry, 304 Boccaccio, 77," 100, 193, 200, 291, 292, 293, 29s, 296, 325, 340, 341,
346. 347
433
Bandello, 347
Banister, William,
368
290, 303,
Barbour,
John, 20, 155, 317. 327. 332. 394. 395 Barclay, 109
Bochas, 388. Bodel, Jean, 145, 248 Body and the Soul, Debate 426-427, 429, 448 Boece, Hector, 257 Boethius, 49, 76, lor, 430 Boeve de Hamtone, 117 Bokenham, Osbern, 395
of,
15, 401,
et Josaphaz, 118, 131 Bartholomseus Anglicus, 12, 56, 92, 432 Battle of the Standard, 36 Beauty of Ribbesdale, 446
Barlaam
Becket, Thomas i, 49, 51, 53, H, 56, 66, 124, 131, 234 Bede, St., 35, 49, 75, 350, 351, 362,
398 Bek, Thomas, 361 Bel Inconnu, Le, 176, 227, 242, 307 Bello Trojans, De, 66, 289 Benedict, St. (Benet), Rule of, 408-409 Benedict of Peterborough, 42
Bonaventura, 83, 104 Bone Florence de Rome, La, 313 Bojiti des Femmes, La, 129 Book of Duke Huon de Bordeaux, 157 Book of Hymns, 31 Book of Leinster, 31 Book of Settlements, 31 Book of Sidrac, 133 Book of the Dun Cow, 31 Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landri, 343-344 Book Syal, 409 Bourchier, Sir John, 157 Boy and the Mantle, 197-198
INDEX
Bozon, Nicole, 118 Thomas, Bradwardiae, 100, 104 Bramis of Thetford, John, 260 Breakspeare, Nicholas, 73 Br^ri, 116
Bricriu's Feast, 217 Bromyard, John, 342 Broolce, Stopford, 419 Broomfield Hill, 200
489
loi,
Charles the Great, 155, 156 Charie aux Anglais, La, 129 Chastel d' Amors, 134 Chdteau d' Amour, 133 Chdtelain de Coucy, 200 Chaucer, 7, 10, i6, 20, 25, 28, 57,
58, 60, 69, 74, 76, 91, 92, 99, 100,
77, 83, 89,
loi,
108,
90, 109,
Bumel the
Bury.
Asse,
Daun, 60
322,
195, 199, 235, 259, 289, 290, 297, 298, 304, 305, 306, 317, 324, 325. 327. 332. 334. 335. 338. 340. 341, 342, 343, 346, 347, 373, 377, 390. 395. 410. 411. 413. 425. 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 443, 449 Chestre, Thomas, 181, 183, 184, 227 Chevalier au Barizel, 329 Chevalier au Lion, 230 Chevalier au Cygne, 315 Chevy Chace, ^^g Child, Professor, 201, 277, 281 Child Jesus and Masters of the Law of Jews, Disputation between, 425
113, 114, 139, 140, 182, 185, 215, 224, 264, 271, 291, 292, 300, 301,
115, 126, 131, 143, 155, 157, 189, 191, 193, 225, 226, 230, 279, 282, 283, 293, 295, 296,
Thomas, 43
of,
430
Catherine, St., Life ol, 131, 390 Causa Dei contra Pelagium, De, loi
Child of Bi'istow, 329, 403 Childhood of Jesus, 277 Christia7i and a Jew, Disputation between a, 425-426 Chronica (Bury St. Edmund's), 43 Chronica Majora (M. Paris), 44, 45 Chronicle of Turpin, 151 Chronicles (Holinshed), 348 Chronicon ex Chronicis {Florence of Worcester), 35 Chronigue des Dues de Normandie (Benolt), 122
Cicero, 36, Cid, 74
339
Cawline, Sir, 200 Caxton, 45, 127, 140, 155. 156. I57.
236, 257, 290, 297, 316, 332, 344, 395, 409, 423 Cecilia, St. Life of, 390 Cento Novelli Aniiche, 347 Chanson de Roland, 25, 146, 149-151 Chansons de geste, 31, 123, 130, 148, 154, 155, 213, 258, 260, 261, 273,
,
Claudian, 297
Cleanness, 378 Cleges, Sir, 322 Clemence of Barking, 131 CUomadis, 304 Clerico et Puella, De, 322
Clerk's Tale (of Griselda), 192, 194
Charlemagne,
5, 31,
490
Cligis, 12,
ENGLISH LITERATURE
117
,
David, 123
Cnut, Song of 30
Davy, Adam,
Death, 385
19,
367
Decameron, 195, 321, 325, 326, 340, 346 Decreta (Lanfranc), 33 Defoe, 252
Degare, Sir, IJ, 181, 182, 186-187, 194 Degrevant, Sir, 311 Denis Pyramus, 131, 174, 307 Deschamps, Eustache, 135 Description of Wales, 41, 75, 419 Dialogue on the Exchequer, 57 Dialogues (Gregory the Great), 132 Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers,
343, 411, 416 Confession of Golias, 58 Consolatio Philosophiae, 76, 430 Consolaiio pro Morte Amici^ 65
Constance, 126, 191, 192, 194, 313 Constant du Hamel, 322 Constantinus Afer, 93 Conte de Bretaigne, Le, 420 Conte de la Charette, 236-238 Conte del Graal, 176, 242-243 Contemptu Mundi, De, 76 Cornelius Nepos, 66 Cornwall, John, 113 Corpore et Sanguine Domini Nostri, De, 33 Corset, 129 Court of Lave, 443
Courtier, 431-432 Creed, 130 Crestien de Troyes,
423
Dictys Cretensis, 286 Dies Irae (Thomas of Celano), 65
Digby MS.
448 Dionysius the Areopagite, 433 Dioscorides, 92, 93 Disticha Catonis, 132, 422 Diu KrSne, 217 Divine Comedy, 108, 402
,
Doomsday Book, 31
12, 14,
70,
116,
117,
138,
203-204, 215, 229, 230-232, 234, _235, 236, 242, 244, 245, 288, 322 Cronydes of England, 127 Cuckolds Dance, 199 Cuckoo and Nightingale, 429 Cuckoo Song, 443-444 Cur Deus Ho?no, 33 Cura Rei Fa-miliaris, De, 4*24
Cuthbert, St., Life Cymbeline, 39 Cynewulf, 390
Dream
of Rhonabwy, 232
Drilithelm, 398
Duns
Dunstan,
Scotus, 10, 29, 94, 95, 100, 104 16 St. Life of, 34
,
321, 322
of Leicester, 326
the Seven
Edda,
424
Amaut, 68 Daniel of Morley, 63 Dante, 79, 80, 81, 93, 108, 137, 342,
403. 433 Dares Phrygius, 286, 288, 290, 291
Edmund, St., Life oi, 131, 362 Edward III., Life oi, 252 Edward the Confessor, 131 Life
;
of,
30. 36
INDEX
E^r and Grine,
232 Egidio Colonna, 432 Eginhaid, 149 Eglammtr of Artois, Sir, 313 Eilhart von Oberg, 203 Ellis, 154
Ellis, Cieorge,
491
395
375
Emendacione Vitae, De, 107 Endymion, 157 English and Scottish Popular Ballads,
281 Enoch, Book of, 398 Ethemeris Belli Trojani, 286
Epictetus,
389 154 Filostrato, II, 292-293 FitzNeal. Richard, 57 FitzRalph, Richard, 102 HtzStephen, Ralph, 368
Fillingham
MS.
296
224 307
425 Epitome of Valerius, 300 >asmas, 109, 397 Erec, 175, 176, 235 Esopi FttHmlae, 332 Espec, Walter, 120 Estorie des Bretons, 120
Estorie des Engleis, 120, 270
Estraiots, 128
Flores and Blanchefiour, 15, 306, Flores Historiarum, 44 Folic Tristan, La, 116, 203
Foliot, Gilbert,
Foliot, Robert,
56 56
Folly of Fools
and Thews of Wise Men, 424 Foray of Gadderis, 303 Forrest, Sir William, 432
Fortescue, 109
Four Sons of Aymon, 156 Fox and the Wolf, 96, 334, 369 Fox Fables, 64
Foxe, 109
II.,
On
the,
370-371 Excidio et Conguestu Britanniae, De, 160 Execution of Sir Simon Eraser, 364
Francis. St., of Assisi, 18 Franklin's Tale, 89, 180, 194, 206. 322, 343 Frederick II., 79, 80
181,
182,
Freine,
Le,
15,
181,
182,
192-194,
of,
117, 277
Gaueelm, 68
Gaimar, Geo&ey, 116, 120, 123, 270
Galen, 92, 93 Gallas, Laurentius. Garganelle, 392 See Lorens, Friar
Gatesden, John, 93 Gautier de Chateau-Thierry, 342 Gautier de Chatillon, 77 Gaveston, Piers, 76, 99, 361, 365
492
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Golagros and Gawain, 220-222 Golden Legend, 403 Golden Targe, 185 Golden Treasury, 435 Goliardic verse, 58-59 Good Knight and his Jealous
Gawain, Sir, 73, 99, 116, 178, 179, 214-234 Gawain and the Green Knight^ 23, 215, 220, 383, 451 Gay, John, 332 Gemma EccUsiastica, 41, 445 Gemmis, De, 76 Genealogia Deorum Gentilium et Heroum, De, 341 Genealogia Regum Anglorum, De, 36,
Wife, 327-328 Good Man and the Devil, 425 Good Orison of Our Lady, 438-439
3S9
Lay
of,
201
5,
Gottfried
von Strassburg,
202, 203,
Geoffrey of
Monmouth, 28, 37-39, 42, 66, 69, 72, 73, 76, 89, 116, 119-120, 121, 123, 127, 160, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 177, 194, 195, 232, 249, 251, 270, 283, 284, 285,
210 Gower,
3SI. 352. 3S3, 354. 357. 359. 361. 368, 451 George a Green, 318
George and the Dragon, St., 131 Gerald de Barri. See Giraldus
brensis
Cam-
Gerard la Pucelle, 53, 56 Germanus, St., Life of, 160 Gervase of Tilbury, 43, 88, 342 Gest of Robin Hood, 277-278 Gesta (Acta) Pilati, 378
Gesta Romanorum, 77, 338, 339, 340 Geste Hystoriale of the Destruction of
20, 64, 76, 88, 99, 108, 114, 117, 126, 135, 136, 138, 143, 191, 200, 224, 225, 289, 306, 340, 343, 372. 373. 383. 4". 415. 416 Gmeghter, Sir, 181, 182, 186, 187i88, 190 Graalent, Lay cf, 175 Grand St. Graal, 245, 247 Gi"ay, Sir Thomas, 127, 232 Great Battle of Effesoun, 303 Green Knight, The, 217 Greene, Robert, 87 Gregory, Pope, 9, 49, 351 Life of,
;
132 Gregory,
Grocyn, 109
Grosseteste, Robert, 85, 86, 88, 113,
10, 18,
Troy, 289 Geste of King Horn, 148, 261-262, 448 Geste of Robin Hood, 148
Geste of Sir Gawain, 215 Gestis Reguvi Anglorum, De, 36
133,
Guido
292, 293
of,
131
Guigemar, Lay of, 190, 307, 310 Guillaume d' Angleterre, 117 Guillaume de Berneville, 131 Guillaume de Deguilleville, 403 Guillaume de Lorris, 134, 13S, 324 Guillaume de Machaut, 135 Guingamor, Lay of, 175, 192, 199, 307 Guinglain, 179, 226, 228 Guiron, Lay of, 200
347
39-42, 59, 125, 131, 171,
28,
Giraldus Cambrensis,
72, 75, 116, 281, 419, 428, 445
70,
Guy and Colbrand, i'j'i Guy de Warwick, 117 Guy of Warwick, 15,
271-274, 275, 311 Guyot (Ky6t), 244-245 Gylfaginning, 75
31, 258,
260,
Goethe, 333
73, 181,
202
INDEX
Haly, 92
493
of Friar Bacon, 87 of Glastonbury, 36 of Gothic Art in England, 95 of the Conquest of Ireland, 40
of the English, 270 Siege, and Destruction
cf
Hdvamdl, 418
Havelok, 31, 117, 120, 258, 266-270, 27S' 362 Hawes, Stephen, 88
Troy, 290 Holcot, Robert, loi, 342 Holinshed, 233, 348 Holland, 332
Hay,
Sir Gilbert,
304
Heinrich von Freiber", 202 H^lie de Boron, 212 Helyas, Knight cf the Swan, 315-316 Hendyng. See Proverbs of Nendyng Henri d'Avranches, 366 Henry de Bracton, 62 Henry of Huntingdon, 35, 36, 67, 123,
3S9. 362
Holy Maidenhood, 380 Homer, 282, 283 Honors d'Autun, 424 Horace, 293 Horn, King, 31, 73, 258, 260-266, 274 Horn Child, 15, 264-265, 268
How How
betray,
to be
65,
400
Friar, 326
Henryson, Robert, 294, 297, 332 Heptatneron, 348 Herbert, 345 Here Prophecy, 368
How
the
Plowman
Hereward, 7, 30, 120, 276 Hermes, 92 Hermit and the Outlaw, 328 Herod and Merlin, 252 Heywood, John, 326, 430 Heywood, Thomas, 252 Higden, Ranulph, 45, 113, 433 Hilarius, 66, 67 Hildebert of Tours, 65 Hind Horn, 265 Hippocrates, 92, 93 Hirlas Horn, 72 Histoire d la Guerre Sainte, 125 Historia Alexandri Magni, 299 Historia Anglorum, 36 Historia Britonum, 160, 162, 166, 170 Historia Danica, 73 Historia de Excidio Trojae, 286 Historia Destructionis Troja, 288
Historia Novorum, 34 Historia Regum Britanniae, 37, 166, 170, 194, 249, 354, 451 Historia Scholastica, 76, 375 Historia Septem Sapientum Romae,
326 Haw the Wise Man taught his Son, 422 How to hear Mass, 389 Hudibras, 88 Hugh of Rutland, 113, 117, 310 Hugo of St. Victor, 386 Hunting cf the Hare, 326 Huon de M6ry, 403' Hundred Merry Tales 326 Hypognosticon, 65
noster,
Ibn Ezra, Abraham, 64 King, 239 Ignaure, Lay of, 200 Iliad, 285, 297 Image du Monde, 133 Imagines ( Ralph of Diceto), 43 Immaculate Conception (Wace), 130 Incendio Amoris, De, 107 Innocent III., 4r, 74, 76, 78, 79 Instruction of Parish Priests, 395
Idylls of the
/ sigh when I sing, 441 Isidore of Seville, 49, 433 Isumbras, Sir, 313, 314
Itinerarium Regis Richardi, 125
Ivain, 176, 230-232, 307
346
Historiae Nmellae, 36
494
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Knighton, Henry, 45 Knight's Tale, 295, 296 Konrad of Wiirzburg, 289 Koran, 63 Kulhwych and Olwen, 164
Jacob ben Jehuda, 63 Jacobus de Voragine, ^^^ 394 Jacques de Longueyon, 303 Jacques de Vitry, 342 Jatakas, 330 Jean d' Arras, 316 Jean de Hauteville, 60 Jean de Meung, 76, 96, 138, 324 Jeaste of Sir Gawain, 228 Jehan de Waurin, 127 Jerome, 49, 405 Jesu, Lover of my soul, 441 Jocelyn of Brakeland, 43 Johannes Damascenus, 93 John, King, 68, 79, 98 John de Cella, 44 John of Fornsete, 444 John of Garland, 74 John of Cornwall, 53 John of Halifax, 91 John of Poictiers, 53 John of Salisbury, 28, 50-52, 53, 76,
81
La La La
Chifevre,
203
Lady Diamond, 200 Lady of the Lake, 89, 236 Lady Prioress and her three Wooers,
321 Lai du Cor, 180, 197
186,
188,
234-
240
Lancelot (Crestien), 236-238 Lancelot (prose), 235-236, 255 Lancelot of the Laik, 239 Land of Cokaygne, 96, 325, 369 Landndmaitfk, 31 Lanfranc, 28, 32-34, 44, 48
John of Trives (Trevisa). See Treves John the Reeve, 281-282 Johnson, Dr., 260 Johnson, Richard, 318 Johon, 44s Joinville, 96, 125 Joscelin, 97 Joseph of Arimathea, 241, 243, 245, 246 Joseph of Exeter, 66, 289 Judas, 378, 449 Juliana, Life of, 390 Junius, 384
Keats, 157, 280 Alisaunder, 251, 300, 301, 302,
Lang, Andrew, 307 Langland, 20, 58, 83, 99, 107, 108,
332. 371. 372. 373. 415. 416. 449.
452
Langtoft, 123, 126, 232, 362, 363 Langton, Stephen, 79, 80, 99 Lanval, Lay of, 175, 180, 181, 183, 192, 307 La Tour Landri, the Knight of, 343,
344
Latini, Brunette,
137
King
Launfal, Sir, 181, 182, 199, 227 Laurea Anglicana, 93 Lawrence of Durham, 65
11, 25, 39, 73, 96, 97, 114, 164, 232, 233, 254, 350, 351-352, 353. 354. 357. 359. 361. 45^ Lay of the Great Fool, 228 Lay of the Last Minstrel, 65, 88
314
Layamon,
King Arthur and King Cornwall, 152 King Edward HI. and the Tanner of
Tamwortk, 153
King Henry
11.
and
the
Miller
of
Leabhar na h-Uidre, 31 Lear, 39, 340 Legend of Good Women, 338, 340, 341
Legenda Aurea, 378, 394-395
Legibus Consuetudinibus Regni et Angliae, De, 62 * Leiand, 361 Leo the Archpresbyter, 299, 301
Leofric,
129 Kin^s Ankus, 321 Kin^s Breaking his Cor^rmaiion of Magna Charta, 365
of,
Kipling, 321
30
INDEX
Libeaus Desconus, 184, 226, 227, 242,
49S
307 Liber de Sepiem Donis, 342 Liber Scintillarum, 33 Lilium Medicinae^ 93 Little Sooth Semion, 385 Livre d'Artus, 236 Livre des Eneydes, 297 Livy, 297 Locrine, 39 Lodge, Thomas, 280
174, 17s, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 190. 195. i99 *oi 3IO' 331. 342' 400, 429 Marriage of Mercury and Philology, 49
Lombard,
Peter,
53
Longfellow, 314
Long
Life,
385
Love Rune, 439-441 Loveiich, Henry, 247, 251 LjTver's Message, 202 Love's Labour's Lost, 282 Luc de la Barre, 128 Lucan, 297 Luces de Gast, 212 Lumiire as Lais, La, 133
Luther, 100, 397 Lydgate, John, 88, 251, 289, 290, 296,
297, 310, 321, 322, 331. 341, 388, 395. 403. 423 431- 432
Marsh, Adam, 85, 104 Marshal, William (Earl of Pembroke), Life of, 125 Martial, 64 Martianus Capella, 49 Alary and the Cross, Disputation between, 425 Massinger, 322 Matthew of Westminster, 312 Mauro et Zoilo, De, 70 Maximian, 443 Maximion, 443 Meir of Norwich, 63 Meliboeus, 77 Melior et Idoine, De, 1 35 Melum Contemplativorum, 107 Milusine, 192, 316
Merle and
179,
Lyndesay, 304
Mabinogion, 23, 74, 75) 162, 170, 229, 232, 242 Macabru, 68
Sir Frederic, 353 Malmesbury. See William oi Malmesbury Malory, Sir Thomas, 198, 203, 211,
Madden,
Metamorphoses, 297 Michel, Dan, 409, 411, 413 Midsumfner Night's Dream, 157 Miller of Abyngdon, 325 Miller s Tale, 324
Milton, 39, 67, 109, 171, 2S3, 284, 304. 384 Milun, Lay of 186 Minnesingers, 74, 76 Minot, Lawrence, 20, 99, 365-367, 368 Minstrels, 16, 20, 21 Miracles of Ottr Lady, 18, 118, 327 Alireour du Monde, 411 Mirk, John, 395 A/zmr (Robert of Gretham), 129, 130 Mirour de VOmme, 411 Mirrorfor Magistrates, 341 Misyn, Richard, 107
,
214, 215, 218, 222, 236, 239, &40, 241, 246, 250, 255
Map, Walter,
29,
42,
Modwenna, Life
Molifere,
of,
131
Marco
Margaret,
Margaret of Navarre, 348 Marianus Scotus, 35 Marie de France, 64, 70, ii6, 118,
346 Monorchia, De, 108 Monk's Tale, 298, 338, 340, 341, 396, 429
Monologion, 33 Moralitates, loi
496
More, Morte Morte Morte
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Thomas, Sir, 109, 326 Arthure (alliterative), 253-254 Arthure (stanzas), 238, 255
Osbern of Canterbury, 34 Osmund of Salisbury, 34 Oswald, St. Life of, 34 Otia Imperialia, 43 Otuel, IS, 153, 154 Ovid, 108, 288, 289, 297 Owain, 177
,
Darthur (Malory),
211,
236,
Mile sans
97, 419,
Narcissus, LM.y
Neckham, Alexander,
Nennius,
160, 161, 170, 171,
249
Nesta, 72 Nibelungenlied, 74 Niccoli of Pisa, 98 Nicholas, St., Life of, 130 Nine Nobles, Ballad of the, 317 Nine Worthies, 316 North, 347
Palamon and
Palgrave, 435
Nova
Poetria,
74
347
Novellieri of Italy,
Nugae
amatoriae, 67
Nugis Curialium, De, 51, 5^-57 Nun's Priest's Tale, 60, 74, loi, 334,
33S. 342
Occleve, 432 Ocean of the Rivers of Story, 346 Ockham. See William of Ockham Octavian, 184, 313 Odo of Sheriton, 331, 333
309 Offlcium et Legenda (RoUe), 106, 108 Onyx Book, 64 Opus Mains, 86 Opus Minus, 87 Opus Tertium, 87 Opuscula (Peter of Blois), 54 Oratore, De, 339 Order of Fair Ease, 369
Ordericus Vitalis, 35, 128 128 Ordre de Bel Aise, Orfeo, Sir, 15, 181, 182, 184-185, l86,
Odyssey,
Pearl, 20, 23, loi, 109, 114, 220, 379, 381, 402, 425, 449 Penny, Sir, 372
Pennyworth of Wit, 325 Pensoroso, II, 304 Peraldus, William, 410 Perceval, 178, 229, 230
116, 179, 215, 217, 70, 228, 229, 230, 454 Perceval of Galles, Sir, 229, 230 Percy, Bishop, 282 Percy Folio MS. 181, 217, 224 Peredur, 177, 229, 242 Pericles, Prince of Tyre, 306, 340 See Langtoft Pers de Langtoft. Peter de Riga, 76 Peter de la Celle, 51 Peter des Roches, 99 Peter of Blois, 53-56, 67 Peter of Peckham, 133 Petite Philosophic, 133
Perceval,
,
199, 200, 309 Organon, 52, 81 Original Chronicle of Scotland, 363 Origins (Isidore of Seville), 49 Orm, 382, 383 Ormulum, 142, 382-384, 438, 451
Orosius, 49
INDEX
Petrarch, io8, 193
Rabelais. 392
497
Phaedrus, 331 Philippe de Beaumanoir, 96 Philippe de Thaiin, 132, 336 Phillide et Flora, De, 70, 135 Philobiblon, 102, 103
Physiologus, 335, 336. 337, /*/c/urf (Massinger). 322 Piers Ploughman, 59 Pilate, 378
380
Ralph Collier, 153, 281 Ralph of Coggeshall, 43, 401 Ralph of Diceto, 42, 43 Ralph of Sarr, 53 Randolph, Earl of Cluster, 449 Ranulph de GlanvilJe, 40, 62 Raoul de Houdenc, 403
Raoul
le
Fevre, 290
Pilgrimage of Charlemagne, 151, 152, 153. 223 Pilgrim's Progress, 403 Pindar of Wakefield, 318 Piadarus Thebanus, 286 Planctu Naturae, De, 76 Pliny, 433 Plutarch, 347 Poema Morale, 382
Poesye of Princely Practise, 432 Poggio, 347 Polyckronicon, 45
Polycraticus, 51, 56,
Raymund of Pennafort, 410 Reading Rota, 444 Rebus Gestis Ricardi Primi, De, 43
Recueil {]tsz.\i de Waurin), 127 Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye, 290 Red Rose Knight, 318
Reeve's Tale, 324, 325 Regan, Morice, 124 Regimine Principum, De, 432
76 Ponthus de la Tour Landri, 265 Ponthus et Sidoine, 265 Poore, Bisbop, 97 Pope, Alexander, 26 Presbytero et Logico, De, 70 Prick of Conscience, j6, 106, 388
Prior, E. S., 95 Prioress's Tale, 131, Priscian, 49 Proeliis, De,
324
Reginald of Canterbury, 64-65, 69 Reginald of Durham, 437 Regula Hereinitarutn, 107 Rcgula Inclusarum, 409 Reinbrun, 15 Reinecke Fuchs, 333 Renaud de Beaujeu. 176, 227 Renaud de Monlauban, 156 Respit del Curieis et del I 'ilain, 421 Resurrection, 136 Retinues of Great People, 369 Rhasis, 92
Richard, 447 Richard, King, 68, 70 Richard Coer de Lyon, 117, 314-31S. 362, 364 Richard I'Ev^ue, 51 Richard of Bury, 13, 29, 81, 102, 104,
301
Propiietatilus Proslogion, 33
Renim, De,
310
92,
432
Protesilaus, 117,
Road
to
(
Paradise, 402
Robert Noru egian friar), 202 Robert de Boron, 116, 243-245, 249,
250
Robert de Sorbon, 80 Robert of Bruune, 18, 114, 118, 123,
209. 21T, 232, 233, 235. 267. 343, 362, 363, 411-416 Robert of Gloucester, 38, 72, 96, 113, 114, 137. 233, 358-361, 394, 432 Robert of Gretham, 129, 130 Robert of Melun, 51, 52, 53
498
ENGLISH LITERATURE
Scrope, Stephen, 423
Robert of Retines, 63 Robert of Sicily 314, 348 Robin Hood, 277-281, 333, 449 Robin Hood and Guy of Gisbome, 278 Robin Hood and the Monk, 278
t
Second Nun's Tale, 347 Secret des Secrets, 133 Secretum- Secretorum, 432 Seneca, 443
Sententiae (Peter Lombard), 53 Seft Dormants, 131 Serapion, 92 Serlo of Wilton, 74 Sermon against Miracle Plays, 381 Seven Champions of Christendom, 318 Seven Deadly Sins, 15, 130, 380, 387, 410, 413, 416, 417, 42s Seven Sages, 89, 252, 344-346 Seven Wise Masters, 15 Shakspere, 157, 280, 294, 296, 326,
340, 348, 417, 433 Shipman's Tale, 324 Shoreham, William of, 387-388, 416 Sidney, Sir Philip, 67 Siege and Conquest of Jerusalem, 316 Siege of Jerusalem, 378 Siege of Milan, 154 Siege of Troy, 289 Siger de Brabant, 94 Signs of Judgment, 130 Simon de Fresne, 131 Simon de Montfort, 85, 86, 99, 128, 364 Simeon of Durham, 35 Singular Adventures of Gawain, 233 Sinners Beware, 385 Skaldskaparmdl, 75 Skelton, 443 Smith and the Dame, The, 330 Snorri Sturluson, 73, 74, 75, 90
the Potter,
278
105-
299
d'Andas, 287 de Renart, 96, 332, 333 de la Rose, 25, 76, 96, 97, 134,
223, 297, 343, 402 Roman de Rou, 122 Roman de Thkbes, 117, 287 Roman de Toute Chevalerie, 117, 300 Roman de Troie, 122, 287, 292 Roman van den Vos Reinarde, 332
Somme
410, 411
Salisbury.
Samson de
Samuel of
341 See John of Salisbury Nanteuil, 129 Samuel, Book of, 129
Bristol,
64
Satire on the Monks and the People of Kildare, 373 Savaric de Mauleon, 68 Saw of St. Bede, 424
Saxo Grammaticus, 73
Sayings of St, Bernard, 424
Scalacronica, 127, 232, 368
Schiller,
Song of Lewes, 85 Song of Nego, 370 Song of Roland, 25 Song of the Barons, 85 Song of the Church, 127 Song on the Flemish Insurrection, 364 Song of the Husbandman, 369 Song on the Joys of the Virgin, 387 Song on the Passion, 441, 442 Song on the Tailors, 128
Sordello, 68
340
Scipio Africanus, 108 Scott, Michael, 88 Scott, Sir Walter, 203, 275, 294
INDEX
Spectator,
499
Speculum Humanae
Salvaiiotiis,
378
Thornton, Robert, 15 Three King's Sons, 318 Three Messengers of Death, 389 Thrush and a Nightingale, Dispute
between
a,
Speculu7H Stultorum, 60 Spenser^ 89, 157, 308, 321, 417 Spirituali Amicitia, De, 36 Squire of Low Degree, 310-311 Squire' 5 Tale, 8g, 226, 304, 305
15
Stans Puer ad Mensam, 431 29s Steele, Robert, 91 Steinhowel, 332 Stephen, St. and Herod, 449 Stephens, Thomas, 31 Story of England (Robert de Brunne),. 361-362
Statius, 289,
,
A Lincoln, History of, 318 Topography of Ireland, 40, 41, 428 Torrent of Portugal, 313 Tournament of Antichrist, 403 Tournament of Totenham, 326 Tree that Bore Good Fruit, 339
Trentals of St. Gregory, 220
Trilsor (Latini),
Tom
137
45, 113,
Treves, John
of,
433-434
214
Tristram, Sir, 15, 203, 208, 2og, 210, 211, 212 Trivet, Nicholas, 43, 126, 191, 298,
Summa Summa
Sverrir,
362
Troilus
and
Cressida,
Found
147
of Beryn, 322 of Incestuous Daughter, 329 of Melibeus, 430 of the Basin, 326 Tales of the Wayside Inn, 314
T7-ot,
Taliessin, 121 Tasso, 316 Tennyson, 214, 215, 239, 240, 247, 252 Teseide, II, 295, 296 Testament of Cresseid, 294 Thebaid, 295, 297
Troubadours, 16, 68, 69 Turk and Gawain, 218 Twine, Lawrence, 306 Two Noble Kinsmen, 296 Tydorel, Lay of, 186 Tyolet, Lay of, 228
Ulrich von Tiirheim, 202 Uhich von Zatzikhoven, 234 Valentine
Theobald, 336
Theobald of Canterbury,
31. S3
and
Orson, 318
(author of Tristan), 70, n6, 202, 203, 204, 205, 208, 210, 2x1, 261, 263, 264, 265 Thomas, Archbishop of York, 69
Thomas
300
Thomas
433
of Celano, 65 of Erceldoun, 208-210, 368 of Hales, 439, 440 of Walsingham, 45, 312 Thopas, Sir, 16, 182, 227, 230, 265,
271, 305
Plowman, 403
500
ENGLISH LITERATURE
421 Wife of Bath's Tale, 189, 224 Willem, 332 William de Conches, 51, $$ William de Longchamp, 40, 60 William IX., Count of Poitiers, 69 William of Jumifeges, 122 William of Malmesbury, 30, 32, 36-37, 69, 123, 171, 276, 359, 363 William of Newburgh, 42, 62 William of Ockham, lo, 29, 100, 104 William of Paleme, 312 William of Poitiers, 122 William of Tyre, 316 William of Wadington, 118, 411, 412 Winner and Waster, 372, 403, 430 Wireker, Nigel, 60, 76 Wit and Folly, 430 Witches, Essay on, gr With longing I am led, 446 Wolfram von Eschenbach, 5, 70, 176, 229, 244-245 Wooing of Our Lord, 385, 386 Wrights Chaste Wife, 321, 322
.
Vision of the Monk of Evesham, 401 Vision of Thespesius, 398 Vision of Tundale, 399-400
Visio Philiberti, 65
et Moribus Philosophorum, loi Herewardi Saxonis, 259 Merlini, 65, 251 Monachorum, J3e, 62 Sancti Edwardi, 359 Vaeux du Paon, 303 Vows of the Heron, 129 Vox Clamantis, 108, 372 Voyage of St. Brendan, 131, 403
Wldsl]),
Wace,
97, 116, 120, 121 -122, 130, 147, 169, 171, 215, 350, 351, 352, 353. 354. 357. 362. 37^ Wagner, 203, 214
Waldo,
Peter,
94
Walpole, 340 Walter of Bibbysworth, 132 Walter of Hemingburgh, 45 Walthdof {^Waljieof), 31, 117, 25S, 260 Walther von der Vogelweide, 74 Wanastre, 135 Wanderer, The, 442 Wars of Alexander, 301, 302 Wauchier de Denain, 116, .215, 228 Wedding of Sir Gawain, 224, 225, 226 Weston, Miss, 205
Wycliife, John, 29, 59, 71, 99, 100, 104, 105, 143, 342, 378, 416, 452
Wynkyn de Worde,
424
157,
332,
340,
Wyntoun, Andrew
of,
304, 363
is
Under
Foot,
Why I cannot
be a
Nun, 373
Yonec, Lay of, 199 Ypomedon, 113, 117, 188, 310 Ypotis, 425 Ysolt, 204, 205, 206, 212 Ysopet, 118, 331 Ywain and Gawain, 179, 230-232
THE END