Gas compressor

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport liquids.

Types of compressors
The main types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:

A small hermetically sealed compressor in a common consumer refrigerator or freezer; it typically has a rounded steel outer shell that is permanently welded shut, and which seals operating gases inside the system. There is no route for gases to leak, such as around motor shaft seals. On this model, the plastic top section is part of an auto-defrost system which uses motor heat to evaporate the water.

Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and motor drive is situated in relation to the gas or vapour being compressed. The industry name for a hermetic is hermetically sealed compressor, while a semi- is commonly called a semi-hermetic compressor. In hermetic and most semi-hermetic compressors, the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the pressurized gas envelope of the system. The motor is designed to operate and be cooled by the gas or vapour being compressed.

The difference between the hermetic and semi-hermetic, is that the hermetic uses a one-piece welded steel casing that cannot be opened for repair; if the hermetic fails it is simply replaced with an entire new unit. A semi-hermetic uses a large cast metal shell with gasketed covers that can be opened to replace motor and pump components. The primary advantage of a hermetic and semi-hermetic is that there is no route for the gas to leak out of the system. Open compressors rely on either natural leather or synthetic rubber seals to retain the internal pressure, and these seals require a lubricant such as oil to retain their sealing properties. An open pressurized system such as an automobile air conditioner can leak its operating gases, if it is not operated frequently enough. Open systems rely on lubricant in the system to splash on pump components and seals. If it is not operated frequently enough, the lubricant on the seals slowly evaporates, and then the seals begin to leak until the system is no longer functional and must be recharged. By comparison, a hermetic system can sit unused for years, and can usually be started up again at any time without requiring maintenance or experiencing any loss of system pressure. The disadvantage of hermetic compressors is that the motor drive cannot be repaired or maintained, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down and the gas replaced. Typically hermetic compressors are used in low-cost factory-assembled consumer goods where the cost of repair is high compared to the value of the device, and it would be more economical to just purchase a new device. An advantage of open compressors is that they can be driven by non-electric power sources, such as an internal combustion engine or turbine. However, open compressors that drive refrigeration systems are generally not totally maintenance free throughout the life of the system, since some gas leakage will occur over time. Exactly what is an AC drive?

The word "drive" is used loosely in the industry. It seems that people involved primarily in the world of gear boxes and pulleys refer to any collection of mechanical and electro-mechanical components, which when connected together will move a load, as a "drive". When speaking to these people, an AC drive may be considered by them as the variable frequency inverter and motor combination. It may even include the motor's pulley - I am not sure. People in the electrical field and electrical suppliers usually refer to a variable frequency inverter unit alone, or an SCR power module alone (when discussing DC drives) as the "drive" and the motor as the "motor". Manufacturers of variable frequency drives (VFD) used to refer to the drive as just that, a "variable frequency drive". More manufacturers are referring to their drive as an "adjustable speed AC drive". To make matters worse when a motor is included in the package it may be referred to as an "adjustable speed AC drive system". A variable frequency drive is an adjustable speed drive. Adjustable speed drives include all types; mechanical and electrical. Now is it clear? Don't worry about it. It's not clear to anyone. As you read on, when I refer to the "drive" I am referring to the variable frequency inverter alone.

A little about AC drives The main power components of an AC drive, have to be able to supply the required level of current and voltage in a form the motor can use. The controls have to be able to provide the user with necessary adjustments such as minimum and maximum speed settings, so that the drive can be adapted to the user's process. Spare parts have to be available and the repair manual has to be readable. It's nice if the drive can shut itself down when detecting either an internal or an external problem. It's also nice if the drive components are all packaged in a single enclosure to aid in installation but that's about it.

The paradox facing drive manufacturers today is that as they make their drives easier to use, the amount of training with which they must provide their users increases. This is because as drives become easier to use they are purchased more and more by people of less and less technical capability. As less technical people get involved in drive purchases the number of misapplications goes way up. I call this phenomenon the "dumb trap". (When manufactures discover this phenomenon they simultaneously discover how dumb they've been. Some have not yet discovered it.) Ambiguous Motor Theory The real action in an AC variable frequency drive system is in the motor. This is really where it all happens. To be an AC drive application Wizard (which is several levels higher then Guru) one must understand how motors use electric power. It is essential. I cannot emphasize the importance of this. All loads moved by electric motors are really moved by magnetism. The purpose of every component in a motor is to help harness, control, and use magnetic force. When applying an AC drive system it helps to remember you are actually applying magnets to move a load. To move a load fast does not require more magnets, you just move the magnets fast. To move a heavier load or to decrease acceleration time (accelerate faster) more magnets (more torque) are needed. This is the basis for all motor applications. Where does the real action happen in a AC drive system?

Above is a cross-sectional view a motor rotor and field magnetic core. Looking from the side would look something like a looking at a can:

We can add magnets (and torque) to our drive system by using a motor with a core that is either longer, larger in cross-sectional diameter, or some combination of both. A Side Note About Fishing, Electro-magnets, Current, and Magnetic Conductivity When we go fishing we put bait on a hook and throw it in water knowing that according to generally accepted theory, a hungry fish will sooner or later, bite. Well the truth is we don't know why the fish bite. No one to date, has talked to a fish (well maybe a few people talk to fish). The fact the we get hungry and therefore fish must too, seems like a safe assumption. But it doesn't really matter because we do know that putting bait on a hook will get fish into the boat. Magnetism and electricity are the same way. We have some well accepted theories that we can use to explain how magnets can move our load but no one really knows what magnetism and electricity are (regardless of what they say). When it comes to using magnetic force to move our load, how it works just doesn't matter. We do know that it works. We have even noticed a few peculiar things. We have noticed that when you wrap a coil of wire around a piece of iron and apply electric current the piece of iron becomes magnetic. We call this an electro-magnet.

We have noticed a lot of things about electro-magnets that are very important to the drive application wizard:

After we apply the electric current, the magnet field grows at a finite rate to a finite size. After voltage is applied and full current is reached, which always takes a little time, the field quits growing and becomes a constant size. If we increase the applied voltage the field grows and becomes stronger, decrease the voltage and the field weakens and shrinks. When we remove electric power to the coil the field does not just disappear. It just decreases in size until it does disappear. It collapses over time so to speak. The more current our coil draws (which we can force by increasing the applied voltage

level ) the stronger and larger our magnetic field becomes. I know I said it twice. It's that important. When we increase voltage to our electro-magnet, current will increase directly proportional up to a point. After that point current increases exponentially. THIS IS IMPORTANT! Generally accepted theory says that the iron core or any material, can only conduct a limited amount of magnetic flux. Once that point is reached current can become very high with a very small increase in voltage. This is called magnetic saturation and is sometimes seen in motor applications. Motor life becomes very short when the core reaches saturation - about 15 seconds in some cases. We will look at this and some of the causes later. Some energy is consumed by simply magnetizing the iron core. Different materials consume different amounts of energy. This is usually considered an energy loss. Some energy is converted into heat within the iron core. Different materials convert different amounts of energy. This is also usually considered an energy loss. Once a core is magnetized, demagnetization and reverse polarity re-magnetization consumes more energy and takes quite a long time, relatively speaking. (Remember, an existing field has to collapse over time.) The amount of this loss is proportional to the frequency of polarization reversals. This happens 120 times per second when operating an AC motor at 60 hertz. We will touch on the importance of this later. (Are you beginning to see where all this is going?)

The Magnets Within the Motor and Torque

Motors are designed so that the electromagnets are made as strong as possible with acceptable risk of core saturation. This will maximize the torque capability of the motor but also means that during normal operation every motor may at some point, operate close to saturation. How close a motor runs to saturation depends upon the amount and type of core material used. So naturally, this point varies from manufacturer to manufacturer. There really is a difference in motors and you get what you pay for.

When the voltage applied to a motor is increased current to the electro-magnets increases resulting in higher field strength and increased motor torque output. This is a commonly used technique, especially in AC drive applications. It is a very good way to gain torque capability when needed. This technique can cause higher than normal motor heating resulting in reduced motor life. Close monitoring of the motor is required. Avoid saturating the core.

The motor above is shown with two field coils, one for each magnetic pole. In the industry this would be called a "two pole motor". For simplicity, only one phase is shown. In reality, a 3phase, two pole motor requires six coils, evenly spaced around the core - a minimum of two coils is required, to generate two electro-magnetic poles, for each of the three phases. A coil-ectomy The most widely used AC motor in industry is the 5 horsepower, 1800 RPM, 60 Hz, 3-phase AC motor. (I can't prove this but it might be true.) In order for a motor to run 1800 RPM at 60 Hz it would have to be wound with four magnetic poles.

Important Motor Formula

"Synchronous RPM" is the RPM the motor would run if the rotor did not slip. All AC induction motors slip. ("Synchronous motors", a special kind of induction motor, do not slip- at least least they are not supposed to. Synchronous motors are beyond the scope of this article.) An AC motor referred to, in the industry, as an 1800 RPM motor will be name-plated with a speed of something less, usually around 1735 RPM. This is a typical RPM rating but can be higher or lower. The difference between the synchronous and the actual RPM is called "slip". Adjusting slip is an important technique in AC drive applications. A lot more about slip will come later.

60 HZ x 120 Synchronous RPM = ------------2 Poles = 3600

If you could remove the coils from the above motor without breaking a connection, and lay them side-by-side, this is what you would have. What is shown are three phases: A, B, and C phase connected together (see the arrow) at a "star" or "Y" point. There are other motor connection schemes but this is the most typical:

AC Generator If a magnet is passed along the coils, an electric current is generated in each of the three phases. In fact, there is little difference between AC generator and motor field windings.

The faster you move the magnet the higher the AC output frequency. Variable frequency drives control the frequency electronically. We'll get to more on that later. AC Motor

When an iron core is placed so a moving magnetic field passes through it, a magnet field is generated within the iron core. It takes time to generate a field therefore, the new field reaches peak strength after the peak of the generating field has passed. The rotor is "pulled" by the magnetic field thus producing torque. The magnetic field has to pass through the rotor to generate a rotor field and pull. If the rotor travels at the same speed as the magnetic field, induction into the rotor will cease, the magnetic field will disappear and the rotor will loose its pull and slow down. Pull (torque) is obtained when fields are passed through the rotor in quick succession. Remember though, it takes a long time to generate a field. If the frequency of fields passing through the rotor is too high, effectiveness is lost. If the frequency of the generating field is held constant, and the torque is great enough to move the rotor, the rotor will reach an equilibrium speed where at any higher speed induction and torque are reduced and the rotor slows down. Typical Rotor Typical Stator

Basic Induction and Transformer Theory When an electric current is applied to a conductor a magnetic field builds around that conductor. If another conductor is in close proximity so that the building magnet field "cuts" through that conductor, a current of equal potential is produced with flow in the opposite direction of the original current. This conductor is called the secondary circuit and the principal is called induction.

If the number conductors in the secondary is increased the output potential is increased in direct proportion. The inverse is also true. This is called transformer action. It is because of transformer action that a current is created in the rotor (secondary circuit) of an AC induction motor and a resulting magnetic force, within and around the rotor, is also created. If the magnetic field reaches maximum strength and quits growing, the current flow in the secondary returns to zero regardless of the level of current flow in the primary. In other words, there is a secondary current generated only when the magnetic field is changing state.

Variable-frequency drive
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power supplied to the motor.[1][2][3] A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive. Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variablespeed drives (VSD), AC drives, microdrives or inverter drives. Variable-frequency drives are used in a wide number of applications to control pumps, fans,

hoists, conveyors, and other machinery.

Energy savings

It is estimated that:

60-65% of the USA's grid energy is used to supply motive power loads about 75% of which in turn are variable torque fan, pump and compressor loads[4] About 3% of all AC motors are provided with AC drives[5] 18% of the energy used in the 40 million motors in the U.S. could be saved by efficient energy improvement technologies such as VFDs[6] An energy consumption breakdown of the global population of AC motor installations is as shown in the following table: Global population of motors, 2009[7] Small Power General Purpose - Medium-Size Large 375kW to 100MW 3-ph., 1kV to 20kV 23% 0.6 million

10W to 750W 750W to 375kW 1-ph., <240V 3-ph., 200V to 1kV 68% 230 million

Phase, voltage

% total motor energy 9% Total stock 2 billion

AC motor-driven applications that do not require full speed can save energy by controlling the motor with a variable speed drive. Energy cost saving with variable torque can be significant, often paying for the cost of VFD within a matter of months. In variable torque applications such as fans and blowers, the torque required varies roughly with the square of the speed, and the horsepower required varies roughly with the cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horsepower for even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only 25% as much power at 63% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which define the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower.[8]
Starting torque control

Across-the-line single-speed starters start motors abruptly, subjecting the motor to a high starting torque and to current surges that are up to 8 times the full-load current. Variable speed drives instead gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs, and extending the life of the motor and the driven equipment. Reduced-voltage starting methods also accelerate a motor gradually, but VF drives can be programmed to ramp up the motor much more gradually and smoothly, and can operate the

motor at less than full speed to decrease wear and tear. Variable speed drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimize mechanical and electrical stress. For example, an S-curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for smoother decel/accel control, which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating or decelerating. The following table provides comparisons of the benefits of AC and DC drive technologies.[9]
Criteria Drive complexity Motor complexity Inherent fault protection Lifetime maintenance Brushed DC Drives Low High No (needs fuses) Required (Motor brushes) Low Brushless DC Drives High Low No High Low Yes AC Drives

Low (Bearings) High (Closed loop control)

Low (Bearings) High (Closed loop control)

Control performance

VFD types
Most AC drives can be classified according to one of the following five broad categories:

Variable-voltage inverter (VVI) or 'six-step' drives Voltage-source inverter (VSI) drives Current-source inverter (CSI) drives Cycloconverter or matrix drives Load commutated inverter (LCI) drives.

In a basic VVI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter is smoothed via capacitor bus and series-reactor connection to supply via Darlington Pair or IGBT inverter quasi-sinusoidal, six-step voltage input to the motor. In a basic VSI drive, the DC output of the diode-bridge converter stores energy in the capacitor bus to supply stiff voltage input to the inverter. In a basic CSI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy in series-reactor connection to supply stiff current input to the inverter. A cycloconverter or matrix drive has no AC-to-DC converter and instead connects each output terminal to the appropriate input phase, making up the desired variable-frequency output waveforms by selective commutation from the fixedfrequency input waveforms. In a basic LCI drive, the DC output of the SCR-bridge converter stores energy via DC link inductor circuit to supply stiff quasi-sinesoidal six-step current input to a second SCR-bridge's inverter and an over-excited synchronous machine. Most packaged AC drives are VSI-PWM type using pulse width modulation to control the

motor's frequency in one of a number of operating modes including open-loop Volts-per-Hertz control, field-oriented control (FOC), closed-loop speed control with slip compensation, or direct torque control (DTC), PWM not however being needed or typically used with DTC. AC drives are also often categorized as to torque and power characteristics in terms of the following three main motor load types:

Variable torque load type, such as in fan, pump and blower applications Constant torque load type, such as in conveyor and displacement pump applications Constant power load type, such as in machine tool and traction applications.

It is lastly useful to relate VFDs in terms of the following two classifications

In terms of various AC machines as shown in Table 1 below Given that topology is defined as a map-like diagram showing the elements of an AC drive and the relationships between them, in terms of various low and medium voltage topologies shown in Table 2 below.

System description

VFD system

A variable frequency drive system generally consists of an AC motor, a controller and an operator interface.[14][15]
Motor

The motor used in a VFD system is usually a three-phase induction motor. Some types of singlephase motors can be used, but three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are generally the most economical choice. Motors that are designed for fixedspeed operation are often used. Certain enhancements to the standard motor designs offer higher reliability and better VFD performance, such as MG-31 rated motors.[16]

Controller

Variable frequency drive controllers are solid state electronic power conversion devices. The usual design first converts AC input power to DC intermediate power using a rectifier or converter bridge. The rectifier is usually a three-phase, full-wave diode bridge. The DC intermediate power is then converted to quasi-sinusoidal AC power using an inverter switching circuit. The inverter circuit is probably the most important section of the VFD, changing DC energy into three channels of AC energy that can be used by an AC motor. These units provide improved power factor, less harmonic distortion, and low sensitivity to the incoming phase sequencing than older phase controlled converter VFD's. Since incoming power is converted to DC, many units will accept single-phase as well as three-phase input power (acting as a phase converter as well as a speed controller); however the unit must be derated when using single phase input as only part of the rectifier bridge is carrying the connected load.[17] As new types of semiconductor switches have been introduced, these have promptly been applied to inverter circuits at all voltage and current ratings for which suitable devices are available. Introduced in the 1980s, the insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) became the device used in most VFD inverter circuits in the first decade of the 21st century.[18][19][20] AC motor characteristics require the applied voltage to be proportionally adjusted whenever the frequency is changed in order to deliver the rated torque. For example, if a motor is designed to operate at 460 volts at 60 Hz, the applied voltage must be reduced to 230 volts when the frequency is reduced to 30 Hz. Thus the ratio of volts per hertz must be regulated to a constant value (460/60 = 7.67 V/Hz in this case). For optimum performance, some further voltage adjustment may be necessary especially at low speeds, but constant volts per hertz is the general rule. This ratio can be changed in order to change the torque delivered by the motor.[21] In addition to this simple volts per hertz control more advanced control methods such as vector control and direct torque control (DTC) exist. These methods adjust the motor voltage in such a way that the magnetic flux and mechanical torque of the motor can be precisely controlled. Although space vector pulse-width modulation (PWM) is becoming increasingly popular[22], sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) is the most straightforward method used to vary drives' motor voltage (or current) and frequency. With SPWM control (see Fig. 1), quasi-sinusoidal, variable-pulsewidth output is constructed from intersections of a saw-toothed carrier frequency signal with a modulating variable sinusoidal voltage (or current) and frequency signal.[23][24][25] Operation of the motors above rated name plate speed (base speed) is possible, but is limited to conditions that do not require more power than the nameplate rating of the motor. This is sometimes called "field weakening" and, for AC motors, means operating at less than rated volts/hertz and above rated name plate speed. Permanent magnet synchronous motors have quite limited field weakening speed range due to the constant magnet flux linkage. Wound rotor synchronous motors and induction motors have much wider speed range. For example, a 100 hp, 460 V, 60 Hz, 1775 RPM (4 pole) induction motor supplied with 460 V, 75 Hz (6.134 V/Hz), would be limited to 60/75 = 80% torque at 125% speed (2218.75 RPM) = 100% power.[26] At higher speeds the induction motor torque has to be limited further due to the lowering of the

breakaway torque of the motor. Thus rated power can be typically produced only up to 130...150% of the rated name plate speed. Wound rotor synchronous motors can be run at even higher speeds. In rolling mill drives often 200...300% of the base speed is used. Naturally the mechanical strength of the rotor and the lifetime of the bearings also limit the maximum speed of the motor. Consulting the motor manufacturer is recommended if more than 150% speed is required by the application.

Fig. 1: SPWM Carrier-Sine Input & PWM Output

An embedded microprocessor governs the overall operation of the VFD controller. The main microprocessor programming is in firmware that is inaccessible to the VFD user. However, some degree of configuration programming and parameter adjustment is usually provided so that the user can customize the VFD controller to suit specific motor and driven equipment requirements.[27]
Operator interface

The operator interface provides a means for an operator to start and stop the motor and adjust the operating speed. Additional operator control functions might include reversing, and switching between manual speed adjustment and automatic control from an external process control signal. The operator interface often includes an alphanumeric display and/or indication lights and meters to provide information about the operation of the drive. An operator interface keypad and display unit is often provided on the front of the VFD controller as shown in the photograph above. The keypad display can often be cable-connected and mounted a short distance from the VFD controller. Most are also provided with input and output (I/O) terminals for connecting pushbuttons, switches and other operator interface devices or control signals. A serial communications port is also often available to allow the VFD to be configured, adjusted, monitored and controlled using a computer.[18][28][29]

Operation
When a VFD starts a motor, it initially applies a low frequency and voltage to the motor. The starting frequency is typically 2 Hz or less. Thus starting at such a low frequency avoids the high inrush current that occurs when a motor is started by simply applying the utility (mains) voltage by turning on a switch. After the start of the VFD, the applied frequency and voltage are increased at a controlled rate or ramped up to accelerate the load without drawing excessive

current. This starting method typically allows a motor to develop 150% of its rated torque while the VFD is drawing less than 50% of its rated current from the mains in the low speed range. A VFD can be adjusted to produce a steady 150% starting torque from standstill right up to full speed.[30] Note, however, that cooling of the motor is usually not good in the low speed range. Thus running at low speeds even with rated torque for long periods is not possible due to overheating of the motor. If continuous operation with high torque is required in low speeds an external fan is usually needed. The manufacturer of the motor and/or the VFD should specify the cooling requirements for this mode of operation. In principle, the current on the motor side is in direct proportion to the torque that is generated and the voltage on the motor is in direct proportion of the actual speed, while on the network side, the voltage is constant, thus the current on line side is in direct proportion of the power drawn by the motor, that is U.I or C.N where C is torque and N the speed of the motor (we shall consider losses as well, neglected in this explanation).
1. n stands for network (grid) and m for motor 2. C stands for torque [Nm], U for voltage [V], I for current [A], and N for speed [rad/s]

We neglect losses for the moment:

Un.In = Um.Im (same power drawn from network and from motor) Um.Im = Cm.Nm (motor mechanical power = motor electrical power) Given Un is a constant (network voltage) we conclude: In = Cm.Nm/Un That is "line current (network) is in direct proportion of motor power".

With a VFD, the stopping sequence is just the opposite as the starting sequence. The frequency and voltage applied to the motor are ramped down at a controlled rate. When the frequency approaches zero, the motor is shut off. A small amount of braking torque is available to help decelerate the load a little faster than it would stop if the motor were simply switched off and allowed to coast. Additional braking torque can be obtained by adding a braking circuit (resistor controlled by a transistor) to dissipate the braking energy. With 4-quadrants rectifiers (activefront-end), the VFD is able to brake the load by applying a reverse torque and reverting the energy to the network.

Power line harmonics

While harmonics in PWM wave can easily be filtered by carrier frequency related filter inductance to supply near-sinusoidal currents to the motor load[31], the diode rectifier of the VFD takes non-linear half-phase current pulses out of the AC grid, creating harmonic current distortion, and hence voltage distortion, of the power line input. When the VFD loads are relatively small in comparison to the large, 'stiff' power system available from the utility, the effects of VFD harmonic distortion of the AC grid can often be within acceptable limits. Furthermore, in low voltage networks, harmonics caused by single phase equipment such as computers and TVs are partially cancelled by three-phase diode bridge harmonics because their 5th and 7th harmonics are in counterphase[32].

However, when the total VFD load in one location is large enough, the load can have a negative impact on the AC power waveform available to other utility customers in the same grid. When the utility's voltage becomes distorted due to harmonics, losses in other loads such as normal fixed-speed AC motors are increased. This may in the worst case lead to overheating and shorter operating life. Also substation transformers and compensation capacitors are affected negatively. In particular, capacitors can cause resonance conditions that can unacceptably magnify harmonic levels. In order to limit the voltage distortion, owners of VFD load may be required to install filtering equipment to reduce harmonic distortion below acceptable limits. Alternatively, the utility may adopt a solution by installing filtering equipment of its own at substations affected by the large amount of VFD equipment being used. In high power installations harmonic distortion can be reduced by supplying multi-pulse rectifier-bridge VFDs from transformers with multiple phaseshifted windings.[33] Furthermore, it is possible, instead of the diode rectifier, to use a transistor circuit similar to that which controls the motor. Such rectifiers are referred to by various designations including active infeed converter (AIC), active rectifier, IGBT Supply Unit (ISU), Active Front End (AFE) or four-quadrant operation. With PWM control of the transistors and filter inductors in the lines, the AC current can be made nearly sinusoidal. Even better attenuation of the harmonics can be obtained by using an LCL (inductor-capacitor-inductor) filter instead of single three-phase filter inductor (reference required). An additional advantage of the active infeed converter over the diode bridge is its ability to feed back the energy from the DC side to the AC grid. Thus no braking resistor is needed and the efficiency of the drive is improved if the drive is frequently required to brake the motor.

Application considerations
Long lead effects

The output voltage of a PWM VFD consists of a train of pulses switched at what is called the carrier frequency. Because of the rapid rise time of these pulses, transmission line effects of the cable between the drive and motor must be considered. Since the transmission-line impedance of the cable and motor are different, pulses tend to reflect back from the motor terminals into the cable. The resulting voltages can produce overvoltages equal to 2 times the DC bus voltage or up to 3.1 times the rated line voltage for long cable runs, putting high stress on the cable and motor windings and eventual insulation failure. Note that standards for three-phase motors rated 230 V or less adequately protect against such long lead overvoltages. On 460 or 575 V systems and inverters with 3rd generation 0.1 microsecond rise time IGBTs, the maximum recommended cable distance between VFD and motor is about 50 m or 150 feet. Solutions to overvoltages caused by long lead lengths include minimizing cable distance, lowering carrier frequency, installing dv/dt filters (that decrease the steepness of the pulses), using inverter duty rated motors (that are rated 600 V to withstand pulse trains with rise time less than or equal to 0.1 microsecond, of 1,600 V peak magnitude), and installation of sinewave low pass filters.

Regarding lowering of carrier frequency, note that audible noise is noticeably increased for carrier frequencies less than about 6 kHz and is most noticeable at about 3 kHz. Note also that selection of optimum PWM carrier frequency for AC drives involves balancing noise, heat, motor insulation stress, common mode voltage induced motor bearing current damage, smooth motor operation, and other factors.
Motor bearing currents

Further, PWM drives are inherently associated with high frequency common mode voltages and currents which may cause trouble with motor bearings. When these high frequency voltages find a path to earth through a bearing metal transfer, or electrical discharge machining (EDM), occurs between the bearing's ball and the bearing's race. Over time EDM-based sparking causes erosion in the bearing race that can be seen as a fluting pattern. In large motors, the stray capacitance of the windings provides paths for high frequency currents that pass through the motor shaft ends leading to a ciculating type of bearing current. Poor grounding of motor stators can lead to shaft ground bearing currents. Small motors with poorly grounded driven equipment are susceptible to high frequency bearing currents. Prevention of high frequency bearing current damage typically involves one or more of the following three broad approaches: good cabling and grounding practices, interruption of bearing currents, and filtering or damping of common mode currents. Good cabling and grounding practices can include use of shielded, symmetrical-geometry power cable to supply the motor, installation of shaft grounding brushes, and conductive bearing grease. Ways of interrupting bearing currents include installation of insulated bearings and specially designed electrostatic shielded induction motors. Ways of filtering and damping common mode high frequency bearing currents typically include specially designed filters, lowering of carrier frequency, and using low voltage VFD with 3-level (instead of standard 2-level) inverter topology. Since inverter-fed motor cables' high frequency current spikes can interfere with other cabling in facilities, such inverter-fed motor cables should not only be of shielded, symmetrical-geometry design but should also be routed at least 50 cm away from signal cables.

Available power ratings

Variable frequency drives are available with voltage and current ratings to match the majority of 3-phase motors that are manufactured for operation from utility (mains) power. VFD controllers designed to operate at 110 V to 690 V are often classified as low voltage units. Low voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 0.2 kW or 0.25 horsepower (hp) up to several megawatts. For example, the largest ABB ACS800 single drives are rated for 5.6 MW.[41] Medium voltage VFD controllers are designed to operate at 2,400/4,162 V (60 Hz), 3 kV (50 Hz) or up to 10 kV. In some applications a step up transformer is placed between a low voltage drive and a medium voltage load. Medium voltage units are typically designed for use with motors rated to deliver 375 kW or 500 hp and above. Medium voltage drives rated above 7 kV and 5,000/10,000 hp should probably be considered to be one-of-a-kind (one-off) designs.[42] Medium voltage drives are generally rated amongst the following voltages : 2.3 kV, 3.3 kV,

4 kV, 6 kV, and 11 kV. The in-between voltages are generally possible as well. The power of M.V. drives is generally in the range of 0.3 to 100 MW; this involves a range of several different types of drives using different technologies.

Dynamic braking
Using the motor as a generator to absorb energy from the system is called dynamic braking. Dynamic braking stops the system more quickly than coasting. Since dynamic braking requires that the rotor be moving, it becomes less effective at low speed and cannot be used to hold a load at a stopped position. During normal braking of an electric motor, the electrical energy produced by the motor is dissipated as heat inside of the rotor, which increases the likelihood of damage and eventual failure. Therefore, some systems transfer this energy to an outside bank of resistors. Cooling fans may be used to protect the resistors from damage. Modern systems have thermal monitoring, so if the temperature of the bank becomes excessive, it will be switched off.

Regenerative variable-frequency drives

Regenerative AC drives have the capacity to recover the braking energy of a load moving faster than the designated motor speed (an overhauling load) and return it to the power system.
Line regenerative variable frequency drives, showing capacitors (top cylinders) and inductors attached, which filter the regenerated power.

Cycloconverters and current-source inverters inherently allow return of energy from the load to the line, while voltage-source inverters require an additional converter to return energy to the supply.[43] Regeneration is only useful in variable-frequency drives where the value of the recovered energy is large compared to the extra cost of a regenerative system,[43] and if the system requires frequent braking and starting. An example would be conveyor belt drives for manufacturing, which stop every few minutes. While stopped, parts are assembled correctly; once that is done, the belt moves on. Another example is a crane, where the hoist motor stops and reverses frequently, and braking is required to slow the load during lowering. Regenerative variablefrequency drives are widely used where speed control of overhauling loads is required