6-8 Number and Operation

Number and Operation
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Exploring Fractions . 2 Equivalent Fractions ...9 Adding and Subtracting Fractions .14 Exploring Decimals ....18 Operations with Decimals .. 23 Exploring Percents .29 Fraction, Decimal, and Percent Equivalents ..34 Problem-Solving with Fractions, Decimals, and Percents .38 Proportional Reasoning and Rates .43 Proportional Reasoning and Mixtures ..... 47
Student Pages 53
Number and Operation, Grades 6-8
Exploring Fractions
Mathematical Focus
8 Fractional parts of wholes and sets 8 Fractional parts of different-size sets 8 Relationships among different fractional parts of same-size sets Students find and compare fractional parts of wholes and sets. Students represent sets of objects using counters and find fractional parts of the set by dividing the counters into equal subsets. For example: to find 1/4 of 20, students divide the set of twenty counters into equal subsets of 5 counters each. Students practice finding fractional parts of different size sets: 1/3 of 30, 2/5 of 25, 3/4 of 24, etc. As they gather and record information about fractional parts of different size sets, students begin to look for patterns in their data. They explore ways of moving from the concrete method of using counters for finding fractional parts of sets to a more abstract, symbolic approach. Two games (Fraction Four and Largest Number) at the end of the activity provide additional practice with the concepts.
Preparation and Materials

8 8 8 8 Student Page 1: Fraction-of-a-Set Cards Student Page 2: Fraction-of-a-Set Chart Student Page 3: Game Boards, 1 copy per student Counters, about 50
Part 1 of this activity provides a quick review of comparing and ordering fractions. If you feel that your students need additional work in this area, Activity 7: Recognizing and Comparing Fractions in the Grades 3-5 Number and Operation Unit provides more in-depth coverage of these concepts. Cut out a set of Fraction-of-a-Set Cards (Student Page 1) ahead of time.
Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 2
Fractional Parts of a Whole

1. Tell what you already know about fractions.
Review the following important points about fractions if students do not mention them: The denominator, or bottom number, of a fraction tells the total number of equal parts the whole or set is divided into. The numerator, or top number, tells the number of parts being considered. The parts into which the whole is divided must be equal. To divide something into fractional parts means the pieces of the same denominations, e.g. thirds, are the same size.
2. Compare fractions of same-size wholes.

Write the following statement on a piece of paper: 2/3 > Ask students to read the statement aloud: Two thirds is greater than three fourths. Ask: Is this statement true or false? Have students sketch a picture showing two large pizzas of equal size. Ask them to shade 2/3 of one pizza and 3/4 of the other pizza.
Write the following statement:
____ < 2/3 <
3/4 < ____
Ask students to think of fractions that could be put into each blank to make the statement true. Have students add two additional pizzas to their previous sketch to illustrate the statement. Again, emphasize that the pizzas are to be the same size.
Ask: How did you come up with a fraction that is less than 2/3? Ask: How did you come up with a fraction that is greater than ? Ask: What things do you know to be true about fractions?
3. Compare fractions of different-size wholes.

Present this scenario: Suppose someone tells you that you can have 1/4 of a pizza they have ordered. Will you get the same amount to eat if the pizza ordered was a large pizza or a small pizza? Draw a sketch to illustrate your thinking.
Emphasize that the same fractional part of different wholes can be different sizes. For example: 1/4 of a large pizza is more pizza than 1/4 of a small pizza.
Fractional Parts of a Set

1. Determine the size of a fraction of a set of objects.
Write the fraction and place 20 counters on the table. Present the following scenario: Suppose a large package of crackers holds 20 crackers. If someone tells you that you can have 1/4 of the crackers, how many will you have? Use the counters to show 1/4 of the crackers.
Compare finding fractional parts of a set to division. Be sure students understand that the denominator of the fraction 1/4 tells how many equal parts the whole set of crackers must be divided into: 4. Dividing 20 into 4 equal subsets means 5 crackers in each subset: 1/4 of 20 = 5 crackers. Ask questions such as the following: (Have additional counters available for students to use.) Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 4
Suppose you were to get 2/4 of a box of 20 crackers, how many would you get? Write the problem as a mathematical statement. [2/4 of 20 = 10]
Which is greater: 1/5 of this pack of crackers or 1/4 of a pack crackers? Use counters to illustrate and compare 1/4 of 20 and 1/5 of 20. Emphasize that the sets of
crackers being compared are the same size.
1/5 of 20 = 4 1/4 of 20 = 5
1/5 of 20 < 1/4 of 20
Which is greater: 3/4 of a pack of crackers or 2/5? Use counters to show the different fractional parts. Explain your thinking. Which is greater: 3/5 of a pack of crackers or 3/10? Use counters to show the different fractional parts. Explain your thinking. How many ways can a set of 20 crackers be evenly divided? Can it be divided into 2 equal sets? 3 equal sets? 4 equal sets? Any other sets?
2. Look for fractions of a set of 24 pens.

Have students use counters to represent the pens. Ask students: Find 7/8 of the set of pens. Find 3/5 of the set. Find 2/6 of the set. Which is greater: 1/3 of 24 or 2/6 of 24?
3. Compare fractions of different-size sets.

Tell students that a large package of crackers contains 20 crackers and a small package contains 12 crackers. Ask:
Is 1/4 of the large package the same as 1/4 of the small package? Explain your thinking. How many crackers are in 1/4 of a small package? Use
counters to show your answer. Have students recall the two different sized amounts of pizza, large and small, that they created in Part 1. One quarter 1/4 of the large pizza was not the same as 1/4 of the small pizza. The same concept holds true for sets of objectsfractional parts of different size sets may be different sizes. Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 5
Give students an opportunity to work through a few more examples: Which is greater: 3/4 of a small package of crackers or 2/5 of a large package? Use counters or a sketch to show your answer. 3/4 of 12 = 9 2/5 of 20 = 8
3/4 of 12 > 2/5 of 20 Which is greater: 2/3 of a small package of crackers, or 1/2 of a large package?
4. Compare the sizes on Fraction-of-a-Set cards (Student Page 1).

Have each student draw two cards from a stack of Fraction-of-a-Set cards (Student Page 1). Ask students to determine which number is greater. For example: 1/4 of 20 or 2/4 of 12. Encourage students to use counters to solve the problem and/or check their answers. Draw more pairs of cards, each time having students determine which number is greater.
5. Fill in the Fraction-of-a-Set chart (Student Page 2).

Explain that the chart can be used to record fractions of different size sets. Look at the 1/2 of row. Students should be able to determine 1/2 of each of the different size sets without using counters. For example: 1/2 of 10 = 5, 1/2 of 12 = 6.
6. Explain why some boxes in the Fraction-of-a-Set chart (Student Page 2) are shaded and others are not.
Ask: Why do you think the 1/2 of 15 box is not shaded? Is it possible to find 1/2 of 15? Or 1/3 of 10? If students are unable to provide an explanation, do not tell them the answer. Return to the question after students have had an opportunity to fill in more of the chart. Give students an opportunity to draw cards from the Fraction-of-a-Set stack (Student Page 1), determine the correct fraction of the set, and record their answer on the chart. It is not necessary that students go through the whole stack or complete the chart.
7. Describe patterns on the Fraction-of-a-Set chart (Student Page 2).

Have students look at their chart and select a row in which they have filled in 2 or more shaded squares. Challenge them to describe any patterns they see in the numbers. For example, take the 1/3 of row:
10 12 15 16 18 20 24 25 30 36 40
1/3 of
10 12
Students may notice that the shaded boxes are under numbers that are divisible by 3. Students may also notice that to find 1/3 of a number, you simply divide the number by 3. If this idea seems clear to students, ask: Does the same hold true for finding 1/4 of a number (divide the number by 4)? Or 1/5 of a number (divide the number by 5)? It is not essential that students move to this level of abstraction at this point. Have students again consider the boxes that are not shaded. Ask: Is it possible to find 1/3 of 10? The answer is yes, but the result will not be a whole number: 1/3 of 10 = 3 1/3 or 3.33 In this activity, students will only work with fractional parts of sets that are whole numbers.
8. Compare rows that contain fractions with the same denominators.

For example, the 1/3 of row and the 2/3 of row:
1/3 of 2/3 of
10 12 15 16 18 20 24 25 4 5 6 8 8 10 12 16
30 36 10 12 20 24
40
Ask questions such as: What patterns do you notice? If you know 1/3 of a set, for example 1/3 of 15, how could you find 2/3 of the set without having to use counters? [1/3 + 1/3 = 2/3, therefore 5 + 5 = 10]
Give students plenty of opportunities to explain their thinking and ideas about fractional parts of sets. Encourage students to use counters, sketches, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to describe their methods. For students who are having difficulty with the concepts in this section, continue to use concrete modeling with counters or other manipulatives. For students who are able to abstract the ideas, provide time for filling in the remainder of the chart without the use of manipulatives.
Fraction Games
Fraction Four
Goal: To cover four squares in a row. Players: 2 or more Materials: A complete deck of Fraction-of-a-Set cards (Student Page 1), Game Boards (Student Page 3), counters or paper markers Instructions: Place the shuffled deck of cards face down and give each player a copy of a game board. First player draws a Fraction-of-a-Set card, for example 2/3 of 24. The player determines that 2/3 of 24 is 16. If 16 is on the board he or she places a marker on it. If 16 is not on the board, no marker is placed, and the next player takes a turn. The first player to get four markers in a row wins.
Largest Number
Goal: To win all the cards. Players: 2 Materials: A complete set of Fraction-of-a-Set cards (Student Page 1) Instructions: This game is similar to the well-known card game War. The dealer shuffles the cards and deals out the full deck to both players. Each player takes a card from the top of his or her pile and places it face up. Each player determines the value of the card drawn (for example, 2/3 of 24 would have a value of 16). If the cards have different values, the player who played the highest card wins both. If the cards have equal values, each player puts three cards face down on top of the first card and plays the fourth card face up. The player with the highest card wins all. When all the cards in one players deck are used, the cards taken are made into a deck and play resumes. Play continues until one player has all the cards.
Equivalent Fractions
Mathematical Focus
8 Number sense for fractions 8 Equivalent fractions Students use fraction strips to investigate equivalent fractions. The strips provide a concrete way for students to visualize and represent equivalent fractions. Once students are comfortable using strips to find equivalent fractions, they explore a method of finding equivalent fractions without the strips. Students learn that multiplying or dividing a fraction by 1, or another name for 1, such as 4/4, produces an equivalent fraction. For example: 1/3 x 4/4 = 4/12. In this example, 4/12 is equivalent to 1/3.

8 Student Page 4: Fraction Strips, several copies 8 Student Page 5: Fraction Match Cards, 2 copies Cut out Fraction Match Cards (Student Page 5) ahead of time. You may want to copy the Fraction Match Cards onto index cards to create a sturdier, more easily manipulated set of playing cards.
Use Fraction Strips to Find Equivalent Fractions

1. Compare fraction strips and describe things that you notice.
Have students cut out individual fraction strips from Student Page 4: Fraction Strips and compare them. Have an additional copy of Student Page 4 available. Ask questions such as: How many fourths does it take to make 1/2? By placing the fourths strip directly below the halves strip, students can easily see that it take two fourths to make one half; therefore 1/2 is equivalent to 2/4. Or students may take a copy of Student Page 4 that has not been cut apart and shade in 1/2 and 2/4 on the strip chart. 1/4 1/4 1/2 1/4
What is the name in sixths of a fraction equivalent to 1/2? Write: 1 = 2 ?_ 6
Can you use fraction strips to find three more fractions that are equivalent to 1/2? [4/8, 5/10, 6/12]. 1 2 = _ = _ = _
What is the name in sixths of a fraction equivalent to 2/4? 2 4 = ?_ 6
Use fraction strips to find four fractions equivalent to 2/3. [4/6, 6/9, 8/12, 10/15] 2 = 3 _ = _ = _ = _
1/3 1/6 1/9 1/9 1/6 1/9 1/6 1/9
1/3 1/9 1/6 1/9
How many fourths in 3 wholes?
2. Find more equivalent fractions.

Ask students to use their fraction strips or an uncut copy of Student Page 4: Fraction Strips to find and record additional pairs of equivalent fractions. Suggest that students begin by finding equivalent fractions for the following fractions: 3/4 [possible equivalent fractions: 6/8, 9/12, 12/16] 3/9 [possible equivalent fractions: 1/3, 4/12] 6/15 [possible equivalent fractions: 2/5, 4/10] 2/10 [possible equivalent fractions: 1/5, 3/15] 8/12 [possible equivalent fractions: 2/3, 6/9, 10/15] Ask students to describe any observations or discoveries about the equivalent fractions.
Equivalent Fractions without strips

1. Find equivalent fractions by multiplying the numerator and the denominator by the same number.
Introduce a method for finding equivalent fractions without using the strips. On a piece of paper write: 1/3 = 5/15 Ask: Is this statement true? If students are unsure, have them use fraction strips to confirm that the statement is true.
1/3 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/3 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/15 1/3 1/15 1/15 1/15
Ask: What number could you multiply the numerator of 1/3 by to get 5? [5]
What number could you multiply the denominator of 1/3 by to get 15? [5]
Explain that multiplying the numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same number will give an equivalent fraction because it is the same as multiplying the whole fraction by 1 (x/x = 1). 1x5 = 5 3 x 5 = 15 Multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of 1/3 by 5 is the same as multiplying 1/3 by 5/5. So, since 5/5 is another name for 1, and multiplying 1/3 by 1 gives you 1/3, multiplying 1/3 by 5/5 gives you an equivalent fraction in a different form: 5/15. 1/3 x 5/5 = 5/15 Ask students to try a few examples: Start with the fraction 1/3. Multiply 1/3 by another name for 1, in this case, 2/2. 1/3 x 1 = 1/3 x 2/2 = 1 x 2 = 2 3x2=6 Is 2/6 equivalent to 1/3? Have the students use fraction strips to confirm their answer. Explain to students that another name for 1 is 4/4. Multiplying the numerator and the denominator of 1/3 by 4 to create another equivalent fraction is like multiplying 1/3 by 1. 1x4=4 3 x 4 = 12 1/3 = 4/12
Ask: Find fractions equivalent to 1/2. Multiply 1/2 by other names for 1, such as 3/3, 4/4, 5/5 or 6/6.
2. Find equivalent fractions by dividing the numerator and the denominator by the same number.
Explain that dividing the numerator and the denominator of a fraction by the same number (another name for one) also produces an equivalent fraction, provided the numerator and the denominator are both divisible by that number. For example, take the fraction 6/8. Ask: 6 and 8 are both divisible by what number? [2] Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 12
6/8 2/2 = 6 2 = 3 82=4 6/8 = 3/4 If students are not convinced, have them use fraction strips to compare 6/8 and 3/4. Have students use division to find one or more equivalent fractions for each of the fractions below: 12/15 [possible equivalent fraction: 4/5] 5/10 [possible equivalent fraction: 1/2] 8/12 [possible equivalent fraction: 2/3, 4/6]
Fraction Games
Fraction Match
Goal: To create pairs of equivalent fractions. Players: 2 or more Materials: A set of Fraction Match Cards from Student Page 5 Instructions: Fraction Match is similar to the traditional game of Go Fish. Each player is dealt eight Fraction Match Cards face down. Players look at the hand they have been dealt and try to create pairs of equivalent fractions. Equivalent pairs are placed face up on the table. All players must agree on equivalent pairs. To begin, the first player may ask any other player for an equivalent fraction card that will make a pair with a card in the first players hand. For instance: Do you have any cards equivalent to 1/2? If the other player has any cards equivalent to 1/2, he or she gives one to the first player. If not, the first player may draw a new card from the stack. If the new card can be matched with any card in his or her hand to form an equivalent pair, the player may take another turn. If not, play proceeds to the next player. First player to match all of his or her cards wins the game.
Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Mathematical Focus
8 Addition of fractions 8 Subtraction of fractions 8 Like and unlike denominators Students add and subtract fractions with like and unlike denominators. They find common denominators for pairs of fractions and use their knowledge of equivalent fractions to rewrite the fractions using the common denominator.

8 Student Page 4: Fraction Strips 8 Student Page 6: Close to 1 Score Card, several copies 8 Make up a set of fraction numeral cards for the game, Close to 1. The set should include 3 each of the following cards: 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/6, 1/8, 1/12, 3/8, and 5/12. If your students have very little experience adding and subtracting fractions, you may want to begin with Activity 8: Adding and Subtracting Fractions from the Grades 3-5 Number and Operation Unit
Adding and Subtracting Fractions

1. Add fractions by finding equivalent fractions with the same denominators.
Write the following equation: 3/8 + 4/8 = ? Have students draw a sketch to represent the problem. Since the denominator of both addends is 8, simply add the numerators. Students should readily see that 3/8 + 4/8 = 7/8.
Present another problem: 1/5 + 3/10 = ? In this case, the denominators are different. Ask: Can you find an equivalent fraction for one of the fractions that uses the same denominator as the other fraction? Students may recall from their work in Activity 2 that multiplying 1/5 by 2/2 will produce an equivalent fraction: 2/10. 2/10 + 3/10 = 5/10.
At this point, it is not necessary that students reduce their answers to lowest terms; however, if students wish to do so, show them how. In the example above, 5/10 can be reduced to 1/2.
Consider another example: 1/2 + 1/3 = ? In this case, neither fraction can be written in terms of the other. Ask: Can you find equivalent fractions for 1/2 and 1/3 that use the same denominator or a common denominator? Encourage students to use the fraction strips from Student Page 4 to guide their thinking. Students may see that 1/2 and 1/3 can both be written in terms of sixths. Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 15
6 and 1/3 = 2/6 3/6 + 2/6 = 5/6. Work through the following examples with students. Each problem requires students to rewrite one or both fractions using a common denominator. Have fraction strips from Student Page 4 available for students to use in writing equivalent fractions. Once students have had a chance to work through several problems, ask: Can you describe a rule for finding a common denominator for two fractions? 1/4 - 2/12 = ? 3/15 + 2/5 = ? 1/4 + 3/8 = ? 1/5 - 1/7 = ?
Fraction Games
Close to 1
Goal: To get 5 points, where a point is earned for having the sum closest to one. Players: 2 Materials: A shuffled set of fraction numeral cards (see Preparation and Materials); Student Page 6: Close to 1 Score Card provides a place for students to record the fractions they are dealt for each round of the game. Students circle the three fractions they are adding for that round and record the sum of the three fractions in the shaded box at the bottom of the column.
Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Round 5 Round 6
3/8 1/12 1/6 19/24 Instructions: Each player is dealt four fraction cards. Players add together three of the fractions in their hand to get a sum that is as close to 1 as possible (or equal to 1) without being greater than one. The player with the sum closest to 1 but not over 1 gets a point for that round. Cards are returned to the stack and re-shuffled. Four new cards are dealt to each Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 16
player and play resumes. The first player to get 5 points wins. Share strategies for determining which three fractions will be added to produce a sum that is closest to one. Variations: Play with the goal being to get as close to zero as possible. Players start with 1 and subtract three of the fractions from 1 to get as close to zero as they can.
Largest Sum
Goal: To win all the cards. Players: 2 Materials: A shuffled set of fraction numeral cards (see Preparation and Materials) Instructions: The dealer shuffles the cards and deals out the full deck to both players. Each player takes two fraction cards from the top of his or her deck, places them face up and calculates the sum of the two fractions. If the sums are different values, the player with the highest sum wins both sets of cards. If the sums are equal value, each player draws a third card and adds it to the previous sum. The player with the highest total (sum of all three fractions) wins all the cards. If the sum is again equal, a fourth card is added to the total, etc. When all the cards in one players deck are used, the cards taken are made into a deck and play resumes. Play continues until one player has all the cards.
Exploring Decimals
Mathematical Focus
8 Decimal number sense 8 Representation of decimal numbers 8 Comparison and ordering of decimal numbers Students explore the relationship between fractions and decimals. They engage in a series of activities and games in which they represent, compare, and order decimals. In Deci-O! (Decimal Order Game) students arrange a set of five or more decimal cards in order from largest to smallest. In Decimal Windows, students place digits in window panes to create decimal numbers. The goal can be to make the largest value, the smallest value, or a number close to a target value.

8 Student Page 7: Number Line (tenths) 8 Student Page 10: Decimal Cards 8 Create two sets of digit cards, 0-9 Cut out Decimal Cards (Student Page 10) ahead of time. You may want to copy the decimals onto index cards to make them easier to manipulate.
Decimals Between 0 and 1

1. Label a number line with tenths and compare values.
Point out that the number line, between 0 and 1, is divided into ten equal sections, or tenths. Ask students to show and label 2/10 on the number line and 7/10 on the number line. Ask: Which is greater: 2/10 or 7/10? Students should readily see that 7/10 is greater than 2/10. Ask: Is 6/10 greater than or less than ? How do you know? Can you show me on the number line? How many tenths is equal to? Students may recall from their work with equivalent fractions in Activity 2 that and 5/10 are equivalent fractions. Therefore, 6/10 is greater than , or 5/10. Try a few more problems: Which is greater 10/10 or 1? If you could extend this number line, where would 15/10 be? 20/10? If students have trouble visualizing this, tape another piece of paper onto the student page and extend the number line.
2. Discuss how the number line would look if divided into hundredths.
Ask: How many parts would there be between each tenth? [10]. About where would 50/100 be? Ask students to explain their thinking. Students may simply reduce 50/100 to 1/2, or they may count by 10s on the number line until they reach 50/100 or 5/10. Ask: Which is greater: 40/100 or 5/10? 3/100 or 30/10? Explain your thinking.
3. Identify the hundreds place, the tens place, the ones place, the tenths, the hundredths, and the thousandths for a particular number.
Sketch the following chart (without labels) and have students identify the different places: Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 19
6 236.015
4. Practice reading numbers aloud and writing the equivalent fractions.

Write a few numbers for students to say and find equivalent fractions: 3.5 4.25 2.3 .6 .60 .06 three and five tenths four and twenty-five hundredths two and three tenths six tenths sixty hundredths six hundredths 3 5/10 4 25/100 2 3/10 6/10 60/100 6/100
For the last three decimal numbers, have students show their approximate location on the number line.
5. Compare the size of pairs of decimal numbers.

Show students the set of decimal cards you have prepared from Student Page 8. Place the .5 card and the .25 card on a piece of paper. Have students read the decimal numbers: five tenths and twenty-five hundredths. Ask: Which is greater? Students may want to locate 5/10 and 25/100 on the number line to compare them. [.5 > .25] Explain that in comparing decimals, it is often easier to change the decimals so that they have the same number of places after the decimal point. This is similar to rewriting fractions so that they have the same denominator. Adding zeros after the last digit to the right of the decimal point will not change the number. Have students again consider the decimals .5 and .25. Ask students to add a zero to .5: .50. Have students read the two numbers aloud: five tenths and fifty hundredths, and then confirm by locating the two numbers on the number line that they are indeed equivalent. Place each pair of cards listed below on a piece of paper. Have students add a zero when necessary to change the decimals so that they have the same number of places after the decimal point (students may want to rewrite the decimal numbers on a scratch sheet of paper). Students should compare each pair of decimals and then write the appropriate symbol (<, >, = ) between them. Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 20
.5 .15 .3 .80
.05 . 2 .04 . 8
The same principles apply to comparing thousandths: adding zeros after the last digit to the right of the decimal point will not change the number. Present the following example, asking students to order the decimals from smallest to largest: .05 .5 .005
By adding zeros: .050 .500 .005, the seemingly difficult task of comparing the three decimals becomes much simpler: 5/1000 < 50/1000 < 500/1000. The cards can be arranged in the following way: .005 < .05 < .5
6. Compare the sizes of sets of 3 decimal cards.

Shuffle the decimal cards from Student Page 8. Have student draw three cards from the stack and to write appropriate symbols (<, >, and =) between the cards to create a true statement. For example: .002 < .4 < .75 For each statement the students create, have them read the statement aloud and explain their thinking in solving the ordering problem. Encourage students to work through several examples before introducing Deci-O!, the decimal order game described in the next section.
Decimal Games
Deci-O!
Goal: To arrange a set of five (or more) Decimal Cards in order from smallest to largest. Players: 2 Materials: A set of Decimal Cards from Student Page 8 Instructions: Deal five (or more) cards to each player, face up, in a vertical row. The cards must remain in the order they were placed. After dealing, players take turns drawing cards from the stack. They may choose to replace one of the cards in the column with the card they drew, Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 21
so that the remaining cards are closer to being in order. If a player chooses not to exchange a card, it is discarded. The player who first reorders his or her column of cards from lowest to highest is the winner.
Decimal Windows
Goal: To make the largest decimal number Players: 1 or more Materials: A set of digit cards (see Preparation and Materials); Each player needs to draw a 1 x 4 window with a decimal point between the first and second panes.
Instructions: Shuffle the digit cards and place them face down. Turn over the first card. Each player writes the digit in a pane of their 1 x 4 window. Once a digit has been written in a pane, it cannot be erased or moved. When everyone has written the first digit in a pane, turn over a second card and have the players write that digit in a pane. Continue until four cards have been turned over. Compare decimal numbers to see who has made the largest number. Ask students if the digits can be rearranged to make an even larger number. Variations: Play again with the goal being to create the smallest fourdigit number.
Make sure your students understand the meaning of digit, i.e. the numbers 0 to 9 are digits. Example: The number 3.5 has two digitsthe digit 3 in the ones column and the digit 5 in the tenths column.
Operations with Decimals

Mathematical Focus
8 Decimals 8 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with decimals This activity provides a collection of computational games in which students must strategically add, subtract, multiply, and divide decimals. By engaging in the various games, students develop a conceptual understanding of the effects of different operations on decimal numbers. For example, they learn that multiplying a number by a decimal between 0 and 1 will make the number smaller rather than larger.

8 8 8 8 8 8 8 Student Page 6: Close to 1 Score Card, several copies Student Page 8: Decimal Cards Student Page 9: In the Range Student Page 10: Four-in-a-Row Cards, three sets Student Page 11: Four-in-a-Row Boards, several copies Calculator (optional) Counters
Cut out Decimal Cards (Student Page 8) ahead of time.
Decimal Games
1. Practice adding pairs of decimal numbers.
Give students pairs of the decimal cards created from Student Page 8 and ask them to add the decimals. If students do not write the numbers vertically, encourage them to do so.
Placing each digit in the same place-value position as the digit above it will make addition or subtraction of decimals easier. Also encourage students to change the decimal numbers being added or subtracted so that they have the same number of places after the decimal point. Adding zeros after the last digit to the right of the decimal point will not change the number. Example: .95 + .707 can be re-written as follows: .950 +.707 1.657
Close to 1
Goal: To get 5 points by having sums closest to one each round. Players: 2 Materials: A shuffled set of decimal cards (Student Page 8); a copy of Student Page 6: Close to 1 Score Card for each students (this provides a place for students to record the decimals they are dealt for each round of the game. Students circle the three decimals they are adding for that round and record the sum of the three decimals in the shaded box at the bottom of the column.)
Round 1
Round 2
Round 3
Round 4
Round 5
Round 6
.02 .7 .4 .03 .75 Instructions: Each player is dealt four decimal cards. Players add together three of the decimals in their hand to get a sum that is as close to 1 as possible (or equal to 1) without being greater than one. The player with the sum closest to 1 but not over 1 gets a point for that round. Cards are returned to the stack and re-shuffled. Four new cards are dealt to each player and play resumes. The first player to get 5 points wins. Share strategies for determining which three decimals will be added to produce a sum that is closest to one. Variations: Play with the goal being to get as close to zero as possible. Players start with 1 and subtract three of the decimals from 1 to get as close to zero as they can.
Decimal Jack
Goal: To have a set of cards that add up to an exact total of 2, or to have a set of cards that add up to the highest total less than 2. Players: 2 or more Materials: A complete deck of shuffled decimal cards from Student Page 8. Instructions: Select one player to be the dealer. Deal two cards face down and one card face up to each player. Players look at their own cards and determine whether they want to be dealt an additional card or to pass (i.e., stick with the cards they have). Keep playing rounds until all players stop requesting cards. Then turn over the face down cards. All players whose total is larger than 2 are out. All players who have an exact total of 2 win. If no player has an exact total of 2, the player(s) with the total closest to 2 wins.
In the Range
1. Think about the effect on numbers of multiplying them by decimals.
Start with the number 10. Ask: If I multiply 10 by 5, will the product be greater than 10 or less than 10? [greater than 10] Suppose I multiply 10 by .5. Will the product be greater than 10 or less than 10? [less than 10] Explain your thinking. Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 25
2. Develop multiple ways of thinking about multiplication and division of decimals.

For example, students should recognize that multiplying a number by .5 is the same as multiplying it by its fraction equivalent, , and is also the same as adding .5 (or ) ten times: 10 x 1/2 = 5 .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 + .5 = 5
3. Try a few more examples.

Ask: Will 10 x .2 be larger than 10 or smaller than 10? Can you describe one or more ways of thinking about this problem? Remind students that .2 is the same as 2/10. Have students multiply 10 by 2/10: 10 x 2/10 = 20/10. Twenty tenths can be rewritten in decimal form as: 2.0. Or 20/10 can be reduced to 2. Another way to view the problem is to think of taking 2/10 of 10. (Taking a fraction of a set should be familiar to students who worked on Activity 1.) Ask students to consider the problem: 20 x .1 Have students read the problem aloud (twenty times one tenth) and ask: Can you describe one or more ways of thinking about this problem? Twenty tenths 1/10 twenty times. 1/10 of 20 List the following problems and have students solve them. 5 x 100 = 5 x 10 = 5x1= 5 x .1 = 5 x .01 = Ask: Can you describe a pattern in the problems and their solutions? What happens when you multiply 5 by a number greater than 1? What happens when you multiply 5 by a number between 0 and 1? Have students look for a pattern in the division of numbers as well: 500 100 500 10 500 1 500 .1 Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 26
500 .01 Students should understand that multiplying a whole number by a decimal between 0 and 1 will make the number smaller rather than larger. Dividing a whole number by a decimal between 0 and 1 has the opposite effect: it makes the number larger.
Some students may have already learned to use a whole-number algorithm with decimal numbers in which they multiply the numbers and keep track of where to place the decimal point by counting the number of places after the decimal point in the numbers being multiplied. If students use this method, emphasize the importance of checking the reasonableness of answers to validate the placement of the decimal point. For example, students may solve the problem: .2 x .3 by saying, Two times three is six, move the decimal point to the left two places, the answer is .06. Students should understand why .06 is a reasonable answer; because tenths times tenths give you hundredths.
4. Check the reasonableness of answers to multiplication problems.

Challenge students to determine whether or not the answer is reasonable and explain their thinking without actually doing the calculations. Students can use a calculator to check the answers. .8 x 16 = 128 Is the answer reasonable? [not reasonable because taking 8/10 of a number will give you a smaller number rather than a larger number] 200 x .1 = 20 .06 x 120 = 7200
In the Range
Goal: To multiply the starting number by another number so that the product of the two numbers falls within the target range. Players: 2 or more Materials: Calculator (optional); a copy of Student Page 5: In the Range Instructions: Students begin with a starting number and a target range. Begin with Game 1. The first player multiplies the starting number, in this case .4, by a number. The goal is for the product of the starting number and the multiplier to fall within the target range, .10-.20. The first players multiplier and product are recorded on the chart. If the first players product is within the range, that round is over and player 1 gets a point. If Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 27
not, play moves to the second player. The second player takes the first players product and multiplies it by a number, the goal again being to get a product within the range. If the second players product is within the range, he or she gains a point, otherwise play moves to the next player (or back to the first player). The first player to get a product within the range wins a point. The first player to get three points wins the game. Starting Number: .4 Target Range: .10-.20 Multiplier 3 10 .1 .1 Product 1.2 12 1.2 .12
As you are playing the game, invite students to share the strategies they are using. Ask questions such as: Do you need to make the number bigger or smaller? How much bigger? Twice as big? Less than that? Do you need to make the number smaller? Half the size? How could you do that? Variations: Encourage students to create additional games on the blank charts specifying a starting number and a target range.
Four in a Row
Goal: To get four products in a row on the game board. Players: 2 or more Materials: A set of A cards and a set of B cards made from Student Page 10; a Four-in-a-Row Board (Student Page 11) for each player; counters or markers Instructions: Place the two stacks of cards (A cards and B cards) face down beside each other. Each player draws one A card and one B card. Numbers on the cards are multiplied together. If the product of the two decimals is on a players game board he or she places a marker on that number. If the product of the two decimals is not on the game board, no marker is placed. Cards are placed in the discard pile and new cards are drawn. The first player to get four in a row wins. Variations:
8 Four in a Row can be played with the same deck of cards, using addition or subtraction. Have students help make game boards by using the cards to put sums and differences on two new boards. 8 Division Variation: Play Four in a Row with division. For this version of the game, have students create a new deck of cards and two new game boards. Try out the new game and, after play, revise the cards or game boards if necessary.
Exploring Percents (The 100-Grid Model)

Mathematical Focus
8 Percents 8 Percents represented on a 100-Grid Students use a 100-Grid to explore percentages. They use the 100-grid to represent and/or determine percentages in various situations. By using this concrete representation of percents, students will gain a better understanding of this concept.

8 8 8 8 8 Student Page 12: Switchboard (several copies) Student Page 13: 100-Grid Cards I Student Page 14: 100-Grid Cards II Student Page 15: 100-Grid Student Page 16: Parking Lot
Cut out 100-Grid Cards I and II (Student Pages 13 and 14) ahead of time. Make a copy of the 100-Grid (Student Page 15) on a transparency.
Switchboard Percentages
1. Determine the percentage of people talking on the phone by looking at a hotel switchboard.
Explain that a hotel operator looks at this grid of a switchboard (Student Page 12), which has a square to represent each of the 100 rooms in the hotel. If the phone in one of the hotel rooms is being used, then the square on the grid for that room lights up (is shaded), and if it is not being used, it stays blank. Shade in 30 of the squares on a copy of the grid and ask: How many people are talking on the phones in the hotel right now? How many phones are there in the hotel? What percentage of the phones are in use? If five more people get on their phones, what percentage will be using their phones? What percentage will not be using their phones?
Give students a new copy of the switchboard and ask: If at 6 p.m. three-quarters (3/4) of the phones are in use, what percentage of the phones are in use at that time? Shade in that percentage of the phones. [75] If 2/3 of the people who are on the phone are talking to friends in other towns, what percentage of all the rooms in the hotel have people who are talking to friends in other towns? [50] If the system has a bug where it shuts down if more than 85% of the phones are in use, then how many more people can get on their phones right now without the phone system shutting down? [10]
Shade different portions of the switchboard and have students explain what percentage of the phones are in use and what percentage are not in use. Ask students to show different ways that the switchboard could look if a certain percentage of the phones were in use. For example, if you told them that 37% of the phones were in use, they could shade in the switchboard in many different ways. Two examples follow: Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 31
Largest Grid Percentage

Goal: To win all the cards. Players: 2 or more Materials: A set of 100-Grid Cards (Student Pages 13 and 14) Instructions: Deal out the 100-Grid Cards so that all players have an equal number of cards. During each round, all players turn over the top card in their piles, and the player who has the card with the highest percentage of the grid shaded or the highest percentage number written gets to keep all of the cards that were played. The winner places the cards back at the bottom of his or her pile. If two or more of the cards that are played represent equal percentages, the players who played those cards lay three cards face down and play another card face up. The player who lays down the card with the highest percentage gets to keep all of the cards that are now on the table. Play continues until someone runs out of cards. At that point, the player with the most cards wins.
Percentage Estimates
1. Estimate then check what percentage of a square is shaded.
Draw a square the same size as the 100-Grid from Student Page 15: 100Grid on a separate piece of paper. Shade in some portion of the square and ask students to estimate what percentage of the square they think is shaded. After students have made an estimate, give them a transparency copy of Student Page 15 to place over the shaded square. They can now count the squares that are shaded or not shaded in order to check the accuracy of their estimates. Shade in a square: Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 32
Place transparency over shaded square to check estimates:
Try the estimation of the percentage shaded problem a few times with different shaded squares.
Parking Lot Problem

1. Help the owner of a store figure out whether to expand her parking lot, whether to leave it the same size, or whether to make it smaller.
Give students a copy of Student Page 16: Parking Lot and explain the following situation to them:
The store owner wants to check how much of the parking lot is filled with cars at various points in the day so that she can decide whether it is close to full and should be expanded, close to empty and should be made smaller, or somewhere in-between. Look at the pictures that the store owner took of the parking lot at three different times of day, and make a chart for her that shows the percentage of the lot that is full at each time of day. Also write your recommendation for what the owner should do with the parking lot (how many spots should be in the parking lot) and why you would make that recommendation. Finally, have fill some more cars into each of the parking lot pictures to make one parking lot
that is 45% full, one that is 55% full, and one that is 80% full.
Give students some percentages of percentages problems to figure out, such as the following: What percentage of a pie would you be eating if you
had 35% of 80% of a pie? If the adults used 50% of the 10 tickets to a movie, and the children used 50% of the 10 tickets to a movie, what percentage of the childrens tickets did one child use? If during a half-hour television program, 30% of the time is used for advertisements, and 50% of those advertisements are for toys, then what percentage of the total half-hour is used for toy advertisements?
Ask students to make up their own word problems that involve percentages. Give students more estimation of percentage problems like the ones in found in this activity, but spread the shaded part of the square out over the grid more.
Fraction, Decimal, and Percent Equivalents

Mathematical Focus
8 Conversions from fractions to decimals to percents 8 Representations of fractions, decimals, and percents This activity gives students the chance to examine the relationship between fractions, decimals, and percents. Students begin by constructing a fraction, decimal, and percent converter, which shows how fractions, decimals, and percentages can be compared. Students use this converter as a reference, moving from its construction to an examination of fractions, decimals, and percents on a number line. Students then play a game to practice conversions between fractions, decimals, and percents. Throughout this activity, students build an understanding of fractions, decimals, and percents.

8 Student Page 17: Conversion Table 8 Student Page 18: Concentration Cards 8 Pennies or counters, 100
Fraction, Decimal, and Percent Converter

1. Fill in the first and last rows of a Conversion Table with the appropriate fractions, decimals, and percentages.
One way students could think about the conversion table (found on Student Page 17) is as a measuring stick for a glass of water. If they place the conversion table in a glass that is filled all the way to the top with water, then it is 100% full. If there is no water in the glass, then it is 0% full. Ask students to write 100% at the top of the percentage column of the conversion table, 1.00 at the top of the decimal column, and 10/10=1 at the top of the fraction column. Students should then write 0 at the bottom of the percentage columns, 0.00 at the bottom of the decimal column, and 0 at the bottom of the fraction column. Percent 100% 90% ? ? ? ? ? 30% 20% ? 0% Decimal 1.00 ? ? 0.70 ? ? 0.40 ? ? 0.10 0.00 Fraction 10/10 = 1 ? 8/10 ? 6/10 ? ? ? ? ? 0
2. Fill in the middle row of the Conversion Table.

Ask: What percentage of the glass would be full, what fraction of the glass would be full, and what decimal portion of the glass would be full if the water came to this height? [pointing at the middle]
3. Fill in the rest of the Conversion Table.

Continue to point at different points along the conversion table and ask students to fill in the columns for percent, decimal, and fractions at these points, based on whatever fractions, decimals, and percents are already written. Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 36
4. Find equivalent fractions for the fractions you have written in the Conversion Table.
Out of 100
1. Record the fraction of pennies that are located on each of three sheets of paper.
Divide 100 pennies or other objects into three groups (the groups do not have to be equal in size) and place each group on a piece or paper (labeled A, B, and C). Students may refer to the conversion table they made earlier if they have trouble with this or the following questions. For example, in the picture below: A = 40/100 of the pennies; B = 50/100 of the pennies; and C = 10/100 of the pennies.
2. Reduce the fractions to lowest terms, if possible.

In the example above, A can be reduced to 2/5, B can be reduced to 1/2, and C can be reduced to 1/10.
3. Convert the fractions for each piece of paper to a decimal, and write the number of pennies on each sheet of paper as a percentage of the total number.
In the example above, A is 0.4 or 40%, B is 0.5 or 50%, and C is 0.1 or 10%.
4. Find the new fraction, decimal portion, and percentage of pennies on each sheet.
Regroup the pennies on the three sheets of paper and ask students to record the fractions, decimal portions, and percentages on each piece.
5. Divide the pennies amongst the sheets to represent given fractions, decimals, or percents.
Tell students what fractions, decimal portion, or percentages of the pennies are on each sheet (e.g., 1/3, 1/6, and ) and ask them to divide Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 37
group the pennies according to those portions. Students should write the portions in all formsas decimals, fractions, and percentages.
Fraction/Decimal/Percentage Concentration
Goal: To have the most cards at the end of the game. Players: 2 or more Materials: Concentration cards (Student Page 18) Instructions: Place Concentration Cards face down and spread out on a table. Players alternate turns. During a turn, a player: Flips over two cards Examines the cards to decide whether the two cards represent the same numeric value of a unit (a pie, a pizza, a 100-grid, or anything) Explains why he or she thinks the two cards have the same value or why one is bigger than the other Keeps the cards if they are the same, turns them back over if they are different sizes Play continues until all of the cards have been removed from the table. The winner is the player with the most cards at the end of the game.
Discuss with students how fractions, decimals, and percentages are commonly used. Brainstorm together examples of situations where one would most commonly use fractions, where one would most commonly use decimals, and where one would most commonly use percentages. Give students problems that mix fractions, decimals, and percentages, so that they have to decide to either convert all numbers to one type of representation, or think conceptually about how to use the different representations together. An example problem is: It took a man 12.6 minutes to run a race. For 1/3 of that time he was running up or down hills in the racecourse. Of the time that he spent running on hills 30% was spent running down hills. How much time did he spend running down hills? Ask students to make up their own problems that use fractions, decimals, and percents.
Problem-Solving with Fractions, Decimals, and Percents

Mathematical Focus
8 Fractions, decimals, and percents 8 Operations with decimals This activity gives students the chance to try out their skills in working with fractions, decimals, and percents in a few problem-solving situations. Students start by planning out the use of floor space in a classroom to practice the concept of using fractions, decimals, and percents to represent portions of space. The rest of the activity is devoted to practice using fractions, decimals, and percents to operate on numbers through situations of bargain hunting and calculating taxes and tips.

8 Student Page 19: The Classroom 8 Student Page 20: Bargain Hunt 8 A restaurant menu Cut out cards from Student Page 20: Bargain Hunt ahead of time.
Classroom Floor Plan on a 100-Grid

1. Make a chart to show what fraction, decimal portion, and percentage of classroom space is taken up by various pieces of furniture in The Classroom (Student Page 19).
Students should make their charts with one column for the name of the type of furniture, and three other columns where the portion of the space in the room that will be taken up can be recorded as a fraction, a decimal, and a percentage. Make sure that students understand that all of the floor space in the classroom could be thought of as 100% of the classroom, or 1.0 floors, or 1/1 floors. When they talk about portions of the floor space in the classroom, they will be talking about some percentage of the space, or a decimal or fraction representation of the portion of 1 whole floor.
2. Shade given pieces of furniture into the floor plan of The Classroom (Student Page 19) and record the fraction, decimal portion, and percentage of space used.
Have students shade the following pieces of furniture into the floor plan, recording the portion of space used. Sink, 4 blocks of space Teachers table, 10 blocks of space
3. Figure out what percentage of the space, what fraction of the space, and what decimal portion of the space is taken up so far. 4. Brainstorm other pieces of furniture that should be marked off in the classroom.
Each new area of the classroom that they designate for a piece of furniture should be shaded in, labeled, and marked on the chart that shows the portion of space that is used. Periodically ask students to calculate how much space is being used up in total.
5. Think about questions referring to all the furniture in the classroom.

What percentage of the space is taken up by furniture? What percentage of the space is left open?
What fraction of the space is taken up by furniture? Represent this as a decimal as well. What fraction of the space is left open? Represent this as a decimal as well.
Fractions, Percentages, and Decimals with Money

Shopping for Bargains Game
Goal: To have the most cards at the end of the game. Players: 2 or more Materials: Bargain Hunt Cards (Student Page 20) Instructions: Deal out all of the Bargain Hunt Cards so that each player has an equal number of cards. Play begins with each player turning over the top card in his or her pile. All players should discuss which card shows the best bargain for buying a shirt, and whoever has the best bargain gets to keep all of the cards on the table. That player should place all of the cards that he or she just won at the bottom of his or her own pile. Play continues with each round consisting of everyone playing the next card in his or her pile and the player who played the best bargain keeping all of the turned over cards. If two players turn over bargains that are equivalent, then each of those two players lays two cards face down and another card face up, and the best of these two new bargains wins all the cards on the table. The game ends when one player runs out of cards or when some predetermined time limit has been reached, and the winner is the player with the most cards.
1. Estimate what restaurant order will come to less than $10 including tax and tip, then check your estimate.
Show students a copy of a menu (that they brought in, that you brought in, or that you created). Ask them to estimate what foods they could order without exceeding the limit. Then have them determine what their total bill would come to with tax and tip.
Students may need a reminder about how to work with percents as they calculate the tax and tip. Explain that they can convert the percent to a fraction out of 100 or make it into a decimal by moving a decimal point two places to the left (for example 8% would be 8/100 or .08). Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 41
2. Consider variations of the question about your order.

Ask questions such as: If the tax is 6%, what will the total bill come to? If you want to leave a 20% tip, what will the total bill
be? If you add in a glass of milk for $0.95, how will the total bill change? What is the 6% tax on this glass of milk? What is the total tax? If three people ordered this same meal, what would the total bill be? If you have a coupon for 10% off the cost of the meal (before tax and tip), then what will your total bill be?
3. Compare tips and taxes for two different meals.

Ask students to pick out two different meals they could order and to explain how they would calculate the tax and tip for each. Also ask them to calculate the total bill with and without tip if both meals are ordered together.
4. Figure out which meals would result in particular tax amounts or tip amounts.
If the tax rate is 5% and the tax amount is $0.40 then what was the cost of the meal without tax or tip?
What would the cost of a meal without tax be if the tip was $1.50 and this represented 15% of the cost of the meal? What would the tax on that same meal be if it is 5% of the cost of the meal? What would the total cost of that meal be, including tax and tip?
5. Answer questions about tax, tip, and meal cost by making and filling out a chart with columns for cost of meal, 5% tax amount, 15% tip amount, and total cost of meal.
For each new row in the chart, start out by telling students what number would go in one of the columns (what the cost of the meal was, what the tax was, what the tip was, or what the total cost was) and then having them figure out what amounts would go in all of the other columns.
Cost of Meal
5% Tax $0.50 ? ? $0.45 $0.36 ? ? ? ? $0.26 ? ? ?
15% Tip $1.50 ? $0.90 ? ? $1.80 ? ? ? ? ? $1.23 ?
Total Cost $12 ? ? ? ? ? $13.20 ? ? ? $11.40 ? $18
$10 $8 ? ? ? ? ? $15.50 $5.70 ? ? ? ?
6. Figure out what meal could be ordered that would get you as close as possible to spending specified amounts without going over the specified amount.

What meal would you order to spend as close to $15 as possible if there is a 5% tax and a 15% tip? What meal would you order to spend close to $10? What meal would get you close to $10 with a 6% tax and 20% tip? What meal would get you close to $12 with an 8% tax and 15% tip? How much money would you need to order the one item on the menu that is most expensive with a 5% tax and 15% tip? With a 7% tax and 20% tip?
Ask students to make up their own word problems that involve fractions, decimals, and percents. Ask students to explain how fractions, decimals, and/or percents are involved in the problem, and the process that would be needed to solve the problems. If there are multiple students, or if you have made up some problems as well, then trade papers and solve each others story problems.
Proportional Reasoning and Rates

Mathematical Focus
8 Proportional Reasoning 8 Rates Students use different types of rate problems to develop their proportional reasoning skills. During this activity, students will examine problems about food prices, apple-picking speeds, and telephone company rates. Students will have the opportunity to think about how different components of each problem, such as cost and number of items or time and number of apples, will grow in proportion to each other. They will also be given the opportunity to think backwards about how the different components would shrink in proportion to each other to maintain the same rates. Throughout this activity students thinking will be concentrated on the proportionality of different factors that affect rates.

8 8 8 8 Student Page 21: Student Page 22: Student Page 23: Student Page 24: Catie and Carls Corner Store Apple Rate Cards Phone Rates Phone Cards
Cut out Apple Rate Cards and Phone Cards (Student Pages 22 and 24) ahead of time.
Rates
1. Find the most and least expensive items in Catie and Carls Corner Store (Student Page 21).
Students should be looking at the cost for one of each item.
2. Fill in the chart on Student Page 21 to show the cost of buying different numbers of each type of item.
Students should start by filling in the space in the chart that corresponds to the prices given on the student page (if it is not already filled in), and then work from there to fill in the rest of the chart.
Comparing Rates
1. Add new products to the charts on Student Page 21.
Tell students that the store has Grand Slam candy bars which are 6 for $2.22 and Nuts Galore candy bars which are 2 for $0.70. Ask students to make a chart that shows how much it would cost for each of these types of candy bars if any number were purchased between 1 and 6. Ask: Which kind of candy bar is a better deal to buy? Have students complete a similar chart for doughnuts. Doughnuts can be bought in Catie and Carls Corner Store at the price of $0.50 per doughnut, or you can buy 12 doughnuts for $5.50. Students should fill out the chart for the two different doughnut prices for the numbers 1 through 12 and then determine how much money is saved by buying 12 doughnuts at the price per dozen. Explain that energy bars are on sale at Catie and Carls Corner Store at the rate of 3 for $0.80. Ask students to make a chart that shows how much 6 energy bars, 9 energy bars, or 7 energy bars would cost.
Apple-Picking Rates Game

Goal: To have the most pairs of cards on the table at the end of the game. Players: 2 or more Materials: Apple Rate Cards (Student Page 22) Instructions: Deal out 5 Apple Rate cards to each player. Place the remainder of the cards face down in a pile. Each card tells how many apples a particular person picked in a certain amount of time. Each Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 45
players job in this game is going to involve translating the number of apples picked in a certain amount of time on each card into the rate of apples picked per hour for each card. If necessary, review with students the process of finding this rate before playing. Player 1 picks one of the cards in his or her hand and asks one of the other players for a card that shows an apple picker who picked apples at the same rate as the apple picker on his or her card. For example, if player 1 is holding a card that says picked 45 apples in 20 minutes, then player 1 could ask player 2, Do you have an apple picker who picks apples at the rate of 135 apples per hour? If player 2 has an apple picker who picks apples at this rate, then he or she gives that card to player 1 who places the pair down on the table, and player 1 gets to take another turn. If player 2 does not have an apple picker who picks apples at this rate, then he or she says, Pick one! Player 1 draws a card from the pile to add to his or her hand, and it is the next players turn. However, if the card that player 1 drew made a pair with one of player 1s cards, player 1 plays that pair down on the table and continues his or her turn. Play ends when one player runs out of cards. The player with the most pairs on the table at this point wins the game. However, each player must be able to explain how each of the pairs really is a match, with equal rates on the two cards.
Telephone rates
1. Create a chart showing monthly fees and rates for a list of phone companies based on the information on Student Page 23.
Students charts should show the name of each phone company, any monthly fees that the company charges, and the amount per minute which the phone company charges.
2. Determine what kind of calling habits would make each of the plans the most economical choice.
For instance, a person who makes many calls during the day would not want a plan that charges expensive rates during the day and cheap rates at night. Students should explain the situation where each plan would work best and write a quick version of their explanations in a column that they add to their chart.
Telephone Plan Finder.

Goal: To have the most cards at the end of the game. Players: 2 or more Materials: Phone Rates (Student Page 23), Phone Cards (Student Page 24) Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 46
Instructions: Place the pile of Phone Cards face down on the table. Players take turns drawing a card from the pile and then identifying under which plan from Student Page 23 someone could have had the charge that is shown on the card. If a player chooses the correct plan and explains why that charge matches with that plan and what their thinking process was, then that player gets to keep the card. If not, the card goes back to the bottom of the pile. Play continues until all of the cards are gone from the pile, and the player with the most cards at this point wins.
Ask students to figure out their own rates by using a stopwatch or a clock with a second hand to time how long it takes to complete some task. Have students make a chart to show how much time it would take to complete the task different numbers of times. Ask students to create questions that they could ask other students about their rates for completing this task. Repeat the activity with other tasks. Play Pass the Rate. Each player creates four rate cards by writing a rate (e.g., 2:1) or a story that represents the rate (e.g., There is a baseball player who hits 2 homeruns in every 1 game) on four index cards. All four rate cards that each player creates should represent the same rate (e.g., if the first card had the ratio 3:5, the other three cards could represent 6:10, 15:25, and 3:5). Some ideas of what players could write on their cards include the following: There is a type of orange with 12 seeds per orange (12:1) There are 16 ounces in every cup (16:1) There are 3 classes in every 5 rooms at the museum (or 3:5) Everyones cards should be mixed in together, then dealt out evenly to all players. Players sit in a circle, and every player passes one card from his or her hand to the player on his or her right. Players continue to pass one card at a time to the player on their right, at the same time collecting cards from the player on their left. The object is to collect cards that represent the same ratio. A player does not need to collect cards that represent the ratio that he or she created. The first player that can show that he or she holds cards that all represent the same ratio wins.
Proportional Reasoning and Mixtures

Mathematical Focus
8 Proportional reasoning 8 Mixtures and their components Students will develop skills in proportional reasoning by comparing different kinds of mixtures. This process will include a consideration of recipes and how the amounts of various ingredients would change for a different flavor combination or for a different number of servings, and a study of mixtures of shapes.

8 Student Page 25: Shape Cards 8 A die Cut out Shape Cards (Student Page 25) ahead of time
Fluffy Buttermilk Pancakes

1. Figure out the amount of each ingredient needed to make different numbers of servings of pancakes.
Create a chart like the one below and show it to students. Point out that the chart shows the recipe for making 4 servings of pancakes. Servings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 20 Flour
Eggs
Buttermilk
Oil
2 cups
1 cups
4 Tbs.
Have students fill out the corresponding rows in the chart as you ask:
How much of each ingredient would be needed to double the recipe, so that it would serve 8 people? How much of each ingredient would be needed if the recipe was cut in half? How many people would this serve? How does the amount of each ingredient change as you change the number of people that the recipe serves?
Explain your thinking.
2. Answer questions about the pancake recipe as you fill out more of the chart.
Ask students: How many people would the pancake recipe serve if it
included 3 eggs?
How much buttermilk would be needed to serve 3 people with pancakes? How much of each of the other ingredients would you need if you were using 6 eggs, and how many people would this batch of pancakes serve? To make batches that serve certain numbers of people, a fraction of an egg would be involved in the recipe. What numbers of servings that are listed on the chart fit that category? To make 6 servings of pancakes, how many of each ingredient would you need to use? Fill in the rest of the chart that is still empty to show how much of each ingredient you would need to serve for different numbers of people.
3. Examine the effects of changing the pancake recipe on the ingredients needed for different numbers of servings.
Explain to students that another recipe for fluffy buttermilk pancakes uses more buttermilk to change the consistency of the pancakes. For this recipe, 4 servings of pancakes would be made from 2 cups flour, 2 eggs, 2 cups buttermilk, and 4 tablespoons of oil. Point out to students that the recipe is the same except that more buttermilk is used. Ask:
How is the ratio of ingredients different in this recipe than in the last? What will happen with this recipe as the number of servings changes? Will it change in the same way that the other recipe did? Make a new chart that shows how much of each of the ingredients you would need for this recipe with different numbers of servings.
4. Create a trail mix recipe by determining the amount of ingredients such as peanuts, raisins, chocolate chips, and pretzels you would like to include.
Students should start by figuring out how much of each of these ingredients (or other ingredients of their choosing) would be needed to make enough trail mix to serve three people. When students have made their recipes, ask them to each make a chart that shows the proportion of the different ingredients to each other.
5. Determine how much of each of the trail mix ingredients would be needed for different numbers of servings.
Have students make a chart that shows the amount of each of the ingredients that would be needed to serve various numbers of people. Finally, have students come up with some questions that they could ask other students about the trail mix and what would happen if proportions were to change or number of people served were to change.
Shape Groups
1. Draw a set of 10 shapes, where all the shapes are squares, triangles, and circles.
For example, a student could draw 3 triangles, 4 squares, and 3 circles on his or her paper. Explain that each student may decide how many triangles, how many squares, and how many circles to draw, as long as the total number of shapes is ten.
2. Answer questions about your group of shapes.

Ask:
What is the proportion of squares to triangles to circles in your drawing? What is the proportion of triangles to total shapes? What is the proportion of circles to total shapes? What is the proportion of squares to total shapes?
If students are having trouble figuring out what the proportions would be, explain that they need to count the number of each type of shape, and compare how the numbers of each of the shapes (or of the total number of shapes) relate to each other. For example, if someone drew 3 squares, 5 triangles, and 2 circles, then the proportion of squares to triangles to circles would be 3 squares to 5 triangles to 2 circles, and the proportion of each type to the total would be 3:10, 5:10, and 2:10. When students have the idea of how the numbers of shapes in their original pictures relate to each other, ask them questions about how many of each of the shapes there would be in bigger or smaller groupings. In each case, the shapes remain in the same proportion to one another. If you had a group of 20 shapes, how many squares
would you have? How many circles? How many triangles? Explain how you figured this out.
If you had a group of 5 shapes, how many of each type of shape would you have? Would you have to have any fractions of shapes? Explain your thinking. Make a chart that shows how many of each type of shape you would have for 6 other total groupings of shapes. Explain as you make the chart how you figure out how many of each type of shape there would be.
Shape Ratios
Goal: To be the first to have a set of shape cards in the ratio determined at the beginning of the game. Players: 2 or more Materials: A die; a sheet of paper for each player; A set of Shape Cards from Student Page 25 Instructions: Roll a die three times. These three numbers represent the proportional relationship between squares, triangles, and circles that will be the goal in this game. So if a 3, then a 5, then a 1 are rolled, everyone should write at the top of his or her paper: 3 squares to 5 triangles to 1 circle. The goal of the game is to create a pile of shape cards that achieve this ratio. Place the pile of Shape Cards face down on the table. Ask students to take turns drawing a card from the top of the pile (you can participate too). Each time a player takes a card from the pile, he or she draws the shape on the card onto his or her sheet of paper. The student then explains what the proportional relationships between the numbers of each kind of shape is on his or her paper. The winner is the first player to reach a mixture of shapes on his or her paper that is in the same proportion as the goal (the numbers written at the top of everyones paper). In order to win, that player must explain how his or her mixture is in the same proportion as the goal. For example, if the player has 6 squares, 10 triangles, and 2 circles, he or she must explain how this is in the same proportion as the goal of 3:5:1 (if that was the goal).
Show students the following recipe for 12 servings of Three Alarm Bean Salad: Ingredients: Kidney beans 2 cups Chickpeas 2 cups Wax beans 2 cups Chile Peppers 1 tablespoon for one alarm salad 2 tablespoons for two alarm salad 3 tablespoons for three alarm salad Ask students questions such as the following: Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 71
How many total cups of beans will be in the salad? What is the proportion of chile peppers to beans in a one alarm salad? In a two alarm salad? In a three alarm salad? By looking at the proportions, which salad will be the hottest, and how can you tell? How much of each ingredient would you need if you wanted a two alarm salad to serve 5 people? How much of each ingredient would you need if you wanted a three alarm salad to serve 30 people? How much of each ingredient would you need if you wanted a one alarm salad to serve 25 people? What would be the proportion of chile peppers to wax beans if you created a six alarm salad?
Place a clear plastic cup of water and another cup of blue water (water plus 3 drops of blue food coloring) on a piece of paper labeled A, and place 3 cups of water and 1 cup of blue water on a piece of paper labeled B. Ask students what would happen if you poured both of the A cups into one bowl, and all of the B cups into another bowl. Ask: Which bowl would have darker blue water? Why? How do you write the ratio of blue water to clear water in each bowl? [A is 1 blue to 1 clear (1:1). B is 1 blue to 3 clear (or 1:3).] For each set of combinations of blue water and clear water listed below, ask students to predict which bowl will contain a more strongly blue mixture and to explain their predictions. Students should keep a chart showing the proportion of blue water to clear water in each mixture. The chart can be used to show why one mixture is more blue. 2 blue and 1 clear on A versus 1 blue and 1 clear on B 3 blue and 1 clear on A versus 2 blue and 1 clear on B 3 blue and 1 clear on A versus 3 blue and 2 clear on B 1 blue and 1 clear on A versus 2 blue and 2 clear on B
Fraction-of-a-Set Cards
1/2 of 10 1/2 of 12 1/2 of 16 1/2 of 18 1/2 of 20 1/2 of 24
1/2 of 30
1/2 of 36
1/2 of 40
1/3 of 9
1/3 of 12
1/3 of 15
1/3 of 18
1/3 of 24
1/3 of 30
1/3 of 36
1/4 of 12
1/4 of 16
1/4 of 20
1/4 of 24
1/4 of 36
1/4 of 40
1/5 of 5
1/5 of 10
1/5 of 15
1/5 of 20
1/5 of 25
1/5 of 30
1/5 of 40
2/3 of 12
2/3 of 15
2/3 of 18
2/3 of 24
2/3 of 30
2/3 of 36
2/4 of 12
2/4 of 16
2/4 of 20
2/4 of 24
2/4 of 36
2/4 of 40
2/5 of 10
2/5 of 15
2/5 of 20
2/5 of 25
2/5 of 30
2/5 of 40
3/4 of 12
3/4 of 16
3/4 of 20
3/4 of 24
3/4 of 36
3/4 of 40
3/5 of 10
3/5 of 15
3/5 of 20
3/5 of 25
3/5 of 30
3/5 of 40
4/5 of 10
4/5 of 15
4/5 of 20
4/5 of 25
4/5 of 30
4/5 of 40
Fraction-of-a-Set Chart
10
12
15
16
18
20
24
25
30
36
40
1/2 of 1/3 of 1/4 of 1/5 of 2/3 of 2/4 of 2/5 of 3/4 of 3/5 of 4/5 of
Game Boards
Game Board 1
2 9 30 6
Game Board 2
5 24 12 15
10 6 8 5
3 18 20 4
8 18 16 10
5 6 20 9
12 2 3 4
6 15 10 32
Fraction Strips
1/3 1/5 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/15 1/12 1/15 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/15 1/5 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/5 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/12 1/15 1/8 1/9 1/3 1/5
1/3 1/5 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15 1/15 1/12 1/15 1/6 1/8 1/9 1/10 1/12 1/15
1/10
Fraction Match Cards

1 2
2 4
3 6
4 8
5 10
6 12
1 3
2 6
3 9
4 12
5 15
1 4
2 8
3 12
1 5
2 10
3 15
1 6
2 12
2 3
4 6
6 9
8 12
10 15
3 4
6 8
9 12
2 5
4 10
6 15
Close to 1 Score Card

Round 1 Round 2 Round 3 Round 4 Round 5 Round 6
Round 7
Round 8
Round 9
Round 10
Round 11
Round 12
Number Line (tenths)
Decimal Cards
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5
.6
.7
.8
.9
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
.15
.25
.45
.50
.65
.707
.025
.800
.008
.080
.005
.091
.001
.75
.076
.14
.95
.002
.024
.303
.333
.101
.21
.66
.404
.044
.590
In the Range
Starting Number: .4 Target Range: .10-20 Multiplier Product
Starting Number: 1.5 Target Range: .02-.03 Multiplier Product
Starting Number: Target Range: Multiplier Product
Four-in-a-Row Cards
A Cards Cut out each card below and write the letter A on the back of each card.
1.1
2.3
4.5
6.7
8.8
9.1
B Cards
Cut out each card below and write the letter B on the back of each card.
.1
.2
.5
.01
.03
.05
Four-in-a-Row Boards
Game Board 1
1.82 3.35 .264 .33
.46 .88 2.25
.355 1.76 .11
.045 .069 .088 .55
.455 .225
Game Board 2
.91 .011 .067
.273 .45 .115
.135 .9 .264
4.4 .055 .22
1.34
.023
.091
1.76
Hotel Switchboard
Room 1 Room 2 Room 3 Room 4 Room 5 Room 6 Room 7 Room 8 Room 9 Room 10 Room 20 Room 30 Room 40 Room 50 Room 60 Room 70 Room 80
Room 11 Room 21 Room 31 Room 41 Room 51 Room 61 Room 71
Room 81 Room 91
Room 82 Room 92
Room 83 Room 93
Room 84 Room 94
Room 85 Room 95
Room 86 Room 96
Room 87 Room 97
Room 88 Room 98
Room 89 Room 99
Room 90 Room 100
100-Grid Cards I
95%
20%
75%
67%
3%
58%
100-Grid Cards II
99%
45%
32%
15%
84%
50%
100 Grid
Parking Lot
Parking Lot at 9:00 a.m.
Parking Lot at 12:00 p.m.
Parking Lot at 5:00 p.m.
Conversion Table
Percent
Decimal Fraction
90%
0.8
70/100 = 7/10
0.6
40%
30%
20/100 = 2/10 = 1/5 0.1
Concentration Cards
89/89 3/4 20% 1.0 75% 0.2
4/5 55%
10% 1/2
3/10 20/80
18/20 10/25 60% 80% 0.55 0.9 0.1 0.5 40% 30% 25% 0.6
The Classroom
Bargain Hunt
2 shirt s for $20 20% mar kdow Just $50 for 5 shirt $6 off the $70 25% off the orig inal Buy one at $48, t Was $30, now half off 1/3 off the $36
2 shirt s for $20
2 shirt s for $20
2 shirt s for $20
2 shirt s for $20
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shirt s for
2 shir ts
Catie and Carls Corner Store

Item
Lollipops Doughnuts Tacos Soda Chips Oranges Pretzels Number of Lollipops Cost Number of Doughnuts Cost Number of Tacos Cost Number of Cans of Soda Cost Number of Bags of Chips Cost Number of Oranges Cost Number of Bags of Pretzels Cost 1 $0.20 1 3 6 12 2 3 4 5
Cost
$0.20 each $0.50 each $1.25 each $3.60 for 6 cans $0.48 per bag 5 for $2.00 3 bags for $1.50 6
6 $3.60
16
32
10
Apple Rate Cards

Picked 80 apples in 2 hours Picked 8 apples in 12 minutes Picked 200 apples in 4 hours Picked 150 apples in 3 hours
Picked 1 apple every 2 minutes
Picked 60 apples in 2 hours
Picked 1 apple every 5 minutes
Picked 5 apples in 5 minutes
Picked 150 apples in 2 and hours
Picked 8 apples in 20 minutes
Picked 56 apples in 2 and 1/3 hours
Picked 60 apples in 1 hour and 20 minutes Picked 180 apples in 1.5 hours
Picked 54 apples in 1 hour and 12 minutes Picked 30 apples in 15 minutes
Picked 78 apples in 1 hours and 12 minutes Picked 40 apples in a half hour
Picked 100 apples in 1 hour and 15 minutes
Phone Rates
Phone Company A $25 per month unlimited free calling Phone Company B No monthly fee $0.07 per minute for all calls
Phone Company C No monthly fee $0.16 per minute during daytime hours (9am to 5 pm) $0.04 per minute during nighttime hours (5 pm to 9 am)
Phone Company D $5 per month $0.05 per minute for all calls
Phone Company E No monthly fee $0.05 per minute Monday through Friday $0.15 per minute Saturday and Sunday
Phone Company F $0.07 per minute for all calls or $26 for the month, whichever is less
Phone Cards
No cost for a 3 minute phone call, but $25 for the month $50 owed for two months no matter how many calls were made No calls made during the month of January because on vacation, but $25 due Bill for the month is for twenty 5 minute calls and the total cost is $7.00
$0.49 for a 7 minute call made at 3 p.m. on a Friday
$0.35 for a 5 minute call made on a Saturday
Two calls are made on Monday, one at 3 pm for 5 minutes and one at 6 pm for i h Only 1 call was made during the month, for 30 minutes. The total bill was $6.50
A 10 minute call during the day cost $1.60
There is no monthly fee, but all of this persons calls were charged at $0.16 (she did k The minimum charge for the month is $5.00
Calls made any time were charge $0.05 per minute
A call that costs $0.50 on a Friday would cost 3 times as much the next day
2 calls were made on Saturday, and the total cost for the 20 minutes of calling time $ 6 hours and 12 minutes of talking costs the same amount as talking for 12 hours. What
On Thursday at 6 p.m., a 40 minute call cost $2.00. What two plans does this charge ih 10 minutes of calls for the month costs only $0.70. Which two plans satisfy
The maximum charge for this Grades 6-8 Number and Operation, plan is $26 per 100 month
Pancakes
Servings 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 12 20
Flour
Eggs
Buttermilk
Oil
2 cups
1 cups
4 Tbs.
Shape Cards

6-8 Number and Operation

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6-8 Number and Operation

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Number and Operation

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8

Preparation and Materials

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 2

Fractional Parts of a Whole

2. Compare fractions of same-size wholes.

Write the following statement:

____ < 2/3 <

3/4 < ____

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 3

3. Compare fractions of different-size wholes.

Fractional Parts of a Set

1/5 of 20 < 1/4 of 20

2. Look for fractions of a set of 24 pens.

3. Compare fractions of different-size sets.

4. Compare the sizes on Fraction-of-a-Set cards (Student Page 1).

5. Fill in the Fraction-of-a-Set chart (Student Page 2).

7. Describe patterns on the Fraction-of-a-Set chart (Student Page 2).

8. Compare rows that contain fractions with the same denominators.

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 8

Preparation and Materials

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 9

Use Fraction Strips to Find Equivalent Fractions

What is the name in sixths of a fraction equivalent to 1/2? Write: 1 = 2 ?_ 6

What is the name in sixths of a fraction equivalent to 2/4? 2 4 = ?_ 6

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 10

1/3 1/6 1/9 1/9 1/6 1/9 1/6 1/9

1/3 1/9 1/6 1/9

How many fourths in 3 wholes?

2. Find more equivalent fractions.

Equivalent Fractions without strips

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 11

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 13

Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Preparation and Materials

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 14

Adding and Subtracting Fractions

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 17

Preparation and Materials

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 18

Decimals Between 0 and 1

4. Practice reading numbers aloud and writing the equivalent fractions.

5. Compare the size of pairs of decimal numbers.

6. Compare the sizes of sets of 3 decimal cards.

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 22

Operations with Decimals

Preparation and Materials

Cut out Decimal Cards (Student Page 8) ahead of time.

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 23

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 24

2. Develop multiple ways of thinking about multiplication and division of decimals.

3. Try a few more examples.

4. Check the reasonableness of answers to multiplication problems.

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 28

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 29

Exploring Percents (The 100-Grid Model)

Preparation and Materials

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 30

Largest Grid Percentage

Place transparency over shaded square to check estimates:

Parking Lot Problem

Number and Operation, Grades 6-8 34

Fraction, Decimal, and Percent Equivalents