Biol4: Populations Population = a group of individuals of the same species that occupy the same habitat at the same

e time. Community = the organisms of all species that live in the same area. e.g. within an oak woodland, a community may include oak trees, bluebells, nettles etc. Abiotic = an ecological factor that makes up part of the non-biological environment of an organism, e.g. temperature, pH, rainfall and humidity. Biotic = an ecological factor that makes up part of the living environment of an organism, e.g. food availability, competition and predation. Ecosystem = all the living organisms and non-living features in an area, that interact with one another. e.g. fresh water pond, lake or oak woodland. Habitat = the place where an organism lives. Ecological Niche = all conditions and resources required for an organism to survive, reproduce and maintain a viable population. NO TWO SPECIES OCCUPY EXACTLY THE SAME NICHE. Sample size = Virtually impossible to identify and count every organism to do so would be timeconsuming and would almost certainly cause damage to the habitat being studied. = Small samples are chosen, as long as theyre representative of the habitat as a whole, any conclusions drawn from the findings will be valid. Sampling Techniques used in the study of habitats = 1) random sampling using frame quadrats or point quadrats = 2) systematic sampling along transects

Quadrats ( x3 factors to consider) = SIZE OF THE QUADRAT depend upon the size of the animals/plants being counted and how theyre distributed within the area. Where a species occurs in a series of groups rather than being evenly distrubted throughout the area, a large no. Of small quadrats will give more representative results than a small number of large ones. = NUMBER OF SAMPLE QUADRATS TO RECORD WITHIN THE STUDY AREA the larger the number of sample quadrats the more reliable the results will be. The greater the no. Of species present in the area being studied, the greater the no. Of quadrats reqd. To produce valid results. = THE POSITION OF EACH QUADRAT WITHIN THE STUDY AREA to produce random statistically significant results a technique known as random sampling must be used. Random Sampling = avoid bias in collecting data. = ensures the data is valid. METHOD INVOLVES... = 1) lay out 2 long tape measures at right angles, along two sides of the study area. = 2) obtain a series of coordinates by using random numbers taken from a table. = 3) place a quadrat at the intersection of each pair of coordinates and record the species within it. Transect = straight line across a habitat along which organisms are sampled. Transect used when? = when there is a change in the habitat. E.g. zonation on a rocky shore. Systematic Sampling = more informative to measure the abundance and distribution of a species in a systematic rather than a random manner. 1) Line transect = comprises a string or tape stretched across the ground in a straight line. Any organism over which the line passes is recorded. 2) Belt transect = a strip, usually a metre wide, marked by putting a second line parallel to the first. The species occurring within the belt between the lines are recorded. Measuring abundance = the number of individuals of a species within a given space. Can be measured... 1) Frequency = the likelihood of a particular species occurring in a quadrat. This method is useful where a species, such as grass, is hard to count. However, does not provide info on the density and detailed distribution of a species. 2) % Cover = an estimate of the area within a quadrat that a particular plant species covers. It is useful where a species is particularly abundant or is difficult to count. Advantages include: rapid collection of data and individual plants do not need to be counted. Less useful where organisms occur in several overlapping layers (i.e. typically plants?) = to obtain reliable results, ensure the sample size is large (i.e. many quadrats are used) and

the mean of all the samples is obtained.

Mark-Release-Recapture = A known number of animals are caught (e.g. pitfall traps, beating trays) = Marked in some way (e.g. no toxic paint) = Released back into the community = Some time later, a given number of individuals is collected randomly = and the number of marked individuals is recorded = estimated population size .:. = [total no. Of individuals in 1st sample x total no. Of individuals in 2nd sample] DIVIDE BY no. of marked individuals recaptured. ASSUMPTIONS: = the mark or label is not lost or rubbed off during the investigation. = the method of marking is not toxic to the individual, nor does it make the individual more conspicuous and .:. more liable to predation. = few, if any, deaths and births within the population. = no immigration into or emigration out of the population. = the marked individuals released from the 1st sample distribute themselves evenly amongst the remainder of the population and have sufficient time to do so. Analysing Data = The quantitative data is presented in the form of a table or graph. = this makes it easier to compare data. = such comparisons can be made more precisely using statistical analysis of the data. = stats tests can be used to calculate the strength and direction of any correlation between 2 variables. To minimise the impact of an ecological investigation on the environment = organisms should be studied in situ. If it is necessary to remove them, the nos should be kept to an absolute minimum. = any organisms removed from their site should be returned to their original habitat asap; even if theyre dead. = a sufficient period of time should elapse before a site is used for future studies. = disturbance and damage to the habitat should be avoided. AN APPROPRIATE BALANCE BETWEEN THE DAMAGE DONE AND THE VALUE OF THE INFO GAINED. Population Growth Curves 3 phases = 1) a period of slow growth as the initially small no.s of individuals reproduce to slowly build up their numbers. = 2) a period of rapid growth where the ever-increasing no. Of individuals continue to reproduce. = 3) a period when the population growth declines until its size remains more or less stable.

Decline may be due to the food supply limiting nos or to increased predation.

Population Size = Factors limiting growth include: the availability of food, light, water, oxygen and shelter, and the accumulation of toxic waste, disease and predators. = the growth of any population is eventually slowed by a limiting factor. Abiotic Factors that influence the size of a population: = TEMPERATURE - each species has a diff optimum temp at which it is best able to survive. - lower temp = enzymes work more slowly and so their metabolic rate is reduced. - higher temp = enzymes work less efficiently because they gradually undergo denaturation. - ultimately, the population grows slowly. = LIGHT - rate of photosynthesis inc. - plants grow faster >> their population inc. - animal that feed on these plants >> their population inc. = pH - each enzyme has an optimum pH at which it operates most effectively = WATER AND HUMIDITY - where water is scarce, populations are small and consist of species that are adapted to dry cond. - humidity affects transpiration rates in plants and evaporation of water from bodies of animals. Intraspecific Competition = Competition between organisms of the same species. e.g. food, water, breeding sites Interspecific Competition = Competition between organisms of different species. e.g. food, light, water (No two species can occupy the same niche) Predator = an organism that feeds on another organism, known as their prey. Adaptations = PREDATOR - faster movement, more effective camouflage = PREY - better camouflage, more protective features i.e. spines.

Effect of predator-prey relationship on population size = predators eat their prey, thereby reducing the population of prey. = with fewer prey available the predators are in greater comp. With each other for the prey that are left. = the predator population is reduced as some individuals are unable to obtain enough prey for their survival. = with fewer predators left, fewer prey are eaten = prey population inc = predator pop inc. Human Populations = Birth rate and death rate affect the growth and size of human populations. = immigration, where individuals join a population from outside = emigration, where individuals leave a population. 1) population growth = (births + immigration) (deaths + emigration) 2) % population growth rate (in a given period) = population change during period / population at the start of the period x100 Factors Affecting Birth Rates: = Economic conditions - countries with a low per capita income tend to have higher birth rates. = Cultural and religious backgrounds - some countries encourage larger families and some religions are opposed to birth control = Social Pressures and conditions - large familes improves social standing, in some countries. = Birth Control - the extent to which contraception and abortion are used. = Political factors - governments influence birth rates through education and taxation policies. birth rate = no. Of births per yr / total pop in the same yr x 1000

Factors Affecting Death Rates: = Age profile - the greater the proportion of elderly people in a population, the higher the death rate is likely to be. = Life expectancy at birth - residents of economically developed countries live longer than residents of... = Food supply - adequate and balanced diet reduces death rate = Safe drinking water and effective sanitation - reduce death by reducing the risk of contracting water-borne diseases.

= Medical Care - access to healthcare and education reduces death rate = Natural disasters - the more prone a region is to drought, famine or disease, the higher the death rate. death rate = no. Of deaths per yr / tota population in the same yr x 1000 Population pyramids give useful info on the future trends of diff populations. = STABLE POPULATION - where the birth rate and death rate are in balance so there is no inc or dec in the pop size. = INCREASING POPULATION - where there is a high birth rate, giving a wider base to the population pyramid and fewer older people giving a narrower apex to the pyramid. - typical of economically less developed countries. = DECREASING POPULATION - there is a lower birth rate (narrower base) and a lower mortality rate leading to more elderly people (wider apex to pyramid). - typical in economically more developed countries *SEE DIAGRAM PAGE 22 and 23*

ATP Energy = Cannot be created or destroyed. However, energy can be transformed. = Measured in joules Why do organisms need energy? = METABOLISM all the reactions that take place in living organisms involve energy. = MOVEMENT both within an organism (e.g. blood circulation) and of the organism itself. = ACTIVE TRANSPORT of ions and molecules against a conc gradient across plasma membr. = MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND DIVISION- of cells and organelles within the cells. = PRODUCTION OF SUBSTANCES used within organisms, e.g. enzymes and hormones. = MAINTENANCE OF BODY TEMP in birds and mammals (i.e. endothermic organisms). Light energy from the Sun is converted by plants into chemical energy during photosynthesis ATP (adenosine triphophate) + H20 > ADP (a. diphosphate) + Pi (inorganic phosphate) + e =Hydrolysis Reaction Synthesis of ATP = ATP >> ADP + PI (=HYDROLYSIS) energy released for use by cells = ADP + Pi >> ATP (=CONDENSATION) energy supplied from respiration = Photophosphorylation = takes place in chlorophyll-containing plant cells during photosynthesis. = Oxidative phosphorylation = occurs in the mitochondria of plant and animal cells during the process of electron transport = Substrate-Level-Phosphorylation = occurs in plant and animal cells when phosphate groups are transferred from donor molecules to ADP to make ATP. E.g. pyruvate formation Roles of ATP = an immediate energy source of a cell. = better immediate source than glucose because: 1) each ATP molecule releases less energy than each glucose molecule. .:. the enrgy is released in smaller, more manageable quantities. 2) Hydrolysis of ATP to ADP is a single reaction that releases immediate energy. The breakdown of glucose is a long series of reactions and .:. the energy release takes longer. = ATP cannot be stored

ATP is the source of energy for: = METABOLIC PROCESSES e.g. polypeptide synthesis from amino acids = MOVEMENT - ATP provides energy for muscle contraction = ACTIVE TRANSPORT ATP provides the energy to change the shape of carrier proteins in plasma membranes, thus allowing molecules to be moved against a conc.gradient. = SECRETION ATP is needed to form the lysosomes necessary for the secretion of cell products. - ACTIVATION OF MOLECULES when a Pi molecule is transferred from ATP to another molecule it makes it mor reactive and so lowers the Ea of that molecule.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS Structure of the Leaf (adaptations): = a large s.area that collects as much light as possible. = thin; short diffusion gradient. = long, narrow upper mesophyll cells packed with chloroplasts that collect sunlight. = numerous stomata for gas exchange = stomata open and close in response to changes in light intensity

Light-Dependent Reaction = involves the capture of light whose energy is used for 2 purposes: 1) add an Pi molecule to ADP >> therby making ATP 2) to split water into H+ ions and OH- ions >> photolysis Oxidation: = loss of electrons = loss of hydrogen = gain of oxygen Reduction: = gain of electrons = gain of hydrogen = loss of oxygen The Making of ATP: = 1) When a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light energy, it boosts the energy of a pair of electrons within this chlorophyll molecule, raising them to a higher energy level. = 2) These electrons are said to be in an excited state. = 3) The electrons become so energetic that they leave the chlorophyll molecule altogether. = 4) The electrons that leave the chlorophyll are taken up by a molecule called an electron carrier. = 5) Having lost a pair of electrons, the chlorophyll molecule has been oxidised. = 6) The electrons are now passed along a number of electron carriers in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions. = 7) These electron carriers form a transfer chain that is located in the membranes of the thylakoids. = 8) Each new carrier is at a slightly lower energy level than the previous one in the chain, and so electrons lose enegy at each stage. = 9) This energy is used to combine ADP + Pi to make ATP Photolysis of Water: = 1) Electrons are lost when light strikes a chlorophyll molecule. = 2) Replacement electrons are provided from water molecules = 3) 2H20 >> 4H+ + e- + O2 = 4) H+ taken up by an electron carrier called NADP, thereby giving reduced NADP = 5) Reduced NADP is the most important product of the light-dependent reaction Site of the Light-dependent reaction: = 1) thylakoid membranes

Light-INDependent Reaction = 1) in the stroma, co2 combines with the 5-carbon compounds (rubp) using an enzyme. = 2) this produces two molecules of the 3-carbon GP = 3) ATP and reduced NADP from the light dependent reaction are used to reduce the activated GP to TP. = 4) NADP is reformed and goes back to the light dependent reaction to be reduced again (by accepting more hydrogen). = 5) some TP molecules are converted to useful organic substances, such as glucose = 6) most tp molecules are used to regenerate rubp (5c) using ATP from the light-dependent reaction. Stroma contains all the enzymes needed to carry out this reaction

Factors Affecting Photosynthesis Limiting Factors = a variable that limits the rate of a chemical reaction at any given moment, the rate of a physiological process is limited by the factor that is at its least favourable value. Effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesis = can be measured: 1) volume of oxygen released by a plant 2) volume of co2 taken up by a plant *read page 42 and 43*

RESPIRATION Aerobic = Requires oxygen and produces carbon dioxide, water and much ATP Four stages: 1) GLYCOLYSIS = the splitting of the 6-carbon glucose molecule into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. = initial stage of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration = occurs in the cytoplasm of all living cells ...four stages... 1) activation of glucose by phosphorylation - glucose must be made more reactive by the addition of two phosphate molecules. - this provides the energy to activate glucose 2) splitting of the phosphorylated glucose - each glucose molecule is split into two 3c molecules known as triose phosphate. 3) oxidation of triose phosphate - hydrogen is removed from each of the two triose phosphate molecules and transferred to a hydrogen-carrier molecule known as NAD to form reduced NAD 4) production of ATP - enzyme-controlled reactions convert each triose phosphate into another 3C molecule called pyruvate. - in the process, two molecules of ATP are regenerated from ADP Energy Yields from glycolysis = two molecules of ATP = two molecules of reduced NAD = two molecules of pyruvate 2) LINK REACTION = the conversion of the 3carbon pyruvate molecule into carbon dioxide and a 2carbon molecule called acetylcoenzyme A. =pyruvate molecules are actively transported into the matrix of the mitochondria. = the pyruvate is oxidised by removing hydrogen. This hydrogen is accepted by NAD to form reduced NAD, which is later used to produce ATP. = the 2 C molecule, called an acetyl group, that is thereby formed combines with a molecule called coenzyme A to produce a compound called acetylcoenzyme A. = a carbon dioxide molecule is formed from each pyruvate. pyruvate + NAD + CoA >> Acetyl CoA + reduced NAD + CO2

3) KREBS CYCLE = the introduction of acetylcoenzyme A into a cycle of oxidation-reduction reactions that yield some ATP and a large number of electrons. =matrix of the mitochondria = the 2C acetylcoenzyme A combines with a 4C molecule to produce a 6C molecule = this 6C molecule loses co2 and hydrogens to give a 4C molecule and a single molecule of ATP produced as a result of substrate-level phosphorylation = the lost hydrogen atoms are carried by NAD to the ETChain for oxidative phosphorylation. = the 4C molecule can now combine with a new molecule of acetylcoenzyme A to begin the cycle again. for each molecule of pyruvate the link and krebs produce = reduced coenzymes such as NAD and FAD = one molecule of ATP = three molecules of c02 Significance of the krebs cycle = breaks down macromolecules into smaller ones, pyruvate is broken down into carbon dioxide = it produces hydrogen atoms that are carried by NAD to the electron transport chain for oxidative phosphorylation. This leads to the production of ATP that provides metabolic energy for the cell. = it regenerates the 4C molecule that combines with acetylcoenzyme A which would otherwise accumulate = it is a source of intermediate compounds used by cells in the manufacture of other important substances such as fatty acids, amino acids and chlorophyll.

4) ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN = the use of the electrons produced in the krebs cycle to synthesise ATP with water produced as a by-product. =inner mitochondrial membrane = ATP IS Synthesised using the ETC as follows: = the hydrogen atoms produced during glycolysis and the krebs cycle combine with the coenzymes NAD and FAD that are attached to the cristae of the mitochondria. = the reduced NAD and FAD donate the electrons of the hydrogen atoms they are carrying to the first molecule in the ETC = this releases the protons from the hydrogen atoms and these protons are actively transported across the inner mitochondrial membrane = the electrons meanwhile, pass along a chain of ETCarrier molecules in a series of oxidationreduction reactions. The electrons lose energy as they pass down the chain and some of this is used to combine ADP and inorganic phosphate to make ATP. The remaining energy is released in the form of heat. = the protons accumulate in the space between the two mitochondrial membranes before they diffuse back into the mitochondrial matrix through special protein channels. = at the end of the chain the electrons combine with these protons and oxygen to form water. Oxygen is therefore the final acceptor of electrons in the ETC. P.S: without its (oxygen) role in removing hydrogen atoms at the end of the chain, the hydrogen ions (protons) and electrons would back up along the chain and the process of respiration would come to a halt.

Anaerobic = takes place in the absence of oxygen and produces lactate (in animals) or ethanol and carbon dioxide (in plants) but only a little ATP in both cases. pyruvate + reduced NAD >> ethanol + carbon dioxide + NAD in plants pyruvate + reduced NAD >> lactate + NAD in animals

ENERGY YIELDS FROM ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC RESPIRATION = substrate-level phsophorylation in glycolysis and the krebs cycle = oxidative phosphorylation in the ETC ^^ aerobic

anaerobic>>> pyruvate is converted to either ethanol or lactate. As theres no krebs nor ETC stage...very small amountsof atp is formed.

FOOD CHAINS AND FOOD WEBS Organisms rely on a source of energy to carry out all their activities = ultimate source is sunlight, which is converted to chemical energy by photosynthesising organisms and is then passed as food between other organisms. Producer = Producers are photosynthetic organisms that manufacture organic substances using light energy, water and CO2 according to >>> state photosynthesis equation. = e.g. green plants Consumers = Consumers are organisms that obtain their energy by feeding on (consuming) other organisms rather than using the energy of sunlight directly. Decomposers =when producers and consumers die, the energy they contain can be used by a group of organisms that break down these complex materials into simple components again. = they release valuable minerals and elements in a form that can b absorbed by plants and so contribute to recycling. = carried out by fungi or bacteria. Food chain = describes a feeding relationship in which the producers are eaten by primary consumers. These in turn are eaten by secondoray consumers, who are then eaten by tertiary consumers. = Each stage referred to as trophic level. - arrows represent the direction of energy flow. Food web = within a single habitat many food chains will be linked together to form a food web.

Energy losses in food chains most of the light energy from sun is not converted = about 90% ofsun energy reflected back into space by clouds and dust or absorbed by atmosphere. = not all wavelengths of light can be absorbed and used for photosynthesis. = light may not fall on a chlorophyll molecule = low co2 levels may limit rate of photosynthesis. further along food chain

= some of the organism is not eaten = some parts are eaten but not digested and .:. lost in faeces. = some energy lost in excretory materials. = losses occur as heat from respiration. Mammals need to maintain a constant body temp inefficiency of energy transfer between trophic levels = only four or five trophic levels; insufficient energy is available to support a large enough breeding population at trophic levels higher than these. = less biomass at higher trophic levels. = total amount of energy stored is less at each level. energy transfer fomular = energy avail AFTER transfer/energy avail BEFORE transfer = Kjm^-2 year ^-1

x100

pyramids of number = bars with lengths proportional to the numbers present at each trophic level. = drawbacks>>>>>>> = no account is taken of size e.g. giant tree treat same as aphid. = no. Of individuals so great that it is impossible to represent them accurately on the same scale as other species in the food chain = advantagessss>>>>>>>> = easy to count = no organisms killed. pyramids of biomass = a more reliable, quantitative description of a food chain is provided when measuring the biomass of organisms. = biomass is the total mass of the plants in a particular place. = water makes it unreliable = to overcome this, measure dry mass. = measured in gm^2 i.e. area or gm^-2 ie volume drawbacks>>> kill organism to obtain dry mass. small sample may not be representative. As its impossible to catch all organisms, pyramids of energy = the most accurate representation of the energy flow through a food chain is to measure the energy stored in organisms. kjm^2year^-1 Agricultural Ecosystem = made up largely of domesticated animals and plants used to produce food for mankind. = Agriculture tries to ensure that as much of the available energy from the sun as possible is transferred to humans.

= this increases the productivity of the human food chain. Productivity = the rate at which something is produced. Gross productivity = the rate at which plants assimilate the chemical energy theyve produced by converting light energy during photosynthesis. =kJ m^-2 year-1 Net productivity = some of the chemical energy is used by plants during respiration = the remainder is known as net productivity. net productivity = gross productivity respirataroy losses = affected by 2 main actors: 1) efficiency of the crop at carrying out photosynthesis. 2) the area of ground covered by the leaves of the crop. NATURAL ECOSYSTEM Solar energy only AGRICULTARAL ECOSYSTEM Solar energy + energy from food (labour) and fossil fuels (machinery and transport) Lower productivity Higher productivity More species diversity Less species diversity More genetic diversity within a species Less genetic diversity within a species Nutrients are recycled naturally within the Natural recycling is more limited and ecosystem with little addition from outside supplemented by the addition of artificial fertilisers Populations are controlled by natural means, Populations are controlled by both natural such as competition and climate means and by use of pesticides and cultivation Is a natural climax community Is an artificial community prevented from reaching its natural climax Scientists can advise commercial growers on the beneficial applications of their findings in order to inc. ther ate of photosynthesis and hence the growth of their

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What are pests and pesticides Pest = an organism that competes with humans for food or space, or it could be a danger to health.

Pesticides = are poisonous chemicals that kills pests. Herbicides kill plants (herbs), fungicides kill fungi and insecticides kill insects. An effective pesticide should = be specific - only toxic to the organism at which it is directed. - should be harmless to humans and other organisms. = biodegrade - so that, once applied, it will break down into harmless substances in the soil - needs to be chemically stable, so it has a long shelf-life = cost-effective - because development costs are high and new pesticides remain useful only for a limited time >> pests can develop genetic resistance = not accumulate - so that it does not build up, either in specific parts of the orgsanism or as it passes along food chains. Biological Control = possible to control pests by using organisms that are either predators or parasites of the pest organism. = aim is to control the pest, not eradicate it BIOLOGICAL CONTROL Very specific Once introduced, control organism reproduces itself Pests do not become resistant CHEMICAL PESTICIDES Always have some effect on non-target species Must be reapplied at intervals, making them very expensive Pests develop genetic resistance and new pesticides have to be developed

p.s: eradication is costly to carry out, counterproductive and almost impossible to achieve.

Integrated pest-control systems = aim to integrate all forms of pest control rather than being reliant on one type. = involves: 1) choosing animal or plant varieties that suit the local area and are as pest-resistant as poss. 2) managing the environment to provide suitable habitats, close to the crops, for natural

predators. 3) regularly monitoring the crop for signs of pests so that early action can be taken 4) removing the pests mechanically (e.g. hand picking) if the pest exceeds an acceptable population level. 5) using biological agents if necessary and available. 6) using pesticides as a last resort if pest populations start to get out of control. How controlling pests affects productivity = pests reduce productivity in agricultural ecosystems. Intensive rearing of domestic livestock = is about converting the smallest possible amount of food energy into the greatest quantity of animal mass. = more of the food energy converted into body mass, ready to be passed onto the next link in the food chain. = as much energy from respiration as poss goes into growth rather than other activities. = achieved by keeping animals in confined spaces. INCREASE ENERGY CONVERSION RATE: - movement is restricted and so less energy is used in muscle contraction - the environment can be kept warm in order to reduce heat loss from the body. - feeding can be controlled so that the animals receive the optimum amount and type of food for max. growth with no wastage. - predators are excluded so that there is no loss to other organisms in the food web * read pages 80-84* features of intensive rearing o livestock and economic and environmental issues.

Carbon Cycle Nutrient Cycle = nutrient is taken up by producers (plants) as simple, inorganic molecules = the producer incorporates the nutrient into complex organic molecules = when the producer is eaten, the nutrient passes into consumers (animals).

= it then passes along the food chain when these animals are eaten by other consumers. = when the producers and consumers die, their complex molecules are broken down by saprobiotic microorganisms (decomposers) that release the nutrient in its simple original form Saprobiotic microorganisms = secrete enzymes on to dead organisms. = these enzymes break down complex molecules into smaller, soluble molecules that the saprobiotic microorganisms absorb by diffusion. = carbon from the dead organism is then released as co2 during respiration by the decomposer. Photosynthetic organism remove CO2 from the air, while all organisms return it to the air via respiration Globally the level of CO2 in the atmosphere has inc. MAIN REASONS: = COMBUSTION OF FOSSIL FUELS release co2 that was previously locked up within these fuels. = DEFORESTATION removed enourmous amounts of photosynthesising biomass and so less co2 is being removed from the atmosphere. CO2 is a greenhouse gas = cause more heat energy to be trapped, so raising the temp at the earths surface. Oceans contain a massive reserve of Co2 = excess co2 dissolves in the ocean waters

Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming Greenhouse Effect = natural process that occurs all the time = the effect is the result of heat and light of the Sun that reaches our planet

= some solar radiation is reflected back into space, some is absorbed by the atmosphere and.. some reaches the Earths surface. = some of this radiation reaching the Earths surface is reflected back as heat And is lost into space. = however, some is radiated back to Earth by clouds and the greenhouse gases that form part of the atmosphere. = the gases trap this heat close to the earths surface, keeping it warm. Co2 and methane important greenhouse gases = methane comes from when decomposers break down the dead remains of organisms = when microorganism in the intestines of primary consumers (e.g. cattle) digest the food that has been eaten. POSSIBLE Consequences of global warming = melting of polar ice caps could cause extinction of some wild plants and animals and cause sea levels to rise = a rise in sea level due to the thermal expansion of oceans could flood low-lying land = higher temperatures and less rainfall could lead to the failure of the present crops in some areas. = greater rainfall and intense storms would occur in some areas, due to the disturbance of climate patterns. = essentially, the distribution of plants and animals would change in favour of those adapted to withstand such conditions

POSSIBLE Benefits of global warming = increased rainfall would fill reservoirs = warmer temperatures would allow crops to be grown where it is presently too cold. = rate of photosynthesis (and hence productivity) could increase.

Nitrogen Cycle = Plants take up most of the nitrogen they need in the form of nitrate ions (NO3-), from the soil. = these ions are absorbed, using active transport, by the root hairs. = animals obtain nitrogen containing compounds by eating and digesting plants.

FOUR MAIN STAGES: 1) AMMONIFICATION - the production of ammonia from organic ammonium-containing compounds. - in nature, these compounds include: urea and proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins found in faeces and dead organisms. - saprobiotic microorganisms mainly fungi and bacteria feed on these materials releasing ammonia, which then forms ammonium ions in the soil. 2) NITRIFICATION - conversion of ammonium ions to nitrate ions. - this is an oxidation reaction and so releases energy. - carried out by nitrifying bacteria - conversion occurs in two stages: 1) oxidation of ammonium ions to nitrite ions (NO2-) 2) oxidation of nitrite ions to nitrate ions (NO3-) - nitrifying bacteria require oxygen to carry out these conversions 3) NITROGEN FIXATION - the process by which nitrogen gas is converted into nitrogen-containing compounds - can occur naturally when lightening passes through the atmosphere - two main types of nitrogen fixing bacteria: 1) free living nitrogen fixing bacteria = these bacteria reduce gaseous nitrogen to ammonia, which they then use to manufacture amino acids. = nitrogen rich compounds are released from them when they die and decay. 2) mutualistic nitrogen fixing bacteria = these bacteria live in nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. = they obtain carbohydrates from the plants and the plant acquires amino acids from the bacteria.

4) DENITRIFICATION - waterlogged soils are short of oxygen. - increase in anaerobic denitrifying bacteria. - these convert soil nitrates into gaseous nitrogen. - reduces the availability of nitrogen-containing compounds for plants Use of natural and artificial fertilisers

Need for fertilisers = in natural ecosystems the minerals that are removed from the soil by plants are returned when the plant is broken down by microorganisms on its death. = in agricultural systems the crop is harvester and then transported from its point of origin for consumption. = to offset this loss of mineral ions, fertilisers need to be added to the soil. two types of fertiliser 1) natural (organic) fertilisers - consist of dead and decaying remains of plants and animals as well as manure. 2) artificial (inorganic) fertilisers - mined from rocks and deposits and then converted into different forms and blended together to give the appropriate balance of minerals for a particular crop. How fertilisers increase productivity.. = where nitrates are readily available, plants are likely to develop earlier, grow taller and have a greater leaf area. = this inc. The rate of photosynthesis and improves crop productivity.

Environmental Consequences = REDUCED SPECIES DIVERSITY - nitrogen rich soils favour the growth of grasses, nettles and other rapidly growing species. - these outcompete many other species which die as a result. = LEACHING - the process by which nutrients are removed from the soil - rain water will dissolve any soluble nutrients, such as nitrates, and carry them deep into the soil and eventually into watercourses.

- here they may have a harmful effect on humans if the river or lake is a source of drinking water - leached nitrates can cause eutrophication = EUTROPHICATION - the process by which nutrients build up in bodies of water. - in most lakes there is naturally very little nitrate and so nitrate is a limiting factor for plant and algal growth. - as the nitrate conc inc as a result of leaching, it ceases to be a limiting factor for the growth of plants and algae. - as algae mostly grow at the surface, the upper layers of water become densely populated with algae - this dense surface layer of algae absorbs light and prevents it from penetrating to lower depths. - light then becomes the limiting factor for the growth of plants and algae at lower depths and so they eventually die. - the lack of dead plants and algae is no longer a limiting factor for the growth of saprobiotic algae, using the dead organisms as food. - saprobiotic bacteria require oxygen for their respiration, creating an icn demand for oxygen - the conc of oxygen in the water is reduced and nitrates are released from the decaying organisms. - oxygen then becomes the limiting factor for the population of aerobic organisms, such as fish. - these organisms ultimately die * MAIN CAUSE >> LEACHING OF ARTICIAL FERTILISERS*

Ecological Succession First Stage of Succession is the colonisation of an inhospitable environment by organisms called: = pioneer species Features of pioneer species that suit them to colonisation

= rapid germination of seeds on arrival = ability to fix nitrogen from the atmosphere because, even if there is soil, it has few or no nutrients = tolerance to extreme conditions Climax community = the organisms that make up the final stage of ecological succession = the stable state comprises a balanced equilibrium of species with few, if any, new species replacing those that have become established. In this state, many species flourish. = within the climax community there is normally a dominant plant species and a dominant animal species. During any succession there are a number of common features that emerge: = non-living environment becomes less hostile - e.g. soil forms, nutrients are more plentiful and plants provide shelter from wind. - this leads to... = a greater number and a variety of habitats. - that in turn produce... = increased biodiversity - as different species occupy these habitats. - reaching a peak in mid-succession, but decreasing as the climax community is reached - this decrease is due to dominant species out-competing pioneer and other species, leading to their elimination from the community. - with increased biodiversity comes... = more complex food webs - leading to... = increased biomass - especially during mid-succession. Another type of succession: = occurs when land that has already sustained life is suddenly altered. = may e the result of land clearance for agriculture or a forest fire. = process by which the ecosystem returns to its climax communities the same s described above, except that it occurs more rapidly. = this type of succession does not begin with pioneer species. *SEE DIAGRAM PAGE 106* Conservation of habitats What is conservation? = Conservation is the management of the Earths natural resources in such a way that maximum use of them can be made in the future. = Involves intervention by humans to maintain ecosystems and biodiversity.

Main reasons for conservation? = ETHICAL - other species have occupied the Erath far longer than we have and should be allowed to coexist with us. - respect for living things is preferable to disregard for them. = ECONOMIC - long-term productivity is greater if ecosystems are maintained in their natural balanced state. = CULTURAL AND AESTHETIC - habitats and organisms enrich our lives. - their variety inspires artists, writers, poets etc.

INHERITANCE AND SELECTION Genotype = The genetic constitution (make-up) of an organism. Phenotype = the observable characteristics of an organism.

= it is the result of the interaction between the expression of the genotype and the environment. Gene = a section of DNa, that is, a sequence of nucleotide bases, that usually determines a single characteristic of an organism (e.g. eye colour). = it does this by coding for particular polypeptides. = Genes exist in two, or occasionally more, different forms called alleles. Locus = position of a gene on a chromosome Allele = is one of the different forms of a gene. = only one allele of a gene can occur at the locus of any one chromosome. = Expresses itself even when presemt with the recessive allele of the same gene=DOMINANT = Expresses itself only in the presence of another identical allele. = RECESSIVE = two alleles both contribute to the phenotype = CO-DOMINANT Multiple alleles = where there are more than 2 alleles, of which only two may be present at the loci of an individuals homologous chromosomes. Mutation = Any change to the genotype due to a change in DNA Pedigree Charts = a useful way to trace the inheritance of sex-linked characters. Gene Pool = all the alleles of all the genes of all the individuals in a population at any one time. Allele Frequency = The number of times an allele occurs within the gene pool.

Hardy-Weinberg Principle = used to calculate the frequencies of the alleles of a particular gene in a population. = predicts that the proportion of dominant and recessive alleles of any gene in a population remains the same from one generation to the next provided the 5 conditions are met: 1) no mutations arise 2) population is isolated no flow of alleles into or out of the population

3) no selection all alleles are equally likely to be passed onto the next generation 4) population is large 5) mating within the population is random Selection = competition between members of a species to be the ones that survive = within any population of a species there will be a gene pool containing a wide variety of alleles (=variation exists within population). = some indivudals will possess combinations of alleles that make them better able (fitter) to survive in their competition with others. = these individuals are more likely to obtain the available resources and so grow more rapidly and live longer. As a result, they will have a better chance of successfully breeding and producing more offspring. = only those individuals that successfully reproduce will pass on their alleles to the next generation. = as the new individuals have advantageous alleles, they in turn are more likely to survide and so reproduce successfully. = over time the frequency of the advantageous alleles in the population increases while that of the non advantageous ones decreases. Types of Selection = Directional - if the environmental conditions change, so will the phenotypes needed for survival. - Selection may favour individuals that vary in one direction from the mean of the population. - Changes the characteristics of the population. [basically, directional resultion results in phenotypes at one extreme of the population being selected for and those at the other extreme being selected against]. = Stabilising - if the environmental conditions remain stable, it is the individuals with phenotypes closest to the mean that are favoured. - Selection may favour average individuals. - Preserves the characteristics of a population. [ basically, stabilising selection results in phenotypes around the mean of the population being selected for and those at both extremes being selected against] Speciation = the evolution of new species from existing species. species = a group of individuals that share similar genes and are capable of breeding with one another to produce fertile offspiring.

Geographical isolation = occurs when a physical barrier prevents two populations from breeding with one another e.g. ocean, river etc -population of individuals - populations separate - physical barriers stop interbreeding between populations - variation exists (within each population)/mutations; - populations adapt to new environments - different selection pressures - those with advantageous alleles survive/breed; - allele and phenotype frequency change leading to development of new species.

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