CHAPTER 4

TRANSISTOR OPERATION
4.1 A junction of two junction diodes with either P-type or section being, common to, both, The resultant transistor is either an NPN or PNP type Junction transistor. In either case, 'the middle or section is very narrow compared to other sections. The junction transistor is produced in several different ways but the end result is the formation of PN, junctions. The junction may be formed in the process of growing the crystal. The thickness of the germanium of silicon crystal is important because of the possibility of its shorting out if it is too thin. On the hand the crystal is too thick, the operation of the transistor will be poor. The description given below for a germanium transistor applies equally to a silicon transistor. The NPN consists of a , very thin layer of P-type germanium between two sections of N-type germanium as shown, in, fig. 4.2. The potential hills of the two junctions are positive for the N-section and negative for the Psection. The emitter (or input NP section) is biased in the forward direction. The collector (or output PN section) is biased in the reverse direction that is the collector is positive with respect to base.

4.2

4.3 With the aid of negative potential applied to it, the free electrons in the emitter N-section will be pushed towards the first junction. The potential hill of this junction is essentially reduced by the polarity of the emitter bias battery. A number of electrons will pass through the junction and enter the middle or P-section where some of them combine with holes while other pass through. The electrons that pass through the P-section do so because of the thickness of the section and the effect of the potential hill of the second or PN junction. Actually, the potential hill, at the second junction accelerates the electrons into the collector N-section. In the collector area, the free electrons are attracted by the applied positive collector base voltage. It is important to note that the movement of electrons and holes is not in one for one process. A small percentage (about to 5%) of the electrons entering the P-section (base region) form the emitter N-section combine with theP-section holes. However the majority of the electrons from the emitter do pass through the P region. Thus most of the electron flow is between emitter and collector. The electrons leaving the emitter, are controlled by the bias potential between the emitter and base. (The similarity to a vacuum tube

triode, where the bias is between the control rid and the cathode controls the electron flow to the plate which receives most of the, electrons should now be obvious). 4.4 The PNP transistor consists of a very thin layer of N-type germanium between two sections of P-type germanium as shown in Fig.4.4. In this type, the potential hills of the two junctions are positive for the PN-section and negative for the NP-section. In the PNP transistor the connection of emitter bias battery must be positive to the emitter and negative to the base in order to forward bias the emitter. The collector bias battery must have its positive terminal connected to the base to reverse bias the collector. The potential hill of the emitter junction is reduced by the forward bias.

4.5

In the operation of the PNP sss junction transistor holes are forced from the emitter P-section into the base N-region by the positive potential of the emitter which is also creating more holes by electron removal. In the base region a small number of holes (about 1% to 5%) combine with electron from the base. Because the base region is very narrow most of the holes move on into the collector P region before they can combine with base electrons. In the collector P region the holes are attracted to the collector negative terminal and combine with electrons from the collector. Thus the major hole current is from emitter to collector, while emitter base current is very small. It is important to note that the major current carriers in the PNP transistor are holes while in the NPN transistor electrons are the major current carriers.

4.6 The NPN and PNP transistors are identified on schematics by the symbols shown in fig.4.6. The three regions comprising the transistor are called the collector, base and emitter. Emitter-base junction is always forward biased while collector-base junction is reverse biased. The emitter region is so called because it emits majority carriers into the base region. The collector gets its name because it collects the majority carriers from the base region. The base region is so called, because it is a support or base for emitter and collector materials. 4.7 The direction of electron flow in the wires connected to the transistor is shown in fig. For the NPN transistor where, electrons are the majority carriers, the electron flow shown is continuation of the internal flow. For the PNP, the majority current carriers are holes and the internal conduction is due to hole current. However, hole conduction takes place only within the semiconductor crystal itself. This internal hole conduction leads to electron flow in the external wires connected to the semiconductor material. The

direction of the electron flow is opposite to the internal hole conduction and it is electron direction that is indicated for the PNP transistor. 4.8 Figure shows the basic current paths for the NPN and PNP transistors. The battery labelled VBB provides the forward bias for the base-emitter junction. Forward biasing causes current from one terminal of the battery through the junction and resistor and back to other battery terminal. This is called base current. The resistor is included in this path to indicate that some means of controlling this current is necessary. Recall that most of the majority carriers that are injected, into the base region from the emitter do not continue in the base emitter path. They are attracted toward the larger potential applied to the collector region. This potential is supplied by the battery marked Vcc. This current that is attracted to Vcc battery is called collector current . Since both the base current and collector current come from the emitter region, a simple relationship exists between the currents: Ib + IC = le

In words the emitter current separates in the transistor into the base current and also the collector current. 4.9 The amount of collector current depends on the amount of base current. More the base current, the more the majority carriers that are injected into the base region and the collector current is, therefore, larger. The base current converts the current supplied by Vcc into a controlled current, namely the collector current. The amount of collector current is related to the base current by the following simple but important relationship: lc = 1b The Greak letter (Beta) represents the current gain of the transistor. It is important to understand the twin loop concept depicted in the preceding illustration. One loop is the base current path (the input circuit) and the other loop is the collector current path (the output circuit). As will be seen later, the signal to be amplified is added to the base bias current and the output signal is derived from the collector current. The idea of base current regulating or controlling collector current is the basic operation of the transistor amplifier. 4.10 The most important thermal consideration is the increase in base to collector reverse current that occurs as temperature increases. The reverse biased base to collector junction has very small current through it due to minority carriers. The situation is shown for the NPN transistor in figure. This current is referred to as I CE0 (an abbreviation for collector cut off current) This is the collector current that would flow if the base lead were left disconnected. ICE0 has a particular value at room temperature, but it increases as the temperature increases. This results in a situation where there is a certain amount of collector current which is not controlled by the base current, leading to unpredictable results. Precautions have, therefore, to be taken to minimize ICEO, and related effects due to change in ICEO with temperature.