Technically Speaking

James Antonakos

Ethernet Technology
Part 3Network Building Blocks

ment of coaxial or UTP cable (fiber NICs are available but not common yet). The NIC is responsible for operations that take place in the physical layer of the OSI network model. It is only concerned with sending and receiving zeros and ones, using the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard (or IEEE 802.5 token ring). Windows identifies the installed NIC in network properties. To use a protocol with a NIC you must bind the protocol to the adapter card. This is typically done automatically when the protocol is added. The driver type of the NIC may be Microsofts Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS), which allows multiple protocols to use a single NIC. An Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) driver, developed by Novell, performs the same function for multiple protocol stacks used with the NetWare network operating system. Figure 1 shows the NDIS/ODI interface. Both are designed to decouple the protocols from the NIC. The protocols do not require any specific information about the NIC. They use the NDIS/ODI drivers to perform network operations with the drivers responsible for their specific hardware. It is important to mention that all NICs are manufactured with a unique 48-bit MAC address (for example, 00-60-97-2B-E6-0F). You can view your NICs MAC address using the Windows WINIPCFG utility.

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n the previous two parts of this article series, I covered various aspects of Ethernet. I discussed LANs as well as 100- and 1000-Mbps Ethernet. Ill conclude this series by examining the many different hardware components used to construct a LAN. The focus of these articles has been the underlying hardware in an Ethernet system. A complete treatment must also include the software required for proper network communication, such as the NetBEUI and TCP/IP protocols, as well as network applications. Visit my web site (www.sunybroome.edu/ ~antonakos_j) and look for Telecommunications III for more information.

Application TCP/IP NetBEUI Protocol stack TCP/IP IPX

Interface

NDIS

ODI

THE NIC
The Network Interface Card (NIC) is the interface between the PC (or other networked device) and the physical network connection. In Ethernet systems, the NIC connects to a segwww.circuitcellar.com/online CIRCUIT CELLAR ONLINE

NDIS/ODI Driver NIC

Figure 1NDIS and ODI network driver interfaces. April 2002

REPEATERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

A repeater connects two network segments and broadcasts packets between them. Because signal loss is a factor in the maximum length of a segment, a repeater is used to amplify the signal and extend the usable length. A common Ethernet rule is that no more than four repeaters may be used to join segments together. This is a physical limitation designed to keep collision detection working properly. Repeaters operate at layer one (i.e., physical layer) of the OSI model. A transceiver converts from one media type to another. For example, a UTP-to-fiber transceiver acts like a repeater, except it also interfaces UTP cable with a fiber optic cable. It is common to use more than one media type in an installation; many different kinds of transceivers are available.
Segment 3 Segment 4

Segment 2

Segment 5

Segment 1

not forwarded. In addition, a switch typically has auto sensing 10/100Mbps ports and will adjust the speed of each port accordingly. Furthermore, a managed switch supports SNMP for further control over network traffic. Switches operate at layer two (i.e., data link) of the OSI model.

Figure 2In accordance with the five/four/three rule (five segments, four repeaters, three segments with nodes), five Ethernet segments are connected by four hubs.

ROUTERS
A router is the basic building block of the Internet. Each router connects two or more networks together by providing an interface for each network to which it is connected. The router examines each packet of information to determine whether the packet must be translated from one network to another, performing a function similar to a bridge. Unlike a bridge, a router can connect networks that use different technologies, addressing methods, media types, frame formats, and speeds. A router is a special-purpose device designed to interconnect networks. For example, three different networks can be connected using two routers, as illustrated in Figure 5. If a computer in network A needs to send a packet of information to network C, both routers pass the packets from the source network to the destination network. Routers maintain routing tables in their memories to store information about the physical connections on the network. The router examines each packet of data, checks the routing table, and then forwards the packet if necessary. Every other router in the path (between a source and a destination network) per-

condition disappears. Because of its slight delay when processing a packet, the number of hubs that may be connected in series is also limited. Figure 2 shows how several hubs are used to connect five Ethernet segments within the accepted limits. Because each UTP cable may be as long as 100 m, the maximum distance between nodes is 500 m (the network diameter).

HUBS
Hubs, also called concentrators, expand one Ethernet connection into many. For example, a four-port hub connects up to four machines (or other network devices) via UTP cables. The hub provides a star connection for the four ports. Many hubs contain a single BNC connector as well to connect the hub to existing 10Base-2 network wiring. The hub also can be connected via one of its ports. One port is designed to operate in either StraightThrough or Crossover mode, selected by a switch on the hub. A hub is similar to a repeater, except it broadcasts data received by any port to all other ports on the hub. Most hubs contain a small amount of intelligence as well, examining received packets and checking them for integrity. If a bad packet arrives or the hub determines that a port is unreliable, it will shut down the line until the error
Local packet does not cross bridge. This packet crosses bridge to locate destination node. B

BRIDGES AND SWITCHES

When a network grows in size, it is often necessary to partition it into smaller groups of nodes to help isolate traffic and improve performance. One way to do this is to use a bridge, whose operation is indicated in Figure 3. The bridge keeps segment A traffic on the A side, and segment B traffic on the B side. Packets from segment A that are meant for a node in segment B will cross the bridge (the bridge will permit the packet to cross). The same is true for packets going from B to A. The bridge learns which packets should cross as it is used. A switch is similar to a bridge, but with some important enhancements. First, a switch may have multiple ports, thus directing packets to several different segments, and further partitioning and isolating network traffic in a way similar to a router. Figure 4 shows an eight-port N-way switch, which can route packets from any input to any output. Some or all of an incoming packet is examined to make the routing decision, depending on the switching method that is used. One common method is called store and forward, which stores the received packet before examining it to check for errors before retransmitting. Bad packets are
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Network devices 8 1 Packet enters here 6 2 5 3 4 Packet exit here 7

Bridge A

Segment A

This is also a local packet. Segment B

Figure 3The bridge selectively allows packets to cross from one network segment to another.

Figure 4An 8-port switch showing how network traffic is forwarded between ports. www.circuitcellar.com/online

April

2002

forms a similar procedure. Note that a router does not maintain any state information about the packets; it simply moves them along the network. Routers operate at layer three (i.e., network) of the OSI model.

HUBS VERSUS SWITCHES

C without affecting the F-to-D transmission. The essential difference between hubs and switches is that hubs broadcast frames received on one port to all INSIDE A SWITCH other ports, while switches forward a If you wanted to start your own netreceived frame to a specific port. This working company and begin designing is illustrated in Figure 6, where a and manufacturing switches, where small network of six stations (AF) is would you begin? Lets examine the connected two different ways. block diagram of a simple switch, In Figure 6a, station A transmits a shown in Figure 8. frame with a destination of station F. What would be required of each This does not matter to the four-port component in the switch? Well, the hubs, which simply broadcast copies input port logic contains the Ethernet of the frame from station A to the receiving logic and buffers for received other five stations. This amounts to a frames. Buffering received frames lowgood deal of wasted bandwidth. ers the rate of collisions and allows Furthermore, all six stations operate the switching fabric to be busy for in the same collision domain, making short periods of time without losing them compete for bandwidth. Figure data. If the frame buffer fills up, any 6b shows the same network with the new frame received by the port will four-port hubs replaced by four-port trigger a collision. The random delay switches. A frame transmitted from of CSMA/CD will then give the station A with a destination of station switch time to empty a portion of the F is forwarded between the switches input buffer before the station and sent directly to station F on port attempts retransmission. 4. Stations B, C, D, and E do not The second component, the output receive copies of the frame, as they do port logic, contains an Ethernet transin Figure 6a. Thus, network traffic has mitter and output frame buffer. Again, been reduced. the buffer allows the switch fabric to The switches also partition the netservice multiple output ports on a work into six separate collision demand basis. For example, several domains. Each station now has unreframes may arrive simultaneously, stricted access to its own dedicated with each frame directed to the same bandwidth (the speed of the switch output port. The buffer is required to port). The switch is capable of specific prevent the switching fabric from forwarding because it learns what stalling. In addition, the input and MAC addresses are associated with output frame buffers allow different each port. Recall that every Ethernet speeds between ports (e.g., port 1 operframe contains a source MAC address ating at 10 Mbps and port 3 operating and a destination MAC address. When at 100 Mbps). The buffers may be a frame is received by a port on a filled at one speed and emptied at switch, the switch will save a another speed. Collision domain copy of the source MAC address The switching fabric is respon4-Port hub and its associated port number in sible for directing the received 1 2 3 4 4-Port hub a special internal look-up table. frames from each input port to Although we are storing the the appropriate output port. In 1 2 3 4 C A A B source MAC address, it is also a addition, the switching fabric A F D E destination MAC address to every must be able to handle a broadother station in the network. cast to all output ports. In generWhen a frame requires forwardal, there are two ways to build Figure 6aThe hubs broadcast received packets to all ports. b ing, the switch examines the desthe switching fabric: crossbar The switches forward received packets to specific ports.
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tination MAC address stored in the frame and looks for it in the lookup table. If the destination MAC address is found in the table, the frame is forwarded to the associated port. If the destination MAC address is not found, the frame is broadcast to all ports. Eventually, the destination station will most likely respond with its own frame, and its port will be identified. Further broadcasts for that station will not be required. Figure 7 shows the results obtained when a hub and switch are used together. Stations A, B, and C are in one collision domain (competing for bandwidth). Stations D, E, and F are in their own collision domains. Each has full access to the available bandwidth. In Figure 7a, station A transmits a frame destined for station F. The frame is broadcast by the hub and forwarded by the switch. Stations B and C must contend with the broadcast frame, waiting their turn for access. Neither station is allowed to transmit while the hub is broadcasting or a collision will result. Even though station A is sending a frame to station F, stations B and C are affected. Figure 7b shows station A sending a frame to station C. The hub still broadcasts the frame, which affects station B, but not stations D, E, or F. In Figure 7c, station F sends a frame to station A. The frame is forwarded by the switch and broadcast by the hub. Stations B and C are affected by the frame of station F; however, stations D and E are not affected. Figure 7d shows station F sending a frame to station D. Station E is unaffected and may transmit a frame to stations A, B, or

Network A

Network B

Network C

Routers

Figure 5Two routers used to connect three networks.

a)

b)
4-Port hub 4 4-Port switch 1 Collision domains 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 4-Port switch 1 2 3 4

4-Port hub 1 2 3 C A

C A

A F

A F

c)
1

4-Port hub 2 3 4 4-Port switch 1 2 3 4

d)
1

4-Port hub 2 3 4 4-Port switch 1 2 3 4

C A

C A

A F

A F

Figure 7Hubs and switches can be mixed in a network. You can follow the action: first, station A sends a frame to station F (a); second, station A sends a frame to station C (b); third, station F sends a frame to station A (c); and fourth, station F sends a frame to station D (d).

switch or high-speed multiplexed bus. Both methods are shown in Figure 9. The crossbar switch in Figure 9a is a two-dimensional set of data buses. Any combination of input-to-output connections is possible, even broadcasting. Each intersection of input wires and output wires in the crossbar switch contains an electronic switch that is either open or closed. A small amount of control information is required to configure the crossbar switch. Changing the control information changes the input-to-output connections. The multiplexed bus in Figure 9b effectively makes one input-output connection at a time, with each input port getting its turn at using the bus. When many signals are multiplexed in this fashion, the data rate on the multiplexed bus must be much faster than the individual speeds of each port. For example, on a four-port switch with each port running at 100 Mbps, the multiplexed bus would need to operate at 400 Mbps. An eight-port switch would require an 800 Mbps bus. The speed requirement of this technique makes it unsuitable for switching at high speeds. However, this problem is overcome by the parallel nature of the crossbar switch. The control logic is the fourth component. It must perform several chores, including: update and search the MAC address table; configure the switching fabric; and maintain proper flow control through the switch fabric.

Recall that the switch learns which ports are associated with specific stations by storing copies of the source MAC address from each received frame. The MAC address and port number are stored in a special highspeed memory called Content Addressable Memory (CAM). The hardware architecture of the CAM allows its internal memory to be quickly searched for a desired data value, such as a 48-bit MAC address. Figure 10 shows a simple example of a CAM being searched for the MAC address 00-C0-F0-3C-88-17. It is important to note that all of the MAC addresses stored in the CAM are compared to the input value simultaneously. For example, the MUSIC LANCAM MU9C1480 from Music Semiconductors stores 1024 64-bit entries and performs comparisons in 70 ns. The control logic uses the lookup table results from the CAM to configure the switching fabric. In the event that an output port becomes unavailable because of congestion or some other problem, a flow control mechanism will prevent access to the port until it becomes available again.

port, and the frame is forwarded to the appropriate output port via the switching fabric. Because the entire frame is stored before any decisions are made, there is a delay (or latency) between the time the frame is received and the time it begins transmission on the appropriate output port. The latency varies depending on the length of the frame. The minimum latency is obtained with a minimum size frame. For 10 Mbps Ethernet, the minimum latency is 57.6 s (576-bit times at 100 ns per bit, including the preamble). Maximum length frames have a latency of just greater than 1.2 ms. Some applications, such as streaming audio and video, are sensitive to latency. A second technique of switching is cut-through switching. This method reduces the latency of a switch tremendously. As soon as the destination MAC address of an incoming frame is received, the forwarding process can begin (assuming there is a free output port and the switching fabric is available). This reduces the latency to just 11.2 s plus any additional time for internal switch operations. In addition, the latency of the cut-through method is fixed, because forwarding can always begin as soon as the destination MAC address is received. Unfortunately, errors can be propagated using the cut-through method, because there is no way to know if a frame being forwarded is good until it has been completely received. Cut-through switches will revert to the store-and-forward method when multiple errors occur while using the cut-through method.

2 Input ports 3 Switching fabric

2 Output ports 3

SWITCHING METHODS
Initially, switches handled frames using a technique called store-and-forward. Using this technique, the entire frame is stored as it is received. If the FCS is valid, the destination MAC address is used to select an output
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Control logic

MAC storage

Figure 8A four-port switch contains the following components: input port logic, output port logic, switching fabric, and control logic. www.circuitcellar.com/online

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2002

at the network layer in the TCP/IP and OSI protocol stacks. Using 1 1 1 routers, various types of networks are 2 2 2 connected together to form one logical In 3 In 3 In 3 network. The Internet is an example of a logical network. On the Internet, 4 4 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 the routing protocols are based on the 1 2 3 4 Out Out Out Internet Protocol and use IP addresses. Each router must follow some ground 2 Broadcasting to 1 Connected to 3 2 Connected to 3 1, 3, and 4 2 Connected to 1 4 Connected to 1 rules to allow it to process network 3 Connected to 4 4 Connected to 2 layer data. b) In general, communicating on a 1 1 Internal frame LAN just like any other station. For transfer time example, on an Ethernet network, a 2 2 DEMUX MUX In Out Data bus Port 1 Port 2 Port 3 Port 4 Port 5 router communicates using 3 3 CSMA/CD and monitors the media Less than the time of for the MAC address and any broada minimun frame 4 4 cast messages. The first ground rule for the router is that it must maintain Figure 9Switching fabrics. (a) crossbar switch, (b) multiplexed bus. tables with routing information for all reachable networks. The second rule is to forward or block traffic based on SWITCHES VERSUS ROUTERS packets between networks in the most the destination network address. The efficient manner. Switches are considered layer-two fourth rule is to drop all frames to Choosing which type of routing prodevices, using MAC addresses to forunknown destinations. The fifth rule tocols to use is complicated. An organiward frames to their proper destinarequires the router to block all broadzation bases its choices on the answers tion. Routers, layer-three devices, are cast messages between networks. And, to (at least) the following questions. much more complex, using microthe sixth ground rule is to perform What is the size and complexity of the processor-based circuitry to route CRC checks on each transferred packet. network? What types of physical netpackets between networks based on Using a router, messages are passed works must be connected? Which servtheir IP address. Routers provide the from one device (host computer or ice provider will handle the network following services: route discovery; router) to another until the message data? What are the network traffic levselection of the best route to a destieventually reaches the destination. els? What are the security needs? What nation; adaptation to changes in the Figure 11 shows a typical network level of reliability is required? What are network; translation from one techconnected to the Internet through a the organizational policies within the nology to another, such as Ethernet to router. Any traffic exchanged between token ring; packet filtering based on IP organization? How does the organizaany of the nodes on the LAN can be tion implement changes? What type of address, protocol, or UDP/TCP port delivered directly without a router. All hardware and software support from number; and connection to a WAN. traffic that is destined for the Internet the manufacturer is required? How Because of the additional processing must be passed on to the router. A required for each packet, a router has a long will it take to repair or replace the Windows application program called equipment if it fails? higher latency than a switch. In addiNETSTAT is used to show the routes Routing protocols perform a differtion, a router requires an initial set-up that are currently active on a PC runent type of switching than discussed sequence, in which the ports are proning the Windows operating system previously. Routing protocols operate grammed and certain protocols and (see Listing 1). characteristics are enabled or Destination MAC address To deliver a message to a disabled. A switch may be from received frame remote network, the message simply plugged into the net00-C0-F0-3C-88-17 must be transmitted from the work, automatically learning source host to a local router how to forward frames as the 00-C0-F0-27-64-E2 3 All address are (sometimes called the default network is used. Note that compared with the 1 gateway). In the NETSTAT dissome protocols (e.g., 00-20-78-C6-78-14 input address at the same time. play, the default gateway has NetBEUI) cant be routed; <empty> 4 Output the address 24.24.78.1. Do any instead, they will pass 4 1 Address match 00-C0-F0-3C-88-17 of the other addresses look through a switch. Finally, 1-Match 0-Not found familiar, such as the loop-back switches are used within net address or the network masks? works to forward local traffic 00-C0-F0-26-FC-83 1 After the data is sent to the intelligently. Routers are used default gateway router, it is between networks to route Figure 10Operation of content addressable memory.
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Internet

Router Host computer #1 24.24.78.14 24.24.78.1 Host computer #2 24.24.78.84 Host computer #3 24.24.78.39

Figure 11A router connecting a LAN to the Internet

passed on to another router or to the host computer on the destination LAN. Each router implements the routing process by forwarding messages (one hop at a time) toward their final destination using information stored in a routing table. The routing table contains an entry that indicates the best path (or interface) for sending data to its destination. The routing table can be created and maintained using two different methods: static or dynamic. In a static router, a number of predefined routes are created and the router lacks the ability to discover new routes. In a router with statically configured routing tables, the network administrator needs a detailed knowledge of the network topology and must take the time to manually build and update the routing table as conditions change. This involves programming all of the routes into the router memory. Static routers can work well for small networks, but do not work well in large or dynamically changing networks because of the manual effort required. In addition, static routers are not fault-tolerant. The lifetime of a manually configured static route is infinite. Therefore, statically configured routers do not recover from a bad link or a malfunctioning router. In contrast, using dynamic routing, new routes can be discovered or old routes updated as required. Dynamic routing consists of maintaining routing tables automatically using either periodic or on-demand messages through an ongoing communication between routers using the routing protocols. Except for their initial configuration, dynamic routers require little ongoing maintenance and are fault-tolerant. Dynamic routes learned from other routers have a finite lifetime. If a router or link goes down, the routers

sense the change in the network topology through the expiration of the lifetime of the learned route in the routing table. This change then can be propagated to other routers so that all of the routers on the network realize the new network topology. The router chooses the best path to send the data by implementing a distance-vector or link-state algorithm. In the distancevector algorithm, each router in the network contains a partial view of the complete network topology. In the link-state algorithm, each router is aware of the entire network.

Layer 3

Network

Router Layer 3 switch

Layer 2

Data-link

Bridge, switch

Layer 1

Physical

Repeater, hub

Figure 12Hierarchy of hubs, switches, and routers.

LAYER-THREE SWITCHING
A layer-three switch is essentially a switch and a router combined into one package. Layer-three switching has become popular as a result of the everincreasing demand for bandwidth and services. Traditional routers have become bottlenecks in the campus and corporate LAN environments because of their microprocessor-based operation and high latency. Layer three switches use ASIC technology to implement the routing functions in hardware. This enables the layer-three switch to perform router duties while forwarding frames significantly faster than an ordinary router. In fact, layerthree switches are capable of forwarding millions of frames per second, compared to only several hundred thousand for a router. Replacing the campus or corporate routers with layer-three switches, or adding layer-three switching to a router-less network, has many bene-

fits. First of all, layer-three switches are less expensive than routers. There are fewer network components to manage (via SNMP). You get faster forwarding (close to wire speed, the speed of the frames on the wire). Using switches on layer three helps provide quality of service (QoS) to the LAN environment. Theyre compatible with existing routing protocols (RIP, OSPF). And, theyre easier to configure than a router. There is a great deal of information about layer-three switching available on the Internet. You should read one of 3Coms write papers on the subject (www.3com.com). Figure 12 summarizes the layer-based networking components we have examined, including the layer-three switch. Lets see how these hardware components and protocols work together in an ISP.

INSIDE AN ISP
Figure 13 shows an overhead view of the networking and telecommunications room at a small Internet Service Provider. Along the east wall are the incoming phone lines (200 pairs), modem bank (groups of 64 56Kbps modems in a rack-mountable case), and the 44.7-Mbps T3 connection (to a higher-level ISP). The

Listing 1Running the NETSTAT program with the r option produces the output. As you can see, NETSTAT shows the routing table and active connections for the computer.
C:\WINDOWS>netstat -r Route Table Active Routes: Network Address Netmask Gateway Address 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 24.24.78.1 24.24.78.0 255.255.255.0 24.24.78.84 24.24.78.84 255.255.255.255 127.0.0.1 24.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 24.24.78.84 127.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 127.0.0.1 224.0.0.0 224.0.0.0 24.24.78.84 255.255.255.255 255.255.255.255 24.24.78.84 Active Connections Proto Local Address Foreign Address TCP server:1025 sbccab.cc.sunybroome.edu:139 TCP server:4424 ftp-eng.cisco.com:ftp TCP server:4970 mail3-1.nyroc.rr.com:pop-3 TCP server:4981 sunc.scit.wlv.ac.uk:80

Interface 24.24.78.84 24.24.78.84 127.0.0.1 24.24.78.84 127.0.0.1 24.24.78.84 24.24.78.84 State ESTABLISHED CLOSE_WAIT TIME_WAIT CLOSE_WAIT

Metric 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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2002

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routers and switches that make up the ISP topology and logical networks are along the west wall. The center of the room contains the server farm, where all of the servers required for operation of the ISP reside. These include servers for DNS, DHCP, e-mail, web pages, and authentication. One machine is dedicated to monitoring the network via SNMP and another for performing backups. Along the south wall is server space for individual and corporate servers, which, along with the dial-up users, help generate income for the ISP. Numerous Uninterruptable Power Source (UPS) units provide 30 min. of power in the event of a main power loss. Figure 14 illustrates the actual layout of the network. The T3 connection is the WAN connection to the higher-level ISP providing the actual Internet connection. Traffic in the T3 connection is filtered by the firewall. The I-router connects the individual subnetworks together and acts as the gateway to the Internet through the firewall. Employee computers (some of which have 100-Mbps switched service) communicate with their own file server or may tap into the server farm via the I-router. Individual and corporate servers share their own switch, as do the modems in the modem bank and the servers in the server farm. The F-router is used to lighten the load on the I-router for traffic moving between the server farm and the modem bank. The network was designed in this

Air conditioner

Air conditioner

Server farm Status monitor Router and switch rack Authentication Backup E-mail Tools and test equipment Web DNS DHCP Company file server E-mail Web

T3 MUX CSU DSU

The end is not in sight, but we are moving there faster and faster each day, with Ethernet leading the way. I James Antonakos is a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering Technology at Broome Community College, with over 25 years of experience designing digital and analog circuitry and developing software. He is also the author of numerous textbooks on microprocessors, programming, and microcomputer systems. You may reach him at antonakos_j @sunybroome.edu or visit his web site at www.sunybroome.edu/~antonakos_j.

T3

Dial-up phone lines

Individual/corporate servers

Modern bank

Door Window

Figure 13Communication room layout in a small ISP.

fashion to allow the subnetworks to keep operating in the event that the main I-router goes down. Dial-up users can still check e-mail or work on their web pages. Employees can continue to work as well, although without access to the Internet or the server farm.

RESOURCE
3Com Corp., Title of White Paper Needed, Need Number if Available, Need Date of Publication.

SOURCE
MUSIC LANCAM MU9C1480 Music Semiconductors (732) 469-1886 www.music-ic.com

BIGGER, FASTER, MORE

The Internet continues to grow. New computers and other networked devices are added every day, increasing the demand for bandwidth and reliable communication. These demands are being met by new technologies, such as 10-Gbps Ethernet and dense-wavedivision multiplexing, with more to come. What a long way weve come since the use of acoustic-coupled 300bps modems! And where are we going?

Telephone lines

T3 Cable T3 Interface Firewall I Router

200 POTS connections

F Router

100-Mbps switch 64 64 64 64 Modem bank Server farm Authentication DHCP Backup DNS E-mail Web 100-Mbps switch 10/100-Mbps switch

100-Mbps switch Company file server

Individual/coraporate servers

10/100-Mbps switch

Employee stations

Figure 14Network diagram for the small ISP www.circuitcellar.com/online CIRCUIT CELLAR ONLINE

Circuit Cellar, the Magazine for Computer Applications. Reprinted by permission. For subscription information, call (860) 875-2199, or www.circuitcellar.com. Entire contents copyright 2001 Circuit Cellar Inc. All rights reserved.
April 2002