Merima Ibrisimovic Univerzitet u Tuzli Filozofski fakultet Odsjek engleski jezik i knjizevnost Master studij: Angloamericke knjizevno-kulturalne studije

Predmet: Savremena kulturalna produkcija VB i SAD

Feminism An overview with emphasis on Second wave feminism of the 1960s and 1970s

You educate a man; you educate a man. You educate a woman; you educate a generation. Brigham Young I myself have never been able to find out precisely what feminism is: I only know that people call me a feminist whenever I express sentiments that differentiate me from a doormat, or a prostitute." Rebecca West I hate to hear you talk about all women as if they were fine ladies instead of rational creatures. None of us want to be in calm waters all our lives. Jane Austen

Introduction
The aim of this paper is to outline feminism, in terms of its historical flow, as well as regarding its influence in worldwide culture, literature, economics and politics. It cannot be denied that feminism as a system of beliefs has drawn much from different scientific disciplines, such as sociology, linguistics and psychology. Ideas from various fields of study have been brought together, and inevitably, a wide range of audience has been attracted. Since there appear to be many reason for the mere existence of this particular systems of beliefs, which has evolved and constantly being put into practice, there is a need for examining this interconnection of theory, power, politics, and gender. When talking about a system of beliefs, Ridgeway and Correl refer to shared beliefs and values which play a role in defining a way of perceiving the social, cultural and physiological world.1According to the above-mentioned authors, gender, masculinity and femininity, are social constructs, and therefore subject to change, particularly concerning the roles of power, technology and gender.2 Since Ely, Ibarra and Kolb have noted that also leadership development is identity work and that there is bias in culture, as well as in organizations, regarding women leaders, it is most certainly important to outline feminism, its development and role in society. Society as the mother-ship of all humans needs, desires, fears, discourse, ideology, etc. oftentimes impedes ones expression of her/his wanting, ambitions, emotions. They are a natural part of life, but, especially women in such a phallocentric world hesitate to ask, nay, demand that which is their right, to fulfill their urges, boost self-esteem and, simply, be happy. According to Ridgeway and Correl, much of this hesitation stems from fear of what this very society might say, of the possibility that they will be even more confused, humiliated or ashamed. Even though there is much information about these issues, it is difficult to grasp the problem, precisely because much of this information is judgmental, misinformed, or quite simply false. 3 Naturally, these issues refer to feminism.

Ridgeway L. C. and Correll S. J. Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations. 2004. Sage Publications. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.

Feminism or, rather, feminisms

The general agreement on the basic dictionary definition of feminism exists (the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes), but it is, like all other areas of study, rarely simple and straightforward. Feminism is still considered a dirty word, even despite the past 150 years of womens rights activism. The feminist movements rich history (and current practice) encompasses a myriad of ideologies and internal disagreements: radical feminism, cultural feminism, liberal feminism, anti-porn feminism, pro-sex feminism, third-wave feminism, womanism, etc.4 At this point I would like to elaborate on the terms gender and feminism. According to Beasley, the term gender is primarily discussed in order to place feminism as a subfield within the overall gender/sexuality field. He claims: Gender typically refers to the social process of dividing up people and social practices along the lines of sexed identities. The gendering process frequently involves creating hierarchies between the divisions it enacts.5 One or more categories of sexed identity are privileged or devalued. Beasley believes that, in modern Western societies, gender serves to divide human beings into two distinct categories men and women, but also into two fields of social practices.6 These social practices are evident when connected to domains of men in public life and women in domestic life, even though both practically occupy both domains. Interestingly enough, this division brings forward binary opposites, as well as hierarchy. The mere expression the opposite sex implies a division. However, Beasley attempts to establish a positive connection here: Even though these categorical distinctions divide, they also indicate connections, in the binary nature of the possibility of existence of one category in relation to its opposite. To be a man means to be not-woman and vice versa.7 Reflecting back to feminism/s, according to Peterson, feminists have insisted that there is no single feminist theory, but, rather, a range of theories connected through social differentiations based on sex or gender. She reserves the possibility of non-critical feminist studies, which confirm gender and sex inequalities, but believes their relationship to feminist theorizing is ambiguous. For her, The term feminist, I would argue, is more appropriately reserved for studies and theories that are critical of masculinism and gender hierarchy. 8 Peterson in addition advocates the stance that feminist theories deal with analyzing the world more adequately than mainstream theory, while simultaneously relating to equipping the world with more equitable sex/gender relations. In addition to being critical and cross-disciplinary, feminist theories intertwine with various ways of reflecting about women sex and gender. In other words, assumptions made about the how we categorize things and how we produce truth claims affect theorizing and further differentiate feminist theories.9

4 5

http://bitchmagazine.org/article/everything-about-feminism Accessed 24/11/2012 21.58h Beasley, C. Gender & Sexuality, 2005. Sage Publications. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Peterson, V. S. Feminist Theories Within, Invisible To, and Beyond IR, Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol X. 2004. 9 Ibid.

The first wave Even though the emphasis of this essay is on the Second wave feminism, it is important to outline the very beginnings, as they are referred to, of feminism in general. According to Krolloke and Sorensen, the exploration of the journey of feminists historically begins in the late 19th and early 20th century in the United States and Europe. These authors question the evolution of feminism/s through time and space, between theory and politics, as well as posing the questions of gender, power, and communication.10 Krolloke and Sorensen place the starting point of feminism/s as the first wave. This stage of feminism was born in the context of industrial society and liberal politics. The first wave influenced feminism in Western and Eastern societies since it dealt with equal opportunities for women. The authors invite the reader to go back in their memory or imagination to World War I, when members of the National Womens Party protested in front of the White House, carrying banners accusing the government of undemocratic practices. During that time, suffrage was granted in Germany, but, ironically, in the land of freedom and democracy the United States, half of the citizens were disenfranchised. This event provoked the police to arrest the picketers and banners were destroyed. The picketers were granted sympathy, though, because these were all White, middle-class, well-dressed and well-educated women. They offered no resistance to the police arresting them, and as an effect, that act made the public both appalled and it appealed to the masses. The event was inspired by Alice Paul, a radical agitator, who taught the Party about parades, marches, picketing. Alice Paul demonstrated smart tactics, but also confrontational. President Wilson preferred of the National American Womens Suffrage Association, who had less radical tactics.11 There were various forms of intervention during the First wave of feminism, which continued to influence later feminist movements. Despite the activism of Alice Paul, women won the vote in 1920 finally, thanks to organizational skills of Carrie Chapman Catt and Anna Howard Shaw, former the president of National American Womens Suffrage Association (NAWSA), latter an ex-president of NAWSA. In the early stages, the First wave of feminism was interconnected with other activist movements, such as Black women abolitionists (e.g. Sojourner Truth), women of the working classes, reform movement for abolition and temperance, etc. Certain First-wave feminists argued for female innate moral superiority, making this argument a sophisticated rhetoric of equity, developed in Europe and United States simultaneously, grounded in enlightenment, liberalism and universality. From this viewpoint, patriarchy became viewed as a fiasco, non-rational and illegitimate, thus reinforcing womens marginal societal status and domination. Politically, this progression of events brought forth the claim that men and women should be treated as equals and that women should not only be given access to the same resources and positions as men but also be acknowledged for their contributions and competencies.12

10

Krolloke, C. and Sorensen, A. S. Gender Communication Theories and Analyses: From Silence to Performance. Sage Publications. 2006. 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid.

The second wave According to Krolloke and Sorensen, the term Second-wave feminism refers to the radical feminism of the womens liberation movement of the late 1960s and early 1970s.13 The first harbinger of a new feminism was the protests related to the Miss America Pageants in 1968 and 1969. The Redstockings, the New York radical feminists joined with other feminist groups in the 1969 protest to point out that women in pageant competitions were viewed as cattle, paraded around, and their appearance was more important than what they actually do, what they think, or what their ambitions are. Feminists prepared for this occasion a theatrical show a sheep was crowned Miss America and so-called oppressive gender items, such as bras, make-up, high heels, etc. were thrown into a trash can. There were also posters recorded by news reporters, that read Cattle Parades Are Degrading to Human Beings, Boring Job: Woman Wanted, and Low Pay: Woman Wanted the message was very clear. That women were victims of patriarchal, oppressive culture was the first pointer towards the agenda of Second-wave feminism, alongside with a small group of women who smuggled banners reading Womens Liberation and shouting No More Miss America at the pageant. However, radical Second-wave feminism is inevitably intertwined with other movements of the 1960-70s: leftist movements in postwar Western societies, student protests, the anti-Vietnam War movement, the lesbian and gay movements, and, in the United States, the civil rights and Black power movements, all of which criticized capitalism and imperialism while focusing on the idea of working in the interest of the oppressed groups: the working class, Blacks, women and homosexuals. As Krolloke and Sorensen argue, women in the New Left again serviced the revolution, had no real influence and were exposed to sexism, later renamed as a new form into heterosexism. The consequence of this was formation of women-only rap groups, or consciousness-raising groups, which served to empower women collectively and individually. Their agenda was explained in The BITCH Manifesto and the first second-wave publication, Sisterhood is Powerful, edited by Robin Morgan in 1970. The above-mentioned authors claim that this type of activity was typical to the Second-wave, especially for the Redstockings (name combined from bluestockings, a pejorative terms for educated and strong-minded women in the 18th and 19th centuries, and red for social revolution), which was very influential but short-lived radical feminist group. They were active in the 1960s and 1970s and coined many expressions which came to be used daily, eg. Sisterhood is powerful, consciousness raising, The personal is political, the politics of housework, the prowoman line, et coetera. The key to the success of the Redstockings was the belief that women can empower each other collectively. These authors emphasize that radical Second-wave feminism was theoretically founded on a combination of neo-Marxism and psychoanalysis. The most prominent scholars in this particular area were Juliet Mitchell (The Subjection of Women) and Shulamith Firestone (The Dialectic of Sex: The Case for Feminist Revolution). These activists believed that patriarchy is inherent to bourgeois society, as well as that women, because of their attachment to family and reproduction, form a class and economy of their own, due to the unpaid work at home and motherhood. Another significant author, Kate Millett, in her book Sexual Politics insists that women have the right to claim their body and sexuality, disconnected from marriage and
13

Ibid.

motherhood. Other radical feminists, such as Adrienne Rich and Audre Lorde employed poetry, speeches and writing in order to make a statement that heterosexuality is a compulsory institution which serves to perpetuate social dominance of men. There was also the need to address the differences among women from the various standpoints and divergences between them. This is how difference feminism became identity politics. This identity second-wave feminism stood on the grounds of criticism from Black, lesbian and working-class feminists. They questioned what they saw as a a predominantly White, middleclass, and heterosexual feminist agenda14 and the issue was a differentiated-identity politics, based on intertwinings of gender, race, ethnicity, sexuality. This identity feminism brought about interest womens voices and lives, which used to be more mythical and spiritual and known as gyno-criticism, or womanism. The method implied a search for authenticity and continuity in womens cultures, as well as an interest in understanding differences among women. In Europe, identity feminism went in a different course, becoming what is now referred to as lcriture feminine, the proponents of which were authors Hlne Cixous, Luce Irigaray, and Julia Kristeva and was introduced to the United States by Elaine Marks and Isabelle de Courtivron in New French Feminisms. Articulating the dualisms such as mind/body, man/woman, White/Black and the hierarchy between them, where one element is not only different but also inferior to the other, they developed the thesis of phallogocentrism, a binary logic that makes the phallus the master sign and the father the origin of symbolic law.15 French feminists demanded a deconstructive feminine writing while accentuating womens revolutionary potential, since, according to them, womens bodies are productive sites of many desires and form another semiotic logic. Irigaray went further with the criticism of phallogocentrism and claimed that in Western thinking, man is posed as the one and only (both mind and body), while woman not even as an opposite and negative, but outside of civilization and language. Her idea was that women/feminists should not identify with difference of body vs. matter and seek an alternate desire or logic. If the writing of Krolloke and Sorensen is taken radically, the conclusion can be drawn that identity politics is in favor of a hegemonic concept of women (as White, heterosexual, Western, etc.). The issue is even more profound when taken into account that difference feminism claims that sexual difference is universal, and as a manifestation of gender, historical, social and changeable. This distinction between sex and gender, as pointed out by Second-wave feminists, gives a cultural explanation, which solves the dilemma between sameness and difference, but does not clarify the issue regarding the sexed body and differences among women. To conclude, there is not only one Second-wave feminism, but many. Feminist communication scholar, Julia Wood, believes that the problem does not lie in the question if one is a feminist, but which kind of feminist she/he is. This problem continues into the Third-wave feminism. Be that as it may, Second-wave feminists have had strong links to the academy and have provided important theoretical background. From the 1970s, Second-wave feminism/s bolstered a lot of

14 15

Ibid. Ibid.

research and teaching on womens issues, which has now become a disciplinary area of study regarding gender, i.e. feminist studies. 16

The third wave Lipstick feminism, girlie feminism, riot grrl feminism, cybergrrl feminism, transfeminism, or just grrl feminismfeminism is alive and kicking.17 Third-wave feminists, which is no wonder, see themselves as strong, capable social agents, primarily due to the heritage that First- and Second-wave feminists left. Today, young feminists reclaim the term girl to attract another generation, while living a new, aggressive, self-confident, playful and less pompous kind of feminism. Karen McNaughton claims that they have adopted cyber-language for Great-Girls G.r.r.l.s. this news grrl rhetoric originated among girls-only punk bands, such as Bikini Kill and Brat Mobile in the United States. There is one more important outcome regarding these punk bands, besides expressing self-sufficiency and anger. Bikini Kill recorded a manifesto-like Revolution Girl-Style Now (1990), where self-reliance, acting out of teenage girls and feminist strategy empowerment were mixed together, alongside with the punk strategy of D.I.Y.: Do It Yourself. This message was soon enough adopted by a vast number of girls all over the United States and Europe, spreading further through the internet (fanzines, e-zines). The activism of Netgrrls spread quickly enough, so that other grrls and women with less internet proficiency had access to books such as The Cyberpunk Handbook or Cybergrrl! A Womans Guide to the World Wide Web. This movement, as innocent as it may seem, criticized sexist language, appropriated derogatory terms for girls and women, and invented new self-celebrating words and forms of communication. They did not fight against the stereotypes surrounding them, but on the contrary, they exaggerated them placing the word girl at the beginning. In accordance to Krolloke and Sorensens elaboration, Third-wave feminists feel as their motivation the need to develop a feminist theory and politics that honor contradictory experiences and deconstruct categorical thinking.18 Rebecca Walker, editor of To Be Real: Telling the Truth and Changing the Face of Feminism emphasizes the difficulty of young feminists when they are demanded to think in categories, which divide people into Us and Them. This difficulty does not arise because of their lack of knowledge about feminist theory, but rather because young feminists honor the work of earlier feminists, but criticize earlier feminisms. They wish to overcome contradictions in their own lives, embrace ambiguities instead of certainties, and engage in exploration and inclusion. Needless to say, Third-wave feminism is inspired also by the new global world order (fall of communism, religious fundamentalism) and by risks and promises of new info- and biotechnologies. This new feminism, as it is called in Europe, is characterized by local, national, and transnational activism, in areas such as violence against women, trafficking, body surgery, self-mutilation, and the overall pornofication of the media.19

16 17

Ibid. Ibid. 18 Ibid. 19 Ibid.

Being diverse and chaotic as it is, Third-wave feminism is not one, consequently there are many. The most important guideline is the willingness to redefine feminism by bringing together an interest in traditional and even stereotypically feminine issues, while remaining critical of both narratives of true femaleness, of victimization and liberation.20 These young feminists seek to reclaim what used to be derogatory terms (bitch, slut) and travel to typically male-dominated spheres with confidence to claim power positions. Third-wave feminists seek to accept the chaos in the world and embrace ambiguities while forming new alliances.

Conclusion
From the ample body of research regarding feminism/s, a two-fold conclusion can be drawn. On the one hand, much has been said, written, done, demonstrated and sacrificed for womens political, social, cultural and identity development. Women of all classes, skin color, backgrounds stood up in many occasions to make their voices heard and their bodies speak. They have succeeded, more often than not. Also, they posed a great number of significant questions for the generations to come, for scholars, those in power, oppressors. Many questions remain unanswered until today. On the other hand, apart from the psychological and physical struggle, the young feminists lean on the heritage of their predecessors and an important lesson has been learned and put into practice solidarity of women. Of course, women are strong enough as individuals, but much stronger power stems from alliance of women who unforcibly penetrate into the male-dominated sphere and prove by actions that stereotypes may remain, derogatory terms may be used in a positive way, but one thing is clear the female empowerment has been set in motion, is continuing to grow and all that is needed is strong women and willpower to reclaim womens identities over and over again.

20

Ibid.

Bibliography
Beasley, C. Gender & Sexuality, 2005. Sage Publications. Krolloke, C. and Sorensen, A. S. Gender Communication Theories and Analyses: From Silence to Performance. Sage Publications. 2006. Peterson, V. S. Feminist Theories Within, Invisible To, and Beyond IR, Brown Journal of World Affairs, Vol X. 2004. Ridgeway L. C. and Correll S. J. Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations. 2004. Sage Publications. Web source: http://bitchmagazine.org/article/everything-about-feminism Accessed 24/11/2012 21.58h