Journal of African Instituted Church Theology

African Indigenous Churches in Ghana Past, Present and Future Clifton R. Clarke Theological Education and Training: Challenges of African Independent Churches in Ghana Thomas Asante Oduro Prophetic Movements in the Congo: The Life and Work of Simon Kimbangu and How His Followers Saw Him Emmanuel Martey Globalization: A Perspective From the African Independent Churches Njeru Wambugu and John Padwick African Indigenous Churches and the Ministry of the Holy Spirit Humphrey Akogyeram

Volume II, Number 1, September 2006

Published by Good News Theological College and Seminary P.O. Box AN 6484. Accra-North, Ghana

GLOBALIZATION: A PERSPECTIVE FROM THE AFRICAN INDEPENDENT CHURCHES

Archbishop Njeru Wainbugu and John Padwick, Ph.D.* Introduction

cattered in towns and villages across Africa, we watch as the US prepares for its 2004 presidential elections. We know that whoever is chosen will have an impact on our lives, on our economies, on our security, on our ability to survive and prosper next year and in the years ahead indeed, on the very way we shape our vision of our future. We watch the presidential debates carried live on CNN, itself a global news corporation, on TV sets that have Japanese or South Korean brand-names, but are made in China. When we are bored with the political analysis, we can switch channels to American Christian TV networks, Latin American or Australian soap operas or. perhaps, to Nigerian or Ghanaian videos that centre on extra-marital affairs, corruption, and how to get great wealth or power over others through witchcraft. We cannot escape from these and other effects of globalization in our daily lives. Globalization is not simply an economic issue. It is a cultural. political, ethical, and ecological issue.1 Because it is so broad a subject, we can only attempt to deal here with its economic theological and cultural impact upon our societies and our churches, and then to consider the role we can play as AICs in negotiating with, and confronting this phenomenon of our time.

Globalization in the Past

As a process, globalization is not new. Indeed, some historians have begun to rewrite the history of the world as episodes in the history of long-term globalization. Such an approach to history begins in the pre-modern era. What has been called archaic globalization was led by great kings and warriors searching for wealth and honour in fabulous lands. by religious wanderers and pilgrims seeking ... God in _____________________________ * The Most Reverend Njeru Wambugu is the General Secretary of the Organisation of African Instituted Churches (OAIC) and John Padwick is Church Mission Society Mission Partner working with OALC in Kenya.
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distant realms, and by merchant princes and venturers pursuing profits ... across borders and continents.2 A long-term perspective on globalization is important for two reasons. First, it reminds us that globalization is not simply westernization. In Africa, for example, the West African trade networks of the middle ages were linked to the Islamic world of the Mediterranean and Middle East. Zimbabwean gold was a vital part of the trade along the East African coast to Arabia and South Asia.3 Even though contemporary globalization may be led by the West, in the will of God, this is not inevitable. Secondly, a historical perspective shows that the spread of the Christian faith is itself both a cause and a consequence of globalization. To take the most obvious example, Pauls missionary journeys were made possible by the early globalizing trade and communication networks of the Roman Empire. Indeed, this suggests that, some form of globalization may be part of Gods plan, requiring us to move from a rural, family setting in the Garden of Eden to the multicultural, multiracial community of the New Jerusalem as seen by John in the Book of Revelation.

AICs As Initiatives to Deal with Globalization of the Colonial Era

The slave trade of both East and West coasts, followed by the European colonial empires, were more recent phases of globalization that very seriously impacted the African continent. As part of the colonial phase, Christian missionaries did not come only with the Good News of Jesus Christ. They also brought with them and propagated an ideology and a rationale to encourage Africans to become useful servants of the colonial state. In Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa, that meant forcing Africans to leave their rural homes and clans and traditional support systems in order to become wage labour in colonial farms, industries, plantations, and mines. In West Africa, some also played a somewhat less subservient role in the European trading companies and their related local ventures. Whatever the precise nature of colonial African occupations, however, the training and recruitment process required a degree of conversion to the values of industrial capitalism, the economic force behind the whole colonial programme. The

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African independent Churches that emerged during the colonial era, therefore, were opposed, not simply to missionary arrogance and insensitivity (what David Barrett calls the missionaries lack of love4). The AICs were also resistance movements to the wider European project of harnessing the African continent, its resources, and peoples, to the glory, self-aggrandisement and financial profit of the so-called metropolitan countries. In this colonial context, we can consider the AICs in two categories. The leaders of the African churches (called in Southern Africa Ethiopian and in East Africa, Nationalist churches) appreciated the education and forms of social and political organization the colonizers and missionaries came with churches, schools, welfare societies, and political parties. These AIC leaders sought to acquire and use this education, and these colonial tools and techniques against the invaders. Their churches became what have been termed self-strengthening resistance movements.5 In these African churches, political liberation was considered a divine imperative. The other category of AICs, the Spiritual, Aladura, Apostolic, and Zionist churches had a less obvious political agenda. Indeed, some of these churches, to the present day, consider any form of political involvement to be of the Devil. But the stance taken by the Spiritual churches was, in some ways, more radical than that of the African or nationalist churches. They regarded the very values of colonial society to be irredeemably tainted, and a threat to the integrity and purity of African society. So far as they could, they created Christian societies that were counter-cultures to colonial society. They tried to restrict too much promiscuous contact with Europeans and European institutions. The Holy Spirit led many such churches to adapt the purity laws from Leviticus (particularly chapters 11-16) to create tight, impervious, boundaries between their members and colonial society. In some of these churches, laws restricted people from shaking of hands, and wearing European clothes or using manufactured goods of European origin. Some churches forbade the taking of medicine. (This was true equally of African traditional medicine and imported European medicine, since both were believed to be, at best, a concession to human weakness and, at worst, a means by which Satan attacked the body and the spirit.) Theologically, some of their founders perceived that the driving force

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behind capitalism was a form of lust an insatiable desire for more and more material goods. Whatever the precise nature of the AIC resistance, both types of churches were concerned about re-asserting local control local control over society, its values, its moral sanctions, and its access to the Divine and to Spiritual power. No matter how we understand today the nature of African Traditional Religions, or what has been termed the African Religious Heritage, the rules that governed access to Divine power and blessings in the pre-European epoch were laid down by local leaders and priests. The Christian Gospel offered a new and superior power, that of the Holy Spirit of the One God Himself. But missionaries were frequently reluctant to offer free access to this Third Person of the Trinity. Either they themselves felt they would lose their authority if spiritual gifts were widely distributed in the church, or else they themselves did not properly understand the Holy Spirit. (After all, they came from a culture that had largely eliminated the Spirit from their explanation of the world.) Moreover, these local attempts at racial domination in the church were themselves controlled by missionary agencies with their headquarters outside the continent. By way of contrast, when leaders of the largest nationalist church of Central Kenya, the African Independent Pentecostal Church of Kenya, explained their use of the word Independent in the churchs name, they said, By independent church, we meant a church that would not be governed from Canterbury, Edinburgh, or Rome.6 This brief historical analysis has a purpose for us today. It shows that, the founders of the AICs were born from, and confronted an earlier form of globalization that (like the contemporary form) put at risk the continents power for self-determination. In seeking to define their own vision, the founders of AICs created vibrant indigenous churches, self- reliant, born and nurtured within African culture and living out the Gospel with relevance in their own particular contexts. Reflecting on their struggles in the light of the Scriptures, the founders developed a way of life and faith that was not articulated in books of theology. Instead, it was to be found in songs, stories, forms of worship, dance, church uniforms, flags, and names; in laws of impurity, concepts of evil, and the practice of exorcism; in forms, traditions, and narratives

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of preaching and prayer; in dream interpretations and prophecies, and in understandings of healing and salvation.7 It is this multifaceted expression of AIC faith that we, in OAIC, refer to as the Founders Vision 8 But this vision came at a historical cost. AIC founders were often excluded from missionary education, or deliberately cut themselves from the economic and other benefits of being close to the colonial state. As a result, they had less skills, less formal qualifications, less income and resources, and, in consequence, less access to worldly influence and power than their brothers and sisters in the mission-founded churches. When suddenly the colonialists handed over the reins of government to their African successors, in general, the AICs still found themselves excluded from positions of power and influence. The cost of their faithfulness to their vision remains as our legacy today. Nevertheless, faced by the challenges of contemporary globalization, we can still follow the example of our founders of two or three generations ago: we can stand, as they did, in the midst of crisis, within our own cultures, and seek guidance from the Holy Spirit and the Word of God for a renewed vision. If we are true, both to the gospel and to our current situation, this vision will be significantly different from that of our founders. Indeed, it must be so in order to empower us to engage effectively with the new and serious challenges we face. It is to these contemporary challenges of globalization that we now turn.

Contemporary Globalization: A Definition

Our concern today is not so much with long-term globalization or its earlier phases as with the tremendous global forces that we ourselves, our churches, and our nations, have been caught up within, and which we struggle to make sense of. For this purpose, therefore, I propose to define contemporary globalization as:
the rapidly increasing complex interactions between societies, cultures, institutions and individuals worldwide. Its critical dynamic is the compression of time and space, while it dramatically shills relationships from local to global contexts. Its power and momentum is derived from growing

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market capitalism and global advances in communications technologies.9

We experience the present phase of globalization in the following ways: Time is speeded up; Distance becomes much shorter, indeed, at times almost irrelevant; Cultures become closer, mingle together, and become mixed; There are constant and frequent interactions between the local and the global in our lives. In consequence, people talk of living in a global village. It is often easier to keep in touch with someone thousands of miles away on a different continent than our friends in the town we live in. This aspect of globalization is made possible by new telecommunications technologies such as the internet, e-mail, mobile phones, etc. More disturbing, perhaps, than the concept of the global village, is the question of who rules this village and how they view us, its inhabitants. The clear fact is that, the contemporary globalization is driven by the free market and global capitalism. International finance capital is constantly moving around the globe seeking to maximize profit, regardless of social constraints. In a process known as global sourcing (in the current US elections, the candidates refer to this as out-sourcing), Trans-National Companies search the most cost-effective location for their production. Projects, factories, the exploitation of natural resources, such as forests and minerals, are taken up, financed, started, and dropped, or moved somewhere else in the world at the demand of short-term profits. Economic, social, and environmental concerns are subordinated to the demands of the financial institutions for the highest return on their investments. One consequence for countries of the South is that debts are not paid off. Rather, they increase.

The Gains and Costs of Globalization10

Some, indeed many national economies, have become very much richer. Between 1980 and 1997, the international trade in goods and service increased threefold. However, these benefits go to economies

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which have good access to capital markets and are best able to exploit the improved competitive environment the free market brings about. The continent of Africa, in particular, has been the greatest loser. The contribution of Sub-Saharan Africa to total global exports fell from 3.8% in 1980 to 1.5% in 1997. That is to say, if Sub-Saharan Africa fell off the edge of the map, the global economy would only be poorer by just over one per cent. In fact, taking the increase in population into account, Sub-Saharan Africas per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Product per head of the population) fell from 1980 to 1998.11 In particular, globalization has clear costs: The inequality between rich and poor countries is increasing rapidly. (In 1998, the assets of the 3 richest people in the world were more than the combined GNP (Gross National Product) of all 43 of the UNDP least developed countries.)12 The inequality between rich and poor is increasing rapidly in the loser countries, e.g., Sub-Saharan Africa. Natural resources and the environment are being used up and destroyed. This is partly because: The ability of national governments to control their resources and cultures is diminishing rapidly. People experience increased insecurity, and turn to salvation from fundamentalist religious groups that believe only in prayer, thus increasing poverty. It would be fair to argue that, members of AICs, because, in general, their members have lower levels of formal education than nembers of the so-called mainline churches, are among the most seriously affected by the economic effects of contemporary globalization. Indeed, as we have seen, their current marginalization in most countries of Sub-Saharan Africa is related historically to their resistance to its earlier colonial phase. Perhaps, too, they have sometimes turned too much to prayer when they could have been working their way out of poverty. But, in other ways, as we shall see, they may be better placed to resist some of the other ill effects.

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Confronting the Vision Behind Globalization

What is the value system that drives globalization? How does it influence the way we understand ourselves as human beings? In the present globalized form of free market capitalism, human beings have no intrinsic value except insofar as they are producers or consumers.13 As a result, a person is no longer capable of knowing himself or herself on the basis of their experience, their self-reflection, their relationship with God, or their life with other human beings in community. Instead, we are conditioned to evaluate ourselves on the basis of external measurements and manipulation, and upon our consumption of things. Moreover, the free market views us as individuals. In fact, global capitalism distrusts collective experience such as we experience in churches, clans, trade unions, and professional associations because when we come together with other people, we have the potential of creating counter-ideologies to that of the free market. isolated and conditioned people are fit for the global economy of the free market, because they do not question its basic assumptions. They are easily controlled and stimulated by advertising and by other commercially driven media. Unfortunately, some churches have adopted this definition of human beings: to them, true faith means financial success and the possession of expensive consumer items, even including private planes. Faith itself has become an investment that must produce financial returns. (We refer here to what is usually termed as the prosperity gospel.) Over against this model, I describe one alternative AIC understanding of the human condition, from the Roho (Holy Spirit) churches of Western Kenya. The Roho Church founders had a vision of a selfdisciplined human being, consciously in control of his desires, under the communal discipline of the church community. This moral discipline is part of the work of the Holy Spirit who speaks and reveals His will through prophecy, visions, laws, and dreams, in the context of worship and church meetings. The church member is exhorted and reminded that responsibility for fellow brothers and sisters in the faith, especially those most vulnerable is at least as important as meeting individual personal needs. The call to repentance and the restoration of the sinner are functions of the community, and cannot be adequately

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fulfilled by the individual concerned negotiating privately with God. Indeed, such a failure to honour and respect the community is regarded as hypocritical, a way of pursuing ones own private desires at the expense of the community. There are many such understandings among the AICs of what it means to be human, to be a Christian, and they differ in detail and theology. But behind all of them is a fleshing out in Christian teaching of what the South Africans have taught us to call ubuntu, that is, the humane life lived in community, in which all sins are, ultimately, sins against community.14 We have referred above to the description of the contemporary world as the global village. The term must have been invented by someone in the North. A village, perhaps, in respect of ease of communication, but lacking the bonds of mutual responsibility that, in fact and in day-to-day practice, bind together the people of African villages! It is precisely in this difference that one of our greatest strengths as AICs lies and one of our greatest contributions to the world community we have not lost our care for the stranger, widow, and orphan (nor handed our responsibility over to the anonymous state) nor do we regard the communality of the earliest Christian church as the natural and excusable consequence of excessive enthusiasm (Ex.22:22; Matt. 25:31-46; Acts 5:32-35; 1 Tim. 5:3-5).

Cultural Globalization15
Culture can be described simply as a peoples way of life. We have already noted that the African continent has experienced earlier forms of globalization that threatened the integrity and self-determination of the African peoples. The colonial value system was not African and the AICs did not accept it as such. Today, it is the culture of the dominant North Atlantic free market and its associated values that threaten the continent. The largest single export industry of the US is not aircraft, computers, or automobiles it is entertainment in films and television programmes.16 This culture is all the more powerful for being carried by a highly sophisticated and ever-expanding telecommunications industry. In this respect, self-determination today is even more difficult under contemporary globalization that it was under colonialism:

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in fighting colonialism, the African, at least, knew who the enemy was. The European colonial master used the open system of the school, the church, the mission and the sisal plantation to impose the European way of life. People could take the option to circumvent or avoid these institutions.17

That was, indeed, the route taken by AICs. But now, the power and influence of global media make attractive exotic lifestyles that have little or no relationship to African traditional values, or indeed, to African Christian values. Education systems are distorted by World Bank conditionalities that declare that national pride and systems of ethics have no economic benefit. At the same time, our universities are deprived of financial resources, and many youth study elsewhere in a cultural context alien to African realities. In the churches, systems of Christian faith developed for North America are marketed on TV channels and through crusades, as if they are culturally relevant appropriations of the gospel leaving aside whether they are theologically correct or not. Nevertheless, we should not despair. First, because, God values the diversity of cultures he has created. The vision of John in the book of Revelation (Ch. 7) is of every race, tribe, nation, and language. Had everyone been dressed alike in Adidas trainers, T-shirts, and Levi jeans, and speaking American English, John would not have been able to distinguish one group from another. Secondly, because it is a mistake to think that African people are completely foolish and will simply abandon their cultural birthright. Often, when external cultural fashions are adopted from abroad, they are given a new meaning in the African context. Thus, although the youth of Nairobi may be singing to hip-hop styles and rhythms taken from the US, the language they are using is sheng an indigenous mixture of Swahili, English, Kikuyu, Hindi, and other mother tongues, and they sing of the issues they face in their lives in Nairobi. (Anthropologists call this a bricolage, a new mix of items taken from different cultures, and put to a new purpose.) Indeed, currently, in Nairobi, there is a strong movement of Christian hip-hop. If we reflect on the development of our own AIC faith and worship, we can see similar processes of cultural borrowing at work. We need to allow space in our churches for this process of importation

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and adaptation to continue (as it will anyway, whether we like it or not). The criteria we should seek to apply is, does this new cultural item make christian faith or worship more relevant to people today? We can expect anger and frustration between the opposing sides during these negotiations over what is relevant or permissible. As AICs, however, we should be aware that, there is no Christian culture fixed for all thne or for all places.

What Then Can Aics Do?

Currently, there seem to be no practicable alternatives to the general process of globalization. Duchrow says, The interest payments to the global money market force all the different nations of the world to adapt to the one and same system.18 He defines two practicable strategies for Christians, who want to change the present system towards an economy which will bring life to all, strategies which he has derived from the scriptural record:19 Taming political and economic power structures through prophecy and law (established church approach); Refusing to co-operate with totalitarian systems and creating networked small-scale alternatives (the counter-culture approach in messianic groups and communities throughout all peoples.) The established church approach seeks to tame, to moderate and, hopefully, re-direct society through advocacy and law. It can lobby international agencies and national governments to take into account the social costs of globalization when new projects or programmes are planned and to make interventions that protect the most vulnerable. This approach requires its spokes-people to be members of a church that is well-respected in society.20 Few AICs are in this position: the Kimbanguists in DR Congo. the Zion Christian Church (ZCC) in South Africa, and possibly, the Harrists in Cote dIvoire. The danger here is that the church becomes co-opted by the state, which it both seeks to challenge and be accepted by. Thus, it can be argued that, the Kimbanguists were co-opted by Mobutu and the ZCC by the South African apartheid government. Internationally, the established church approach has been carried out most successfully by the World

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Council of Churches, the Roman Catholic Church, and, more recently, the Anglicans in their workshop with the World Bank in Nairobi in 2000. The other alternative is the fostering of small-scale communities, church, and community groups, based on an alternative vision, which network with other sympathetic churches and organizations for mutual support, and to act as beacons of hope to the surrounding society. Charles Villa-Vicencio argues that churches should not only be active in civil society, but that they should also take some community responsibilities upon themselves, becoming involved in community development and the political process.21 In this way through the churches living out their vision practically at the micro level in building institutions and also in stretching, as far as possible, already existing structures there is eventual hope for the transformation of the present all-embracing world order. This requires building within the shell of the old society step by step until enough experience, vision, moral energy, and political organizing has occurred enough social and political momentum has been built up to allow a more general perestroika to take place.22 To do this in the long-haul, however, requires the motivating power of a vision, and as we ourselves have already suggested the process of renewing our vision, which demands two things. Villa-Vicencio describes these two elements as critical social analysis understanding the meaning of the time, and cultural empowerment enabling people to look to their own resources and discern the Spirit of the Lord within their own culture, history, and identity.23 Some AIC communities (like Aiyetoro in Nigeria, which ran its own fishing economy and schools, with its own chief) were attempts to be self-sufficient. Most AICs, however, engage with the surrounding society in day-to-day economic affairs, but through their closely-knit congregations, constitute an alternative social support system. It is precisely such indigenous community support systems, independent of outside funding or initiative, which OAIC seeks to support through its Participatory Development and HIV/AIDS programmes (e.g., in BUCOSS Building Community Support Systems). We do so by improving the facilitating, networking, and advocacy abilities of church and leaders, and giving them professional skills where appropriate

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(e.g., in home care for people living with H1V/AIDS). Tn addition, we enable them to return to the roots of their faith in the founders visions and in the Christian Scriptures, and ask them to ensure their faith is relevant to the challenges we face in the context of contemporary globalization.

Celebration
Though economically vulnerable, AIC leaders and members are, in a number of respects, well-placed to counter globalization: 1. We have done so before, in the era of colonialism. 2. We are close to our cultural roots. 3. We are involved in frequent negotiations between our founders visions, our culture, and the demands of modernity. In other words, we have some of the necessary tools for negotiating with cultural aspects of globalization. 4. We have a genuine and strongly held faith which gives meaning to our lives, and which is not subject to any authorities outside Africa. In other words, we own our faith and we do not have divided loyalties. 5. We participate in indigenous social support structures (church congregations, community groups) that are very largely independent of external support or direction. 6. As an integral part of our Christian faith, we recognize and value ubuntu that is, our responsibility for others in the community and especially for those who are most vulnerable. We have been given these strengths at this time to benefit others. Lets celebrate our calling as AICs to speak an African Christian voice to the continent at this time of crisis.

References
1

Statement on Globalization, issued by Eighth WCC Assembly. Harare, Zimbabwe, 3-14 December 1998, in Epps, Churches in International Affairs, p. 40. 2 Hopkins, Globalization in World History, p. 4. 3 Lonsdale, Globalization, Ethnicity and Democracy, p. 202.

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4 5

Barrett, Schism and Renewal. Hopkins, Globalization in World History, p. 7. 6 Neckebrouck, Le Qnzime Gommandement, p. 459. 7 Padwick, Spirit, Desire, and the World, p. 36 8 Imunde, The Vision of the Founders. 9 Semboja, Local Perspectives on Globalization, p. 1. 10 This section draws on Semboja, pp. 2-6, except where otherwise stated. 11 During the period 1980-90, three countries experienced a drop in the human development index: DR Congo, Rwanda, and Zambia. During the period 1990-2002, the number of countries had increased to twenty. Of these, 13 were from Sub-Saharan Africa, Human Development Report, 2004, p. 132. 12 UNDP Human Development Report, 1999, p. 38. 13 This section is drawn in part from Giudici, Mission and Economy, pp. 31-33. 14 For a succinct summary of ubuntu values, see Pato, The meaning and relevance of ubuntu. 15 This section is drawn in part from Mlama, Local Perspectives on Globalization: the Cultural Domain, pp. 119-130. 16 UNDP, Human Development Report 1999, p. 33. 17 Mlama, op. cit., p. 122. 18 Duchrow, Alternatives to Global Capitalism, p. 78. 19 Duchrow, Alternatives to Global Capitalism, p. 209. I have omitted his second alternative, Transforming one society, as no longer practicable. 20 This and the following paragraph are drawn partly from Padwick, Dominant Model of Development, p. 12. 21 Villa-Vicencio, op. cit., pp. 171, 190. 22 Villa-Vicencio, op. cit., p. 241 (quoting Alperovitz, Building a Living Democacy, p. 27). 23 Villa-Vicencjo, op. cit., pp. 278-280.

Bibliography
Barrett, David B., Schism and Renewal in Africa: An Analysis of Six Thousand Contemporary Religious Movements (Nairobi: Oxford University Press, 1968).

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Duchrow. Ulrich, Alternatives to Global Capitalism: drawn front Biblical History, designed for political action (Utrecht: International Books, 1995). Epps. Dwain C., ed., The Churches in International Affairs: Reports 19951998 (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 2004). Giudici, Stephano, Mission and Economy: A Necessary Encounter for a Possible Change. An essay submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a B.A., Tangaza College, Catholic University of Eastern Africa, 1997 (Nairobi: New People, n.d.). Hopkins, A.G., ed., Globalization in World History (London: Pimlico, 2002). Imunde, Lawford, N[dege], The Vision of the Founders: Towards a Theology of Development for African Independent Churches in Africa, Background Paper No. 1, OAIC Johannesburg Theology of Development Workshop, 28th Nov. - 8th Dec. 1996. Lonsdale, Globalization, Ethnicity and Democracy: A View from the Hopeless Continent, in A.G. Hopkins, op. cit., pp. 194-214. Mlama, Penina, Local Perspectives on Globalization: The Cultural Domain, in J. Semboja, 2002, pp. 119-30. Padwick, T. John, The Dominant Model of Development: A Critique, Paper Presented at the OAIC Johannesburg Theology of Development Workshop, 28th Nov.-8th Dec. 1996. _____Spirit, Desire, and the World: Roho Churches of Western Kenya in the era of Globalization, PhD Thesis, University of Birmingham. 2002. Semboja, Joseph, et al., eds., Local Perspectives on Globalization: The African Case (Dar-es-Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota Publishers, 2002). Pato, Luke The meaning and relevance of ubuntu in the contemporary African Context, in The Anitepam Journal, No. 40, Nov. 2003, pp. 4-12. UNDP, Human Development Report, 1999 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999). _____Human Development Report, 2004: Cultural Liberty in Todays Diverse World (New York: UNDP. 2004). Villa-Vicencio, Charles, A Theology of Reconstruction: Nation Building and Human Rights (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).