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NEW ASPECTS OF
POLITICS
ft
NEW YORK
TBE CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
LONDON
THE MARUZEN-RABUSHIKI-KAISHA
TOKYO, OSAKA, KYOTO, FUKOOKA, SBNDAI
'
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
CHARLES EDWARD MERRIAM
Professor oj Political Scienccy The University of Chicago
SECOND EDITION
ILLINOIS
3Z0.I
COPYRIGHT 1925 AND I93I BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. PUBLISHED SEPTEMBER I925
Second Edition April iQji
PREFACE
It has
become commonplace
to say that
we
are
The ways
many
ed to
many
phases of
human
life,
Y organization
modern
^
we may ask. What place new world of social and mental In what manner can politics and
Will politics
persist as ^
{t)
an indispensable nuisance, or
will it
take
on some of the characteristics we now call scientific? One answer to the challenge of the new time is
that the age has
come
v^We
must,
it is
and endeavor
to reconstruct
new
types of
^ institutions other than those we now call pohtical. This protest, however, is no new phenomenon
vi
PREFACE
Nor
will it
in history.
dawn
of organized
political society.
felt
the halter
Not only because "no rogue e'er draw with good opinion of the law,"
have
all
states at
all
times.
But would there be any magic in the change of that would essentially alter the process of political control? The balance of social and industrial groups may be and has been changed, but would "a democratic supreme court of functional equity," as suggested by Mr. G. D. H. Cole, be very much different from the government with its co-ordinat-
name
The
difficulty
is
that altering
the
name
PREFACE
effectively developed.
tice,
all
vii
Both
in theory
and
in prac-
how may
political science
make
best use of
mod-
The
I.
objectives of politics
may
be briefly sum-
The elimination of waste in political action. The release of political possibilities in hu--
man
I.
nature.
Among War
2.
Revolutions
(civil
wars)
3.
classes
Graft
Spoils
2.
3. 4.
Exploitation
inertia
5.
and deadlock
of groups
6.
viii
PREFACE
All of these lead to lowered productivity
and
lowered good
er in
feeling,
II.
The second
nature.
that of
human
has
Historically
government
now tend
interest.
mumbo-jumbo,
prestige; selpossiin-
group
bilities,
human
and
adjustments of
Modern
methods of government would unlock the constructive faculties of human nature and make possible
in
we have long
able to re-
and
in proportion as
we have been
place these factors by scientific analysis and reorganization, progress has been made. Politics
is
now groping
its tasks.
its
way
in the dark,
modern
It
is
PREFACE
ix
revolution
any system of political science can prevent war, and imperfect adjustment, but the
may
gradually be mini-
remote
possibilities,
and maladintensity.
in
number and
At any
although they
commonplace.
lic
Among them
the state,
the
pub-
and rough laws for burden-bearing and public order. But on the whole they were immense advances from the regime of tooth and claw which they
superseded.
The
may
seem to work hardship in many cases, the conference and compromise of parliamentary bodies may seem timid and slow and inadequate, the rules may be outworn and hard pressed by modern needs; but on the whole these contrivances are milestones
in the evolution of the race,
industrial
and cultural
The
political process
has been
made up
of two
X
less
PREFACE
contrivance and invention looking to change
life,
dubious con-
made automatic; and then we go on to new situations. The new rule of the road is hard to learn, it
is
resisted,
but
it
becomes automatic
and
is itself
make
wasteful
The
have
all
pose of releasing social energy that might otherwise have gone into personal and national brawls.
The
military establishment
to
may
aggressive
PREFACE
triguers, the administration
xi
may become
is
an
ineffi-
cient bureaucracy.
But
this
and ecowhose organizations may become ends in themselves rather than means to an end. All these institutions have their parasites, their perverters, their traitors, their fussy incompetents who use the symbolism of the church or the chamber of commerce or the labor union or the
state than of the church or of other social
institutions,
nomic
And
be said of any
the time
human
institu-
tion.
when
it is
neces-
and
political control.''
all will
We
compla-
any time out of depths of ignorance and hatred world-war, anarchy, industrial and political revolution, recurring discontent and distress. What advantage shall we reap if science conquers the whole world except the world's government, and then turns its titanic forces over to a government of ignorance and prejudice, with labor-
may emerge
This readjustment
is
not successfully
xii
PREFACE
carried through
civiHzation.
may
result in the
wreck of modern
me
physical re-
may
is
not neces-
sary; but
it
is
important
be
urgent
more
than important,
social science
and of
political
new time in which we and the remarkable physical world into which
it
we
may
well be that
human
that,
if
relations
comes
last,
less in-
But
true,
stitute an
adequate reason
make
the thing
we
char-
"human nature"
own
has
is
any more complex than that of the atom, once regarded as simple and basic, but now appearing to be a miniature cosmos in itself.
Obviously
this
readjustment
is
any one individual, or even of any set of individuals, for the new methods will be worked out in actual experience and through experiment running over
PREFACE
a period of years. It
is
xiii
method,
in the
may
take up the
more
intelligent
and
scientific
A
may
cal
am
un-
That economics and sociology have contributed and government I should be the first to insist. In suggesting
that politics
sit
and
statistics
am not
suggesting that
we ask our
must
Only
this: politics
follow
problem wher-
The
must
xiv
PREFACE
lost.
not be
On
constantly going
all
branches of
upon
my own
some of
assure
my
colleagues
who seem
to fear too
The real danger is that our advances in method and practice will not keep up with the procession of modern thought. It is not the purpose of this volume to suggest either a new theory of politics or a new system of
many
have been
in large
measure
in
the
special pleadings
no doubt be
many more
of
and others, of proletarians, agrarians^ capitalists, of Occident and of Orient. Many of these will be useful, but in the main they will not be scientific unless methods are changed under the pressure of modern intelligence. This particular study is directed toward an improvement in method or
political reasoning
PREFACE
of propaganda. It
is
XV
changes
in the
Here again
it
must be
is
political process,
in
make
scious
and more
The
perfection
and the discovery of scientific relations in the political process these are fundamental to all theories and to all changes in form of political institutions, and these are the subject of this inquiry.
In these papers the writer has discussed the recent history of political thinking, the relation of
politics to psychology, the use of the quantitative
method
and of biology, the organization of political prudence, and other kindred topics, in the hope that others more competent might be stimulated to contribute to the new
to the study of environment
xvi
PREFACE
which
is
politics
to
emerge
in the
steadily
every
No
the
shortcomings of
that one stronger might have escaped, and the inevitable that arise from the nature of the present
I have undertaken this hazardsome would say hopeless, task, trusting that it might be a contribution direct or indirect to the development of clearer political thinking and
ous, or
sounder practice.
I
am
The American
"The May,
May,
1922; "Progress
Political Research,"
May,
1923;
"The
Review,
"The Next
perhaps be able to
still
newer
as-
am
and, in view of
my
am
endeavoring to
of the
point out
striking tendencies in
first
edition, in 1925.
They
are not,
little
may
hasten to
say, consequences of
my
tants
^joint
Most important
of
all
many
in the
many minor
rise
councils
in different universities,
'
and of the
of numerous
conferences at Dartmouth,
sion in 1928
New
Hampshire; particularly
the" discus-
on the trends of
social research
and the
New Program
adopted
in 1929.
xviii
and in various European countries a list so long that the enumeration of names would prove tiresome.
The
the interrelations of
tl^e
There
cial
is
on the part of
domain of biological research, including under the biological the medical and the fringes of psychiatry and psychoanalysis. Research in such fields as personality and child development
research and the
'
Social Sciences;
and Methods
in Social Science:
A Casebook^ edited by
Stuart Rice, which represents a beginning in the study of methodology, although far from a satisfactory solution.
'
The
New
much
an Experiment
xix
Although no adequate survey has been made of the personal and institutional developments of this
character in Europe and America,
it is is
clear that a
notable
movement
in this direction
well under
and intensive study of human behavior, focusing upon it all the techniques and skills of the social and the biological sciences. A quiet revolution is going on, the results of which are likely to be far
sive
for
noisier
and
social
demonstrations
may
possibilities of
advance
will
hanced.
An
expression of this
is
new movement
in
governmental research
which the elements of a program are indicated, reflecting the new stream of tendencies, social and
economic, and indicating new directions and new
methods.^
'
perusal of this
document
will
supply
XX
ample evidence of the richer possibilities in the study of government, unfolded by the events and
trends of recent years. ^
It is
not without
signifi-
mendation
among
made by
the re-
by agencies
for
sprung up without a vocational background. Especial attention has been given to the discovery of
and its relations with psychology, psychiatry, and medicine, to its methodology even. This tendearlier observable in
Continental
Law,
summary
of these tendencies.
xxi
last
few years
found root
to
in the soil of
American
legal
study
and begun
indeed,
its
speed of this
bud and blossom. The direction and movement cannot be predicted; and,
and
of
field
human
behavior
ments
which
in the
study of the
some of
in
may
nomena has been evident within the past few years. Notable among these studies are the works of Gosnell,'
Rice,"
Catlin,^
Allport,^
Giese,^
White,^
consid-
The important
Votes.
and
Why
Europe
*
^
Science
and Method in
in a Certain
XIX
(1925), 735-60;
"A
Technique
for the
XX
(1926), 241-44.
Die
offentliche Personlichkeit.
L. D. White, Prestige Value of Public Employment in Chicago. (with Chave) The Measurement of Attitude
articles.
^L. L, Thurstone:
(1929); and
*
numerous
Method
in
Science.
xxii
eration here
direction
and method of the inquiry, which is for the moment more important than the goal attained by the particular investigation. The attempt to find measurable units of political phenomena is of
very great interest to the student of political
ence, even though the particular
sults
sci-
methods and
re-
may
many
respects.
A
Out
Mr. Gosnell and published under the title Getting the Vote. This was an effort to measure the effect of certain stimuli upon voters of various types and classes in a particular election, using a control group and an experimental group. But in general, scholars still stand mute before the task either of setting up experiments in this field or of intensive and accurate observation of experiments actually going on. It may safely be predicted, however, that another generation will see important
advances
studies
in this sector.
made
in
the
direction
of
and
Politics^ a
daring
and
xxiii
of its kind.
also
in
and Allport
and Character
is
constitutionalism,
psychology,
psy-
may reasonably anticipate a much clearer view of the human "personality," or whatever the axis or axes of this problem may be called in the next stage
of inquiry.
for the
The
modes of
numerous and important and may well have a determining influence on the trends and methods of
'
See supra.
Compare
E. Miller, Types of
is
Mind and
Thomas'
Body.
useful
summary
in
of modes of approach
given
in
C/?ild in
America; also
!-tudies
of interest in
H.
S. Sullivan,
titles are
conveniently
Appendix A.
xxiv
may
be, the
who
A dissenting opinion on
cal research has
been
filed
Beard
is
concerned
lest
upon humanistic implications it would be unfair to conclude that either of these writers wishes to do more than file a caveat regarding undue emphasis on methodology as against creative intelligence, and
quiry and too
little
Nor have
a notable contri-
vi.
'
'
xxv
Grammar of Politics
continues the
it
might be allocated
Dewey
and political problems, notaand Its Problems, and Smith in his Democratic Way of Life .^ Italian, Russian, and Into social
pragmatism
dian philosophers have stated their respective doctrines in impressive form, particularly in the writ-
vance
new statement
of rabe, in
re-
may
may reasonably
now found
a
new interpretation with perhaps a new logic. But "science" will be inside, not outside, this new philosophy when it appears. The whole structure
'
Compare
Elliot's
Pragmatic Revolt
"^
>
in Politics (1928), a
'
trenchant
critique of Laski.
'
>'
'
''
,
xxvi
mands re-examination of its fundamentals in the light of modern economic and social conditions, of modern technology, the new morality, the new science, the new philosophy. Here the adventurous
political theorist
lytical
may
find full
faculties,
sweep
and synthetic
weaving together
research.
the
ence;
far
been closely
others indiin this
in
followed up.
cate,
genthe
eral direction,"
under-
anthropology
in a
new
synthesis of interpretation.
is
Weber's Dukini-
Dnks
tiation into
primitives alone. It
economics
'
will
Ori^i^sJ
trie'sft! t'c^
'
xxvii
may well
The
never as
sterile as it
may momentarily
is
perhaps a new
the brink of
logic.
Public administration
scientific in the
at
in
much more
treatment
study of
human
com-
mon problems
series of social
groups
is
will
be recognized. Interna-
tional. relations
ready
for the
touch of those
who
and historical methods the quickening spirit of modern economic and social science and revolutionize now antiquated modes of
can add to the
juristic
study. Party
in
phenomena
which the nature of public opinion, of pressure groups, of propaganda, will be found of fundamental
importance.
Those who are inand in leadership abundant and increasing material in the more
xxviii
fringes in
intensive
a generation ago.
by which the study of jurisprudence now being revolutionized; and the student of
is
government
training, in its
framework of
magni-
many modwe
ern devices
may
of political research,
seem indeed
in
change
A
tion
the increasing
employment of
in the
technical informa-
and advice
is
formulation of governmental
of this
plans of action.
tendency
application
to
public
health,
but almost
xxix
many
Another
is
the appointment
to report
by President upon
made
of expert advice in
for the
new
the
plans of action.
Conspicuous
its re-
among
these
is
German
the
Stadtetag, with
markable
tional
scale,
facilities for
prompt
collection
and
Union of
Cities
is
and many smaller organizations are springing up at widely scattered points in response to the same com.mon impulse for the better interchange of governmental experiences in the conduct of somewhat similar experiments. The recently organized Public Administration Clearing House in
the United States
is
The
efficiency or rational-
XXX
movement has given new impetus to these movements in many instances, partly because of the pressure of taxes and partly because of the
ization
on the whole
likely that
ress will
be made at
immediate
future.
The
close observation of
governmental ex-
affairs.
tific, it
prudence.
Summing up
last
tween
of
social science
and the
biological
and medical
sciences
human
ma-
and method of political science and to the mechanisms for the prosecution of research. Still
terial
more
and
xxxi
more
realistic
as propaganda, the
new forms of
inevitable
logic
and philosophy of
politics.
On
the practical
ward more
cials
effective organization
and exchange of
offi-
and research groups generally. There are many indications that out of these new situations there will arise conditions more favorable to creative political thought, more conducive to the attainment of a higher level
cal observation,
in politi-
alike.
maladjustments of the most formidable and menacing type threaten modern civilization at various points, and he would be a rash prophet who
Political
all
is
heir to.
of
still
may
xxxli
may
as the art
develop their
fuller possibilities.
Charles E. Merriam
January
2,
1931
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
Politics"
II.
24 66
loi
III.
IV. Politics
and Numbers
and En137
163
vironment
VI. Political
VII.
Prudence
in
the Organization of
Mu181
nicipal Research
VIII.
The Tendency of
Politics
201
Index
249
content with government. At first this uneasiness seemed due to the arbitrary nature of the older forms of monarchy and autocracy, but when the ancien regime had been destroyed, there was still
restlessness
organized
mous groups from its control; in somewhat the same spirit communism assailed democracy. Diand dictatorships grew in favor, even The methods and the mechanisms of parliamentary government aroused universal attack.^ The courts and the law to a dangerous extent lost their prestige as Solomonrect action
among
the intelligent.
common
ideas of justice.
po-
Summarized by Willey
in
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it,
litical,
or never acquired
politicians
grew greater
and for the uncertainty caused by the struggles between industrial groups, it is clear that there are deeper causes at work, and that these are
trophic war,
We
are in
coming into a new world, with new social conditions and with new modes of thought and inquiry, and we may well inquire what direction and form
our politics must take
press these
if it is
to interpret
and ex-
new world. It is consequently important to inquire what is the background of the new deyelopment in politics, what are the methods that are likely to prevail in the new order of inquiry, and what are
tendencies of the
new
some of the
mote, that
possibilities,
re-
may
arise
the problems of
to
of
only a tentative
and of
W,
eliciting criticism
and
"Umano,"
Positiva
and
Scientific
Method (1923).
FOUNDATIONS OF THE
NEW
POLITICS
more useful plans and proposals may perhaps arise. This is, in short, not so much a work of conviction as a challenge; not a conclusion, but a constructive criticism and
further suggestion out of which
a forecast.
new political world is found in a variety of factors, some of which may be enumerated here.^ One significant situation is the participation of a larger part of the community
The background
of the
government than in previous periods of the world's history. During the greater part of man's experience, the bulk of the population in any poHtical unit was excluded from a full
in the process of
role in
serf, subject,
and with it the alleged necessity of restraint of the mass of the community through unthinking custom alone, or through force and unreason, or through
cunningly devised literary or legal defenses of the
status quo.
Another
significant circumstance
is
the largely
-'
The common
ness, a life
'
mankind has been that of toil day ending in weariunfavorable to reflection. There was
lot of
in Political
See
my
"Recent Tendencies
Thought,"
in History
others.
4
little
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
new
attitude to-
time,
on the way
diments of what we
call
an education
will
be
his.
The meaning
systems based upon the assumption that most men were not trained to think. The process by which might is turned into right will be a more difficult one in the future than in the past, and the
pretexts that once satisfied the casual dissenter
will
no longer be adequate
to silence him, or to
who attempt
political
by general edu-
in
communication and transportation, which withthe last two generations have transformed the
physical world.
the an-
cient isolation of
series of
in
motion a
make
The
com-
munication of every
human
and incommuniis
fast disappearing,
in pro-
upon out-
grown conditions of time and space are hard pressed by the facts of modern life, and cannot
sustain themselves.
A new
sense of international
forces
human
relations
modify them.
the larger leisure
See
J.
sell,
Icarus (1924).
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
the larger
the
resources
inquiry
these
political order,
and which
ernment upon a wholly different plane from that upon which it has hitherto rested. They show not only a shift in the character of mass thought, but also a possible reorganization of the standards and attainments of political reasoning at its most advanced points. Furthermore, the changing
intellectual struc-
Of
reli-
and science we
It
is
may
ask.
What
world?
importance
of the role of philosophy and religion in shaping men's minds politically has declined during the last generation. Certainly in the political do-
main
ligion
field
their position
is
world of
Re-
to theo-
took pos-
and eight-
FOUNDATIONS OF THE
eenth centuries and held
eenth,
its
NEW
form
POLITICS
when
it
took
its final
the
modern
world
have immediately
more remote periods of human existence when religion and government were difficult to disentangle, and when the king and
preceded us, or
priest
were
one".
Thomas
and the eloquent Bishop of Meaux, philosophers of the significance of Locke, Hobbes, Hegel no longer are able to impose their classifications and categories upon the human mind in the field of
government. This
is
fig-
commanding
positions in our
is less signifi-
of the
modern
far the
world.^
By
the
most
somewhat unsatisfactory name of "science." In this field we come upon revolutionized types of thinking, whose application has transformed in*
This topic
is
more
on "Recent
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and the modes of human living.' In the fields of chemistry, physics, and biology, the advance of scieritific method has been very
dustrial processes
mental changes
by which they have wrought fundain the structure of industrial and social life. Among the more significant consequences have been the large increase in the control
of
man over the forces of nature, the release human energies from manual toil, and changes
human
intercourse.
of
in
the estab-
when
it fell
before
re-
spect the
commands
if
they crossed
steadily
its
path toward
its
moved
onward toward
Human
'
W. Libby, History
of Science; F. C, S.
and Method of
Science;
W.
C. Curtis,
Science
direction of
Human
Evolution.
tween them, as
ral"
if
one were
in
other in another.
The
field,
and
in
some
to ar-
was impossible
The study
without
od.
It
is
of
human
its significant
Comte
it.
in fact, carry
finally
humanity" and a crude piece of What survived was not his "somewhat fantastic and certainly unscientific scheme of a world-state, not the cult of Comte, but the suggestion of and the impulse to the scientific study of social phenomena.
political contrivance.
*
This position
is
well stated in
Max
lo
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
human
nature were
made
and psychology.^ biology, anthropology, Likewise geography, and engineering made significant advances toward the border line of the social field, and made it necessary and desirable to reckon with them in the formulation of social and pohtical conclusions. The sighistory, economics, statistics,
by
may
be very briefly
it is
im-
them
or to
make
History contributed,
turies, the
in contrast
and
ical
to strengthen the
predominant
social
and
polit-
who
'
for
this topic.
'
New
History
and
ii
was undeniably closely allied with nationalistic and other forms of propaganda. Notwithstanding this obvious weakness the historical point of view was a valuable one, and tended to raise both the level of general intelligence and the standards of scientific criticism of
aspects
it
many of its
events.
: The most significant development in the economic field was the appearance of the doctrine of the economic interpretation of history and of polit-
ical
and and
ical
phenomena
throughout
a
terms of systems of
new method
of analysis
of
its
human
institutions
and behavior.
it
Whatever
scientific
adequacy,
operated significantly
and
effectively upon the formation of political and economic judgments, and must be ranked
among
Two
period.
were also
this
and psychology. Statistics appeared in systematic form almost simultaneously with Comte's project for a science of
statistics
^
These were
of History;
12
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
latter part of the nineteenth
society,
and the
century de-
The mechanism of
attempted
in
many
directions.
The
use of such
and
this
development
is
unquestionably of
Psychology during
ence,
this period
advanced from
sci-
from introspection
to
objective measure-
Here we encounter the beginnings of a more acute analysis of human traits and behavior and the development of a special technique for measurement and comparison of traits, and of the special conditions under which differentials in these traits are produced. This was true not only of mental testing or measurement, but also of other
ment.3
too early to
make any
'
'
and Numbers."
See chap,
13
seems to contain
human
na-
and to open out broad avenues of approach some of the situations hitherto most baffling to the world's thinkers. It is too early and it would be too easy to assume or conclude that psychology
to
all
offers at
golden
possibilities to the
Significant progress
was
also
made by
the geog-
raphers
who
in
the
Humboldt and
later of
Rat-
and its climate. In its later forms geography took on the aspect of social geography, and began the study of institutions as influenced by their physical environment. Thus geography occupied a middle position between geology on the one hand and social organization on the other, endeavoring to interpret them to each other. Political geography was also undertaken
features of the earth
the the
human knowledge
far
14
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Systems
anthropometry) and to be used for determining some of the fundamentals of the various racial
groups.
Some
propaganda of various groups, but there was also something of scientific method in the process, and significant advances were made when all is considered.
rose
it
accomplish-
from which
human
Out
of biology also
came
The remarkable
ful
made
'
bounds of human
knowledge
15
Among
the subjects
biology),
and the
practical
development of what
came
to be called eugenics.
The
latter signified a
means of reorganizing the physical basis of the race, and of immense advance in the improvement of the stock of humankind.
possible
It
is
advances
in history,
development of
politi-
thought and
scientific
new politics
and
intel-
new
social
more than
velopments
like-
growth of
and
may
be raised.
What have
these inquiries to do
What
i6
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
new
disciplines in
heavy a
in the
of government?
This
ing
may
be answered in the
first
place
if it is
by askon without
pos-
study
politics or to solve
governmental
in
the
of government.
We
its
head
in the sand.
Inevitably the
thesis, in
new
politics will
be a
new syn-
which elements from the older and the newer disciplines will be brought together and articulated and organized. An intelligent study of human government will reach out for all the materials
make them
a part
its system, discarding what is no longer useful and absorbing what is desirable and beneficial. That the mass of mankind now participate in government, that their leisure has been vastly in-
of
17
these
are
its
ment; that a science of society has begun to develop; that statistics and psychology are available
methods of inquiry; that biology, anthropology, engineering are all at work on the fundamental
as
problems of
human
upon the
political
these are
facts
They
who have
or
of the
new world
in
which we
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
advances to
politics as
The new world demands scientific knowledge new world-forces that are being
will
not
world
in a period
where
stability
the
man. The politics of the new world into which we are coming must correspond with the
rest of its hfe. It
from a
must reckon
lei-
new world
traditional state of
mind; a world of
scientific
methods and
nature's
master of
forces in greater measure than before dreamed possible; the participation of the bulk of the community in its fundamental conclusions. What form of government these changes, more revolutionary than any that ever shook France or
I shall
But some of the possibihties in the development of the science of government will be considered. Furthermore, we must face the fact that the world possesses two great mechanisms of control
19
same form
or
These
likely to
most powerful
is
figures
is
already established;
making.
is about and has already encompassed the Western nations. It may be conceded that much of modern education is crude and imperfect;
all
its
imperfections, the
for a steadily
growing period,
and
it
the field of adult education and development. Its mechanisms are the subject of the most intensive study and are constantly being revised and strengthened by an army of workers whose lives are devoted to the most minute and thoroughgoing in-
of govutilized
by
this
ment.
ao
NEW
Eugenics
is
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
developed than edu-
cation as a
trol,
mechanism
for social
and
its
political con-
but
it is
methods
will
in
may be possible
to predetermine in considerable
monwealth of the
measures
in
comby for-
no
role.
in his Republicy
such as to permit
its
and
in the
The
acter
and quality of
We
must
are
and
its possibilities
mean
may
er certainty
before. If
we
and swiftness than has ever been seen learn definitely the traits and types
W.
E. Kellicott, The
Social Direction of
Human
Evolution.
FOUNDATIONS OF THE
of men,
types
NEW
POLITICS
traits
21
we
is
encourage and
foster,
It
may
be determined, perhaps to
or impossible even.
an extent that would now be considered chimerical The new politics must reckon
tom, with force, and with rationalizations,
reli-
with them as the older did with unreflective cusgious, philosophical, or legal, designed for the special
occasion.
chemistry
may come
situation or not,
we
when
it
may
be necessary and possible to decide not merely what types of law we wish to enact, but what types of person we wish to develop, either by the process of education or of eugenics. If the methods and the
processes of social treatment develop as rapidly in
it
may
And
if
has
22
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it
among
may
be
possible to determine
what
Under
form of government
tions than
may
On what
sort of data
ical reasoning,
when
we ap-
idle to
crude fashion
it is
true;
new world
and
inevitably
more complex
and
we now
is
pos-
politics
likely to
be
scientific
FOUNDATIONS OF THE
NEW
POLITICS
23
is
embalming of
tradition
and
as
we may study
for the
government.
II
survey
is
to
examine the
in recent years
and of the related social sciences. It is also proposed to examine specifically the advance made in methods of the study of government in the United States. And, further,
it is
method
remaining obstacles.
An
thought
if
time permitted
we might sketch
We
inter-
and we might
Any
thorough
25
affect the
method
it
present purposes
will
made and
to
that
its
results
also
mind of the
inquirer. It
would
be desirable
and necessary
as this to
assume that
this
made.
We may
limits of time,
but
it is
hoped that
it
what methods are now open to the use of political scientists, and what the relative advantages of these methods may be.
METHODS
IN
RELATED FIELDS
The development
so intimately asso-
26
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
under obligations to
The
classical
and
came into vogue. The climax of the classical school was found in the writings of the British
lation
who
while in
many
The
ways
may
larly
among
the
German
ment of
what might
Men-
the earlier forms of analysis to another aspect of the economic process which they called the subjective
and which some others term psychological. Here we have an attempt to interpret economic
'
27
motives,
instincts,
tendencies,
or
in
short,
havior.^
emphasis
and reasoning.
From another
times
statistics
and opportunities. The application of these measurements was direct and evident, closely concerned with the profit-making and quantity-production system of the day, and the result was the accumulation
to the stress of business requirements
'
See
W.
C.
Mitchell's
notable
discussion of "Quantitative
XV,
M.
of
Political
Economy,
XXVI,
i; Z.
R. G. Tugwell
(ed.).
a8
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
To
be sure,
more accurate than the estimates of the future, but the latter began to find a modest place in the calculations of the more daring economists.'
The
and application.' Loria, following Marx, undertook an interpretation of institutions in terms of economic interests and
forces which, while not very skilfully executed,
so-
group
wider acceptance
among
environment,
'
it
W. M.
'
29
human
behavior in
all
instances.
in
While
terms
what determined
interests
their precise
same economic
might
differ
and even
economic
conflict, in
and might
lie
in the
forms or types of
clear
The study of history during this period developed materials of great significance to political
science, although its influence
in the
is
not as notable as
century.
historical
method had
swept the
nomics.
the
both
in
The German historical jurisprudence and German national economics had illustrated in
influence
method of inquiry. In this period the historical was unquestionably dominant, although toward the end of the era it tended to weaken and
30
NEW
it
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
was supplanted by processes
of
decline where
History
itself
same
flict
The
con-
in this
Ranke,
Lamprecht, and
in
Turner recognized the influence of mass, races, societies, economic and social tendencies in determining the course of historical events, and they reached
in
some instances
his-
and History of Historiography, especially chap, vii on the "Historiography of Positivism"; Shotwell, /f/j/ory of History; F. J. Teggert, Processes of History (191 8); John C. Merriam, "Earth
Sciences as the Background of History," Scientific Monthly, January,
New
History
and
the
Social Studies.
31
historical writing,
While these tendencies appeared, the bulk of however, was still under the
narrative with
some deference to the influence of social forces, but often without any very searching analysis of these factors or any technique other
than of
critical
documentation.
The
historian
unknown. In
his criti-
plain.
the point of view of political science, howimmense amount of institutional political history was uncovered and made available. In the absence of a more definite technique on the part of the students of politics and of an adequate number of observers and students of government, the boundary lines between government and history were blurred, as indeed they must always overlap,
ever, an
From
was
still
in the
hands of the
historical group.
32
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
The review of
the scientific processes and forms was completely taken over by the technicians in the various scientific disciplines, as in the case of the history of mathematics, the history of chemistry,
eration
by the
sociologists,
While much of the work of Comte and Spencer was abandoned, there remained an impulse toward the development of a science of socifashion.
ety,
many
stu-
dents.^
The work
of Gumplowicz, Ratzenhofer,
For the
incidental
sociologists a central
problem was
was
and
collateral,
Of
by
special significance
See H. E. Barnes,
to Political
XV,
487; Albion
W.
33
and
institu-
type of Bodin in
New
interest
The
very definite
social technology,
ue
in the
The
frequent use of
phenomena.
Of great
significance to the
methods of political
in
of the race and in the study of the characteristics of the various groups of mankind.^ In the field of
quantitative
'
measurement,
anthropology
made
' See T. L, Myres, "The Influence of Anthropology on the Course of Political Science," University of California Publications^ Vol. IV,
No.
I.
34
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
work out the characteristics of groups by means of physical standards and tests. Even anthropology, however, was often overlaid with race prejudice or with
material progress, endeavoring to
national influence or propaganda of an absurdly
transparent type.
A significant development
rise of anthropogeography.
at this point
was the
of this
The beginnings
study
may be found in
Montes-
The
researches of Ratzel
and others in this field were of special magnitude and value ;^ and they were developed and carried on by many students in various sections of the world. In the most advanced form of their inquiries, these students
tion of
human
is
vironment; but
more than
factors
of the
commonly
called social.
On
to shift the
emphasis from
Anthropogeographie;
sein
Boden,"
in Politische
Geographie.
3s
Advancing from purely philosophical inquiry to standardized and comparable methods of observation, psychology tended to become an instrument of relative precision and uniformity in its application. It was no longer introspective and meditative alone, but developed instruments for making observation standardizable and comparable, and
began to make possible a clearer understanding
of
human
behavior, and of
unknown
human
but
in
nature.
The
was not
time the
began to be appreciated
science.
dis-
cussion, into
common
inquiry.
In
still
closely the
'
26
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
same problem and undertook
were interested
in the
METHODS OF POLITICAL INQUIRY Without undertaking a comprehensive review, a brief sketch of the early development of political method may not be amiss at this point. The first methods of political inquiry are best exemplified in the work of the Greeks.^ In general their approach to the problems of politics was the philosophical. In the case of Aristotle, however, extensive use
institutions, based
The
tutor
patron
facilities for
In the Aristotelian
the highest value. Primarily philosophical in method, he nevertheless used to a considerable extent
what we now
tional
call
method.
It
Aristotle
and Plato politics looked forward rather than backward, endeavoring to find the form of an
and the means of maintaining it. In Aristotle this was extended to the study of the
ideal state
'
See Dunning,
Gettel, History of
Political Thought.
37
methods by which any state might be preserved. The method of the Romans was primarily juristic in character. They borrowed their philosophy from the Greeks and busied themselves with the tasks of government, administration, and law. In legal science they constructed an edifice which is still one of the intellectual wonders of the world, a marvel of political prudence and sagacity. In the scientific study of government they did not advance beyond the Greeks. The medieval political theory was legal and theological in nature. The contest between church and state overshadowed the period, and little progress was made in the scientific study of government. The chief stimuli were, in
in the
fact, the rediscov-
Roman
is
the
Occam would any time, but of the verification of hypotheses they remained innocent.
chief weapon, Aquinas, Marsilius,
fare well at
Italian
thinker, breaking
38
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
a process which
if
continued
Rensome of the methods of the Greek and to these added the study of history as a basis for political conclusions. Likewise Montestury, sometimes called the Aristotle of the
aissance, revived
study of
channels of observation
institutions of govern-
ment and society, and for the moment while he charmed the European world with his Esprit des
loisy
succeeded
in
doing
so.
how-
development
in the
seventeenth and
men
tics
for generations.
upon an assumed state of nature and the traits of mankind as discovered in this precivil state. But as no such state was found, either in records or by observation, the characteristics of the political man were largely deduced from the imagination or the credulity of the philosopher. This situa-
39
upon government is treason to the divineand encouraged men to believe that government is a creature of their own will and purpose over which they possess complete control.
ly annointed king,
to this extent
it
And
human
mind from the bonds of custom and tradition. But it did not go far toward the advancement of
a genuine political science.^ Montesquieu, Bodin,
The
turies,
no-
in the eight-
and
social reasoning
had
marked
German
philosophers.^ Bosanquet
and Cole, an
essayist,
discussed political
problems
^
Bertrand
Some
cit..
40
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
theory of
politics.
The
affairs,
and demands
clear
it is
was on the
decline as
Many
and
pri-
many
was
ideas.
the
economic forces
in
Se-
41
by the
rising
study of
social forces
and of
a modern
"subjective public law" and Wurzel with his "projection theory" are conspicuous examples of legal
logic modified
Lombroso and his more conservative followers to adopt methods of measurement, to consider the influence of the environment and to statistical analysis, foreign to the
speculations of the stricter juristic group, but enor-
mously
frequent
way
velopment of poHtical
historical
institutions.
The modern
movement began
as a reaction against
and swept through the domain of law and government. In recent times it has been a wellperiod,
42
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
much
expended
under
is
The
process of development
employed
for the
and
social
lessons,
mor-
Thus
its
people
is
used to explain
its
present status or
eration of
present situation.
and
dis-
similarities in
on
in recent years
a conspicuous example
43
many
In
general, description
in this
and
classification are
developed
way and
and
With the comparison of types there came to be a body of political science centering around the
observation and description of actual processes of
historical de-
Much
of Bryce's
work
under
Modern Democracies^
oj the
of this
were made
some decidedly descriptive and strucand some more noticeably analytical. Many of these studies were of course combined with historical inquiries and comparative and analogical
the world,
tural
researches.
was the form of investigation which came to be called the survey. This method of investigation
44
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
in economics,
gov-
was the actual observation of forces in operation, with an effort to measure these forces and to standardize some system of measurement. The survey owed much to the engineers and the accountants
who The
contributed materially to
its
development.
precision.
Surveys
human
element in their calculations, although not achieving complete success in this undertaking.
The
ac-
human
behavior or
human
specific purposes.
45
had
the sociolo-
of view.
to the efforts
London and
classic
many
type
modern methods was the Pittsburgh survey, followed by many others, usually upon a smaller scale. The survey,
of large-scale survey employing
an
ele-
ment of
sis,
scientific analysis,
it
and
as far as possible
measured accurate-
The
political
The
large-scale losses
cities
expenditure in
^
46
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
was met by specialized analysis and inquiry for the purposes of community protection. These investigations, while carried on by
cialized grafting
The
other
movement was
the
The political survey was the and elsewhere. immediate observation of the operations of government combined with the effort to measure these operations as precisely as possible and to organize methods of comparison and conduct analysis of facts observed. This method was distinct from the juristic method or the historical method or the historical-comparative method in that it substituted actual observations of government in operation and made strenuous efforts toward precise measurement. These efforts were not always wholly successful, but at any rate they were movements
in the direction of precision. Later, similar under-
by the United States government. In England also same character have been
carried through on a considerable scale.
Another group of thinkers approached the study of government from the point of view of psy-
47
upon
what might be called political psychology. Of these by far the most conspicuous was the English thinker, Graham Wallas, whose Human Nature in Politics, and the later and more systematic study.
The Great
search. It
Society, started a
investigation
is
compare Wallas' chapters on material and method of political reasoning with the famous chapters in Mill's Logic on the
interesting to
logic of the
moral sciences.
human
nature. This
method of
Wallas considered
political
forces
as
organized
intelli-
structure.
still
opened out
48
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
measurement of
political
phenomena, he did
not make elaborate use of statistical data in his work; and while he continually emphasized the
significance of a psychology of politics, he did not
advance
his
work was
a notable one.
An
interesting
Graham
followed
Wallas,
all
Lippmann
much
the
same method
and
There were
em-
There was no writer who did not employ logic and history and comparison and analogy at various times. Even the most dogmatic lapsed into statistics at times, and the most Statistically inclined
developed philosophical attitudes somewhat inconsistent with the general position of the statistician.
'
49
differences in
em-
signifi-
ment of the study of political processes: 1. The a priori and deductive method, down
1850
2.
1
to
The
The
historical
8 50-1 900
3.
The beginnings of
politics
ment of
From another
since
point of view
we may summarize
the advances in the study of politics in the period the vogue of the natural-law philosophy,
last
one hundred
of varying
ward analyzing
1.
and
dissimilarities.
nomic
so
in
NEW
some
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
tion of
economic
the consideration of
At times
tion of
4.
all
political facts.
influence
upon
5.
phenomena and
processes.
closer consideration of
These influences taken together set up another relationship between political phenomena
and the whole environment, both social and physical. Crude analogies of this kind had already been made by Bodin and Montesquieu, but these were by no means as fully developed as the later and far more minute and searching inquiries. 7. The tendency to examine the genetics of political ideas and institutions. This was the joint product of history and biology with their joint emphasis on the significance of historical growth and
51
development and of the evolutionary theory of life. Since the middle of the nineteenth century, it
has operated powerfully upon
8.
all political
thought.
may
be said to have effected a profound and indeed almost revolutionary change in political thinking. Certainly this is true in comparison with the static
doctrine of scholasticism, or with the absolutistic
general use of
On
The
Two
disciplines in particular
were able to
in
These were anthropology and psychology, which domains notable advances were made in the direction of measurement.
10. Political
not at
all
These tendencies taken together may be said to constitute the most significant, changes in the
52
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
down
to the present
ment
1.
Lack of comprehensive
and analysis. Tendency toward
collections of data
quence of processes.
Some fundamental
study of
I.
difficulties in
the scientific
The paradox of
group
dis-
cipline
life
must be maintained
tends to destroy
those vital forces of initiative, criticism, and reconstruction without which the authority of the group
must
die.
the general
by the
for
body of rules and regulations laid down is no advance upon anarchy; but there must also be reasonable room
state, otherwise there
freedom of criticism,
Obviously the
S3
between group inferest and science, or because of an unconscious drift away from the lines of scientific
inquiry.
2.
The
phenom-
We know
we
find so
many
we
scientific policy
we
are unable to
The
he
is
Glasses
and
and
all
which are
more or
propaganda of par-
theory
it,
may
contain an
54
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
who advance
genuine or
has
little
permanent value. The opinions of the most eminent philosophers of a given race or nation regarding the merits of that race or nation are subject to
heavy discount, almost without exception. The same thing may be said of the defenders of economic classes or of other types of groups. In the last hundred years, progress has been made in separating the student of poHtics from his local situa-
propaganda of the war period and the attitude of nationahstic scientists toward
tion;
but the
livid
all,
relatively little
political
made
of nationalistic claims.
mechanism for accurate measurement of the phenomena of politics. Until relatively recent times, most estimates had been rough and uncritical. It is only since the development of modern statistics that
4.
The
anything
like
survey
55
and
culties
persistence, ingenuity,
5.
and imagination.
in natural science
possible
his
under
he
may
reproduce at
he
is
satisfied of the
lie
On
the
other hand, the living processes of politics are constantly going on, reproduced countless times at
possible to
and
vation in the case of recurring processes. This requires, however, the setting
up of more
It
pos-
mechanism
may
be
found
in the
56
statistical
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
measurement of processes recurring over and over again in much the same form, and appar-
may
and
persistence.
With
we may say
that
down
was
no effort to systematize the study of government. There was the shrewdest kind of practical political
wisdom
on the
or prudence exhibited
by such masters as Marshall, But of organized scientific study there was little trace. To this we may make exception in John Adams' Defense of
juristic side
the Constitutions of
States,
The founder of the systematic study of government was Francis Lieber, a German refugee who came to America in 1827. His Manual of Political Ethics (1838-39) and his Civil Liberty and Self Government (1853) were the
'
first
systematic treatises
Considerations on the
Early types of
political
Nature and Tendency of Free Institutions (1848); Richard Hildreth, The Theory of Politics (1854).
57
appeared
in the
United
States,
and
their influence
was
an,
and was
-familiar
was widespread. Lieber famous German historiwith the German and Conti-
was the introduction of a form of historical and comparative method of inquiry into the field of
political study.^
The next great impetus to organized political inquiry came with the foundation of the Johns
Hopkins and Columbia schools of history and political science. The moving spirit in the Johns Hopkins
movement
study of history
was Herbert B. Adams, while the founder of the Columbia school of political science (1880) was John W. Burgess. Both of these men were trained in the German universities and transplanted into American soil the characteristic methods of their time. These groups laid the foundation for the modern system of historical and political research, basing them in large measure upon the development of what in Germany was called Staatswissenschaft. Out of this movement has grown a long series of monographic studies in the field of gov*
58
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
ernment and
research
politics.
The establishment of
was epoch-making
these
institutions
in
the
They undertook
the
and
ical
also
They brought
first
to the
study
mechanisms of inquiry.
It
may
be
and that they did not fully appreciate the importance of what has come to be called political and social psychology. These developments were reserved, indeed, for a later period, in which there came to be a fuller understanding of economic and social influences, and of the more subtle psychological processes underlying and conditioning
them.
In the meantime, a great forward step had been
scientific
attainment
Statistics.
59
This work of governmental observation and reporting had been begun with the foundation of the
government
the
first
itself,
half-century
made comparatively
little
progress.
now
The American
tablished in 1839,
in
in
was reorganized and rejuvenated 1888, and gradually increased in numbers and information. The statistical development in
country remained in a relatively undeveloped
this
state,
however, as
is
the case
down
to the present
time.
One of
is
ence
statistics
for
The historical and comparative studies remained the dominant types in the United States for many years, and may be said to be in the ascendency at the present time. In
this
group be-
At the end of the period came the beginning of the study of forces behind government as well as
6o
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
The work of
Lowell
in this field
ed by his transfer to another realm of activity. Like Bryce and Dicey, he pointed the
ferent type
way
to a dif-
and
spirit of inquiry,
involving the
but
Bryce he alluded on
many
occasions to the
possibilities of political
ever, into
The work
in
may be
again con-
American
setting.
Advancing
moving forward
human
method
as background, contribut-
Some
They
'See The Promise of American Life, (1909); Progressive Democracy, (1914); New Republic, passim. See also H. J. Ford, The
Natural History of
6i
modus operandi of fact collection and analysis. of them was undertaken in connection with the work of the law-makers of the state of Wisconsin, under the leadership of Charles H. McCarthy.^
One
Another developed
of the
in
work
New York
many
other municipalities,
Institute
more recently in the establishment of the for Government Research, the National
Public Service.
Institute
and
more
specific relationship
practice of government.
An
toward
its
survey, the
political forces,
62
NEW
significant
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
advances
in
the development of
political technique.
The
significance of
tendency to go below the surface- of the forms of government and politics, and to examine more ultimate factors and forces influencing the situation.
The
of revolt
was most
inson,
^
effectively represented
by James H. Rob-
less critical
M.
63
inson challenged the traditional purposes of history, writing with particular reference to the
undue
methods of historical and social research. These protests seem to mark the beginning of a new type
of historiography similar to the earlier one in
its
in-
cance was Shotwell's History of History (1922). The beginning of the study of sociology in the
United States also influences the course of the systematic study of government.^
studies
The
sociological
senti-
seemed
at first
Lester F. Ward, the pioneer of sociology in this country, and later Giddings, Small, Ross, Cooley,
sociological point of
See Albion
States.
64
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
guished from the isolated or exclusive consideration of economic factors or political factors alone.
seemed
first
to veer over
was
at
also
science.^
lines of in-
quiry laid
down by
in
ency toward actual observation of economic processes, developing into types of surveys of sets of
'
Haney,
op.
cit.
65
came
and toward the development of business or industrial research. Broadly speaking, economics and politics seemed to follow parallel lines of advance, from the a priori method
al training for industry,
law school
to historical
economics or of politics, to
logical bases of
economic or
Ill
POLITICS
The
Is
AND PSYCHOLOGY
and some psychologists have politics. Between the developing science of psychology and the newer politics, the relationship is likely to become even more intimate in the future than in the past.^ A look backward shows that in the earlier
understood the art of
forms of poHtical thinking there were crude types
of psychology that are of great interest and significance in the development of the art of political
thinking.
'
thumb
The
to
American Journal of
Sociology,
XXVIII,
"Politics as Psychology,"
181.
is
American
Political Science
Review,
XVII,
Interesting material
Politics;
contained in
W. H.
Rivers, Psychology
and
Graham
Wallas,
Human
Nature
in Politics,
ary, 1925;
this
of
volume.
66
POLITICS
ized
all
AND PSYCHOLOGY
67
At the basis of Platen's political theory there was a form of physiological psychology. He set up a correlation between the head, the heart, and the
abdomen, and the virtues of intelligence, courage, and moderation; and to these correspond the three classes, the guardians, the warriors, and the workers. Justice is the harmonious co-operation of these three faculties in the individual, and the harmonious co-operation of the three classes in the society.
This
like
it
up
Aristotle
Man
is
by nature
in social
a political aniis
the
life.
Thus
is
slav-
a natural
institution.
So
is
a natural institu-
tion, requiring
servation of
^
human
The
ideal citizen
is
and
full
volumes of G.
68
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
ar.alysis of traits,
but the
ground
is
man
behavior on
It
would have
all
in the scientific
mankind, and
and discussion of hum.an political traits. In his examination of the methods and the psychological equipment of the tyrant, he develops the qualities of cruelty, infidelity, hypocdirect observation
and suggests alternative types with their advantages and disadvantages, with the keenest insight into poHtical motives and into political berisy,
in his por-
trayal of the minutiae of political conduct of certain types, notably the tyrants of his day.
John Locke
velop,
as a physician
was
fully abreast of
and
as a philosopher
POLITICS
that
it
AND PSYCHOLOGY
man
in
69
an assumed
state of nature.
The
characteristics of this
man
The
much
had never seen, and, as he himself said, history comes before records. Hence no one is in a position to say just what happens in an actual state of nature. The philosophers had not arrived at this stage of human development. Unstate of nature he
was inevitably very unsystematic, and indeed sometimes very naive. In general one
civil
divested the
man
of his
civil characteristics,
fill-
him back again safely into civil society. A more elaborate system was that of Hobbes, who by the same method reduced man to a state of nature and then built him up again. Hobbes,
however, developed an interpretation in frank
terms of appetites and aversions, not wholly unlike
what we sometimes
call
tropisms.
He
finds
He
man
with a
full
keeping of contracts, gratitude, complaisance, revenge, cruelty, contumely, equity, and so forth.
It
is
70
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
the analyside.
The
man
as
he believed they
men were
tablished
Rousseau
describe
in his later
endeavored to
but
politics,
human conduct
The
significance of will
The "general
The
was
indivisiis
he said; will
is
inalienable.
general will
consequently a
much more
and the general will may be set against each other and balanced. In emphasizing will, however, Rousseau
wise, the individual will, the official will,
started a
new
terms
POLITICS
It
is
AND PSYCHOLOGY
scientific progress
71
plain that
no
could be
made with
cal traits
by the Natur-
whole inquiry into politiand essentially uncritical. Contrasted with a political theory which held that government and governors rested upon divine right, or that it was treason to think f the bases of government at all, the natural-law philosophy was an immense advance; but its limits were soon reached, and it was difficult to go farther without
recht philosophy, for the
was a
priori
and ad-
With the
in
utilitarians,
The attempt
made
to analyze conduct in
terms of pleasures and pains. The hedonistic calculus superseded the speculations on the state of
nature.
is
The
number
and these "goods" measured and determined by the calculus of pleasures and pains. Here we have the beginto be the basis of legislation,
are to be
and economic motives which proved very useful for immediate purposes of reform, and started an interesting line
nings of a
analysis of political
new
of observation of
traits.
after the
Dar-
72
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
been well
summed up
Coker.^
in the
thoroughgoing study
made by
ment of
In more recent times the need of the developa type of political psychology has been
suggested by
many
students of politics.
Thus
Lowell says:
The
last
generation has
made
psychology
ordinary conduct of
ly received
men
in a
have scarce-
any
scientific
treatment at
all.
In short
we
are al-
psychology of parties.*
James Bryce
forces,
and
in his last
F.
W.
Compare
also
David
J. Ritchie,
Darwinism and
Politics,
Government of England,
I,
tial
address on
"The Physiology of
ence Review, IV, 1-15, noting that "the subject lacks the
essential
of a modern science
a nomenclature incomprehensible
to educated
men."
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
73
mankind."*
Better known, perhaps, are the efforts of Gra-
ham
volumes on
Society.
and stimulating, and have aroused widespread interest in the fundamental basis of the study of political phenomena. Essentially a classicist in training and an essayist in style. Wallas found it difficult to put into actual practice the doctrines he preached, and never made much use of the experimental or statistical methods. His actual contact with political events seems to have given him a sense of realities in the political world that were not
being developed in the texts.
pretation of these realities he
Toward an
inter-
more minute
phenomena, best
From some
on "Traditions";
15.
xiii
on
"Obedience"
in Studies in History
and Jurisprudence.
74
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
tions
and marked changes. Psychology has been transformed from a largely speculative to a largely experimental type of study, or at least
is
in the
way
especially
marked
in physiolog-
in
ysis, in
applied
psychology,
experimental
psychology,
psychology,
mental
measurement,
comparative
and clinical psychology. There is, of course, the widest diversity among psychologists and among scientists as to the value and significance of the recent advances in this field, and still wider difference of opinion as to the application of the psychological findings.
esting development
is
A
its
very inter-
what
is
application
and
POLITICS
in
AND PSYCHOLOGY
75
government there are many striking cases of the newer uses of modern psychology.^ Since that time a notable example of the possibilities in this direction
is
psychology to
stitute for
scale
Government Research and on a smaller by the National Institute of Public Administration.^ It is to be presumed that these practical applications will continue, and with the development of psychology and of government will be found upon an increasing scale.
The
practical applications
of psychology to
politics are
who have
The
practiced the art of political control have employed a rule-of-thumb form of psychology.
general in dealing with his army,^ the king and
sway the
electorate,
by that
name.'*
all
Napoleon and
understood
how
to
cit.
See E.
376.
M, Martin,
in
XIV,
3
La
psychologic du commandement.
W. M. Conway, The
ii.
chap.
76
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
was
not a transmissible
Since the rise of
art.
methods have slowly been adopted by governments for a variety of purposes. In the army, in public
administration, in the courts, the devices of
mod-
Army
the
new
with
many
in-
it
example of the practical use of a psychological device for purposes of political control.*
On
made
much more
officers.^
These
in the
Sciences, Vol.
'
XV,
Psychological
op.
cit.,
Examining
Compare Mayer,
tration, passim.
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
77
have a value as an
of government.
illustration of the
tendency to
measurements
very probable.
Much
made by
duct of cases.
courts are
oratories in
A very considerable number of now equipped with psychopathic labwhich various forms of examination
making
decisions.
The value
now scarcely
opposition in the
case of adults.
by no means
as to the
clear-
made
impor-
been taken
holds here
is
in
this
direction.
What
the
future
the future
78
NEW
may
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
ods
ar-
gument
built
is
now
and
it
is
trial
and
is
error
neither will
clearly
available.
For
haps
may
have penetrated, with varying success. The indications are that other and more notable advances will be made with the development of psychology
in other lines.
indicated to show
thumb, but
advance.
One
immigration, democracy
by
some
POLITICS
the
AND PSYCHOLOGY
testing,
said,
79
whether rightly or
made by
those
who were
more
difficult
problem of applying
The
ess
measurement proc-
many
what quality
it is
all
made by
technicians,
and
I shall
ment and
in the
to education
Terman
An
meaning of these
given by
F.
December, 1923.
8o
NEW
is,
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Bagley.^ It
of
here. It
this inquiry:
1.
The
ment and
training, or
whether
a characteristic
These
tests
far,
the rela-
tion
between the
diflferentials in intelligence
is
and
governmental association.
It must, of course, be recognized that there
still
is
an unsolved problem
arising, in part,
from the
fact
and
Nor
are
we
mental situations
^
G.
M. Whipple, "The
POLITICS
tied, it will
AND PSYCHOLOGY
8i
sions
characteristics of
mankind.
if
general intelligence
is
the genre-
It
broadly speaking,
difficult
to discover
in
and time does not permit extended discussion on this occasion. The role of inheritance in predetermining social and political traits, as far as our knowledge goes, seems less significant than the part played by social training and environment. In all probability many of the political characteristics of various groups do not go back far in biological inheritance, but are the
products of a generation of sophistication in the
habits of a particular group.
That
political ability
or capacity
as
is
packed
to
in the original
chromosomes,
transmitted
some hasten
conclude, and
82
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
prove,
from generation to generation, we have yet to if it can be proven at all. Most of what has
political characis
which should deceive no one not under the spell of some form of political hysteria. But if it be shown
that political ability follows any such fixed laws,
it
may
are,
or the lack of
arises,
by scientific process we can breed and train what types of man we would, it does not seem that we should breed and train 3 per cent of geniuses and 97 per cent of morons. We should probably contrive a more balanced society, with some in advance and some a little behind, with plenty of room for variation in the freak and sport, but leaving the mass of human beings on something like a democratic basis. There are myriad lines of development open to men and women, and the leaders and followers in one cycle need not be those in all cycles of advancement and prea point where
we reach
ferment. Hence,
perior
and
inferior in
commanding or
ing there.
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
83
Of
course,
if
we must
accept them as a
new form
of political fatalism.
The
have brought
in his
system
the divine
lie
as to the origin of
meanthat
lies
Mental testing
is
upon
politics.
Psy-
much from
the
has been
made
significant
made by reason of the Every court and every custodial institution recognizes this fact in the most evident manner. In the other fields of government we hav^not made equal use of this possibility. We have, to be sure, some studies of the boss and the grafter, and occasionally a pseudoanalysis of the
that great progress has been
insights thus obtained.
much
to be desired in the
way
of
84
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
scientific analysis.
thoroughgoing and
ysis of
Sharp anal-
and
official
normal type of
form of
of
little
political psychiatry
would, of course, be
might enable us to understand better some of the significant phases of our civil life; and we might include the physician, as well, in the combination.
there can be no
will
be very
and poHti-
From
view
it is
a scientific
and from a practical point of important to keep our eyes open to the
Out
may come types of social diagnosis and prognosis that may have far-reaching consequences in human behavior, and which may vastly
plines there
POLITICS
potentialities that
AND PSYCHOLOGY
85
like-
Another
significant field
is
human
and
association
ernment. Forms of order and precedence were established in animal groups long before the state ap-
may be
seen signif-
homo
politicus as
he later
many
of the char-
become
efl^ective in social
and
Judging from a few inquiries that it been possible has to make, and others forecasted,
the examination of the rise and development of the
political ideation
and the
political
behavior of the
in the scien-
much of value
may readily
W. M.
Among Insects.
86
NEW
field
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
an
unexplored
of which
it
it is
necessary to speak
and social control. And we cannot say that we do not have facilities for observation. Another important aspect of the case is the relation between psychology and social psychology. Thus far, studies have been made chiefly of the repolitical
groups or the associations out of which the individual comes and which in large measure shape him.
In short,
we
we must
We
which are as
real
We
of various types, and these are social as well as individual. At. this point experimental psychology
will
come
and
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
made
87
rela-
field
social
spirit,
much
it,
of
which
meta-
biological in character,
and
relatively unfruitful of
gories,
and many others of similar type. In other instances, instincts have served the same purpose.^ While these analyses have often been suggestive and stimulating, they have not led much beyond this stage, and it may
of kind, conflict, compromise,
well be that they are not likely to do so.
Up
much
sition
it
must be conceded
main,
still
in the
in tran-
very in-
what
may
'
88
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
not in-
between men
They
are reactions,
sit-
To
study them as
study
if
men
existed in a
man
as ineffectively as
upon the
in the
is
little
of experiment.
It
may
it
with biology
Do we
yet
in the in-
biochemistry?
How
far
may
attitudes
and behav-
esses
as for
mechanisms ? To what extent is it possible to condition and determine these attitudes by conscious biological or biochemical processes.'' Is it possible that we may make a leader or a rebel, or a good citizen, or a warphysiological functions, or neural
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
by
89
biological or
biochemical process ?
May
ly are
political
methods
ill
in
time be materially
vague and
esses are
now
may
made here in the not distant future.^ If, as, and when they appear, it will be necessary to deal
be
it is
may
by no means out of the question that they may develop more fundamental conditions than are disclosed by any of the processes ofpsychology. Already we recognize the influence of physiological conditions upon individuals, and govern ourselves accordingly in fixing legal responsibility and
is
modern
theories of criminology,
and
it
They may
^
Modern Psychology
164-75.
XXX (1923),
90
cal
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and conservative, aristocrat and democrat, good and bad citizen, and a wide variety of political attitudes and types of behavior. We can by no means ignore their basic relation to the fundamentals of political conduct. Crudely suggested in
the early studies of Plato, they have largely been
life
and behavior.
In a practical
way we have
with the
the
or
effect of
We know that
suffering
may
we
operations or changes
may work
But the
scientific possibilities in
domain
At what points
is
No
and
to
some of these
attention
may
abilities or
possibilities
politics.
POLITICS
will
AND PSYCHOLOGY
91
be
is
still
what
now
as disposition or
temperament.
It
is
possible that
we may
find
room here
and
Downey's
tests of will
in-
may
and
if
worked out
throw much
light
on the
ate at
man. The political and the psychologist may readily co-operthis point, one suggesting the qualities it is
and the other supplying the mechanism for measurement. Of course a political scientist trained in measurement could himself carry through the testing process, which after all is
desired to analyze, a relatively
some other techniques. There is hope that in this field of analysis of traits and qualities interesting and important discoveries may be made in the
course of a
little
work
ies
is
tudes.
$4
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
be instituted and are likely to be
type
may readily
Another
likely
is
significant field
is
may
and
situations
do
politi-
cal interests arise, how are they manifested, and under what situations do they acquire strength and
direction?
Some
made on
and with
our understanding of
conduct.
man and of the motivation of political What are the factors that create political
modify it.^*
To what
extent
modified.^
One
is
that patterns
may be traced,
and
in this
in
ed out
by no means always
man or the
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
93
The knowlis
edge of
this
man
or group in
may
be
much more
taken to
make
possible to set
up many
traits,
group
able
traits,
race,
economic status,
be related to
may
by
94 shifting
tions
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
the circumstances? Repeated observaand analyses of this type ought to reveal more
than we
now know
In fact, the
studies
between
an
to be
knowl-
edge of
how
the political
man
is
really constituted
and modified.
As
social
vidual-group relations, and indeed the whole interlocking series of cycles in the complex social process.
is
or
is
not
an organism, or
or
is
much
farther or faster
now than
in
the Middle
organi-
community
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
bound up.
9$
so intimately
promise
of scientific
achievement/
It
is
political biog-
and autobiographies.
analysis,
Personal observanarratives
introspective
all
and ac-
counts of
may
we have only
The mere
is
collection
but
it
will
of the very highest value for further inquiry. of such material should
lines of inquiry, in
may
of science, but
it is
'^ee American Political Science Review, February, 1924, 1925, and passim.
96
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
but either
is
The specific
seems probable
time.
number of them are under way at the present Among the more significant of the fields inby persuasive material of various
effect of various factors
kinds,
and the
such as
ot
traits of
citizenship'
and analysis of
political vices
and
vir-
study.
'
See D.
S.
POLITICS
AND PSYCHOLOGY
97
method.
These are, of course, only types of inquiry, and merely indicate a long list of possibilities. The psychology of the parliamentary and electoral processes,
many
tion,
the analysis of
many
juristic situations
may
made
near future.
From
such inquiries
twofold.
They make
possible the
and they
set
up
specific
political behavior.
These
They contain elements of great value in the development of political measurement and comparison,
out of which the knowledge of relations
derived and from
built.
It
is
desirable
and
in-
dispensable to develop a
much more
way
intensive
study of
human nature on
and
of analysis that
98
will
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it
seems
many
and
interesting
and im-
Human
social philosophers,
may
possible.
science of
human
statistics,
in the
hands of
unimportant
in
is
view
the understanding of
and
so-
cial relations.
may
be of the
politics is not,
now
in the process of
mechanism, nor
is
The
down
He will
where
which
lead.
his inquiries
The
POLITICS
without the
social
fullest
AND PSYCHOLOGY
human
99
and
psychological technique
ing,
is still
largely in the
maklikely
and
special forms
to spring
up
may
terri-
and we
may
The same
any case
lost,
is
thing
may
a certain
especially if they
not, after
call the
we
work psychological or
political, or both,
it be done by someone, however named. Politics cannot live and flourish upon the abstractions surviving from
but
it is
is
not
ascertainable facts
literary rationahza-
who have
must
icxD
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
the
adapt
itself progressively to
new
intellectual
During the
last century-
economic, and social forces, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries much neglected. This was a memorable achievement. It is equally necessary now to examine the new insights into human nature offered by modern science working in psychology and biology and other fields. The new politics will
now found
in the older
and
in the
Of fundamental significance is the new point of view and the new method afforded by what we call
psychology; and politics can no more ignore
it
than
we can
is
tive fields.
What we
development
political relations.
Wherever we find comrades in this quest for truth and is not the search forreaUtiesin the social field the greatest need of our day ? why not welcome them and catch step without examining too
ports ?
IV
POLITICS
"Politics
AND NUMBERS
to
whom
the topic
many groups
every community.
To others,
Others
"po-
litical" statistics
may
and adroit
manipulation of half-understood
see in politics
may
and
antipodes
However
of their
this
may
be, politics
and numbers
at the outset
common
existence.
Numbers
own, a
spell that
ernmental
num-
cause this number was exactly divisible by 59 divisors, and therefore possessed magical qualities.
'
"Here
is
number of
is
the
his
number
six
8).
102
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
He
less
is
demonstrated that the tyrant was 729 times happy than the just ruler, because this figure
9.
the cube of
As tyranny
is
the perversion of
is
mind of
The
otherwise wise
numbers
to
The
little
early writers
upon
politics,
however,
made
ciples.
observation of common occurrences, and the massing of figures in support of a contention was foreign to their style of argument.
None
of the later
Montes-
any array of
events.
figures.
ment of political
ic
the log-
of the law, the logicians the refinements of diathe historians the citations of chronology,
lectics,
ments of the political data they were discussing with such power and eloquence. Philosophy, the
Fathers, history, the
*
Roman
ii.
POLITICS
are
all
AND NUMBERS
which we are now
103
Had
we now
call statistics
tics has been that of observation, development of shrewd hypothesis, and attempts at verification by observation, but without any special effort in the
the
way by which
Montesquieu, Bagehot, Bryce, and others endeavored to arrive at political conclusions. Very often
they reached results that are attributable to the insight of a skilled observer.
Thus
Aristotle says:
is
the goodness
"As virtue is necessary in a republic, and in a monarchy, honor," Montesquieu finds, "so fear is necessary in a despotic government." Rousseau observed: "The strongest man is never strong enough to be always master, unless he transforms his power into right, and obedience
into duty."
Hobbes
is
I04
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it
power; because
draws with
it
adherence of those
Machiavelli observes:
there
is
have
for his
enemies
all
supporters in those
the new."
who might be
Out of
has developed a
by Aristotle and later by Bagehot, who used the term "illogical moderation," so strongly stressed
tion."
The importance
form of government
people
who
are to use
and
others.
power and responsibility on the dangers of excessive centralizahand and the one tion of authority on the other a theme of numercessive division of
made
the basis of
many
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
105
The combination
which
is
commented upon by
political events.
to avoid enemies, and how most of them when they arise, has to make the often been considered by students of govern-
How
ment.
litical
These are only a few of the many types of powisdom that are found throughout political
science
mon
to
all. is
There
political lore,
made up
manual of the
to
art of government,
if
anyone desired
do
so.
throne.
A modern
young Bourbon who was to ascend the manual would differ somewhat,
io6
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Shrewd
where
in
human
for
In medicine, in business, in
or
prospecting
oil
water or minerals,
the
more systematic observation and more precise measurement and more intelligent analysis, on the basis of which new "insights" again develop. In
medicine, a definite technique develops which re-
methods of the medicine men. The oil is carried on by the skilled geologist. The guess or hunch is everywhere supplanted by the measurement and the analysis. Not
places the older
field
man
with
moves on. the same process is slowly developing, although resisted here more stubbornly
the
hunch or the
art
In the political
field
totle's
how
to
this general
and per-
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
One of
is
107
where definition and logical analogy play so large a part. Accuracy is obtained or approximated by sharp definition of the terms employed and by close
analogical reasoning from them.^
This
is
by no
means quantitative measurement, since it turns largely upon the verbalisms employed and upon
the analogies set up. It
stage of advance in
relations.
is
is
indicative, however, of a
human
and inconhowever much the procedure may be overlaid with transparent rationalization of power groups. Many aspects of law in relation to social
set
up
sistency,
medicine to religion.
might largely be obviated by sharper definition of terms, so that the shifting and confusing use of such words as "liberty" and "justice" might be
avoided. Lewis'" remarks on the use and abuse of
some
an
the
'
political
effort to
domain of the
'
Unfortunately for
io8
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
went merrily
on.
universally admitted,
it is
sought
is
possible, nor
reached.
Terms
come
to
have a symbolic
value, which
effects
may
question
effect,
upon masses of people, but the scientific is what is the fundamental basis of this
itself.
The
of statistical measurement
is
relatively
in fact the
is
had to do with the state.^ The beginnings of modern statistical method are
affairs; literally, statistics
commonly
Adolphe Quetelet, who laid the foundations of modern quantitative measurement in the social field."
Since his time rapid progress has been
'
made
in the
(1
690)
American
XV,
225-91.
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
109
development of the technique of the measurement of social phenomena. In the economic field, the pecuniary and profit-making system with its large-scale
methods and quantity production was favorable to the minute measurement in terms of money of various economic processes; and very rapid advance has been made in the perfection of the measuring machinery. Accountancy and later cost accountancy led to the close analysis of fiscal operations, and to significant advances in the extent and precision of measurement. The index number,^ the business cycle, and even the business forecast, with its obvious imperfections, are examples of the strong
tendency toward quantitative measurement
use of economic data.
in the
In the social
field
method were also devised and applied, notably in the studies made by Le Play of the urban community' and later by Booth of the submerged tenth
* See Fisher, The Making of Index Numbers, chap. xii. See also Moore, "The Mathematical Complement to Economics," Quarterly Journal of Economics y XXIII, i; Persons and others. Business Forecasting. The Trend of Economics, ed. R. G. Tugwell, contains significant articles by W. C. Mitchell on "The Prospects of Economics," and F. C. Mills "On Measurement in Economics." Cf. Bibliography, pp. 483-533. See also Jacques RuefF, Des sciences physiques aux
sciences morales.
'
no
in
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
still
London;^ later
in the Pittsburgh
survey and
Some of
Guesswork regarding the conpoor and the needy was largely redition of the placed by definite information based upon fairly accurate observation and measurement. And, very slowly it is true, there began to emerge from emotion and prejudice a scientific profile or portrait
some
distance.
of the community in
many
of
its
aspects.
In various related
fields
find specific
istics, as
and there was also produced biometry. Here we measurements of physical characterthe head,
its size,
and various other measurable physical relations.^ These measureure, the weight, pigmentation,
'
3 See F. H. Giddings, The Scientific Study of Society. Compare Park and Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology, for a
different approach.
*
See especially, in
this
connection,
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
in
ments are of course confined to physical factors that are perceptible. But in more recent times
with
the
there has
come an
effort to
determine precise
dif-
mental characteristics. In
in certain
Both in psychology and in biology large use has been made of the statistical method, and in many instances with very im-
Some
made by
The
brilliant
work of
^
measurement of
Human
Faculty and Its
Development.
^
National Life from the Standpoint of Science and "The FunStatistics," Biometrika, XIII, 3.
J Biological Fact and the Structure See Raymond Pearl, of Society. a pupil of Pearson, in Introduction to Medical Biometry and Vital Sta-
tistics
Its
Environs (1923).
112
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
many
factors not
commonly supposed
field,
to be sus-
In the governmental
was the
first
to
employ
statistics.
rise
expanded rapidly.
The census
political,
is
measurement of
marks
in
movement of
fundamental importance.
No
the establishment and development of a bureau of the census as revolutionary in character, and yet
in political
and
of revolutionary significance. It
and in the various statistical divisions of the government that the community dein the census
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
113
and
to ini-
social procthis
esses out of
which government
is
made. At
aside
tomtom
and
and the
search
moment laid
is
made
more fundamental problems regarding the possibilities and limitations of the quantitative method in dealing with social phenomena, it is clear that there are yet great areas of government in which the established type of statistical measurement has not been applied. And
Without
raising the
just here
is
modern
States.
United
is
The development
of political reporting
The
reports
of
cities,
some
many
and
ernment are
unintelligible,
in
by the
or
by the
scientist for
114
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
More
tics
evidence of progress
found
in vital statisin-
completeness in
many jurisdictions
is
encountered.
The
analysis
and constructive
criticism of these
The
statistical observation
by the government
supply for himself, namely, that of large-scale observation with thousands of eyes instead of two.
It does for
him
after a fashion
what the
telescope
These observations, moreover, are capagreater elaboration than has yet been
ble of
much
attained, depending
statistics
were
method of
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
way
115
schedules upon which the statistical information of the government rested, and in this
furthered
and other
use.
is made, and apply such material to the problems of government. Quantitative measurement of all kinds begins to appear
up-
held
by
logic,
by analogy, or by
history, or
by apall
peal to
common
of
The
philosophical, his-
and
legal groups,
in
use
made
the
by
is
the
modern
statistician, or
demand
for additional
observation.
On
contrary,
the
appeal
through analogy,
literary
It
is
common
writer.
use of facts
Then
ii6
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
politi-
was
first
undertaken
United States
cities,
in con-
where was
ess,
begun the direct observation of the governing procand the attempt to measure and compare certain units of
was
known
as
in the insti-
and the development of conupon these inquiries. Similar work was undertaken in England and in other states to some extent, as in Germany, by the governmental officials themselves. Municipal government was an especially fertile field because of
the urgency of
many
and further because of the absence of powerful traditions of history, philosophy, and law, such as elsewhere make impartial inquiry difficult. Out of these factors two situations have been
established. First,
we now
possess
much
greater
politi-
and social processes. Incomplete as that information may be, it is far in advance of what mankind has historically had at its disposal. Secondly, the
'
cal Research,"
American
May,
1923.
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
ny
and political problems has been definitely recognized. No great undertakings are begun in these
social
later
days without at
least
the
semblance of a
Unsatisfactory as these
yet they
may
be
in
many
instances,
mark
a significant
advance
in the
method
was
careless
of the facts.
Compare,
questions:
1.
for
example, an argument
that of a
made by
St.
Thomas with
The
modern thinker on
social
definition of
i.
Article
is
We
law
is
first article i.
not a thing of the reason. For the Apostle says, "I see
in
another law
members
not a thing of
formance,
to right
"Quod
pla-
W.
p. 123.
ii8
NEW
Or
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
modern parliamentary body
the debates of a
may
hundred years ago, as for example the House of Commons in England or the House of Representatives in the United States. In any case the increasing use of statistical material
is
clearly evident. I
all
of such use,
statistical
tive
tics
measurement over the human mind. Statisovershadow the Roman law and the Fathers in
significance
is
frequency of citation.
Of fundamental
the possibility of
future measurement of political phenomena. To what extent may political processes be so far isolated as to make them the subject of precise measurement ? Or with what advantage may such quantitative surveys be made? Or what are the limits of such measurements? Evidently measurement has the advantage of setting up a definite unit which, if and when calculated, may be made the
basis of
same unit under varying conditions. It tends to eliminate opinion based upon general observation or belief, resting perhaps upon self-interest or custom; and to substitute facts upon which there can be relatively little argument. The distribution of
POLITICS
wealth and income
as the classification
is
AND NUMBERS
119
by
economic status
may
be definitely
established,
and we
may
The
of migration
may
be determined.
The housing
sit-
uation
may
In
all
replaced by exact
method
or
its
practical exe-
When we
ment
tion
a useful instruis
or not, or whether
communism
superior to
more
prohibition
is
we
come
its
trend.^
This
is
and partly
of Sociology,
XXVIII,
300, 443.
I20
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
classification
which may be measurable, given time and resources. But the development of these canis
ons of classification
which he
will
measure them
are: security
all
These canons
maintenance of order,
Here an agreement has been reached, assuming that there is agreement, but upon categories so
broad that they are incapable of precise measurement, without much more refinement than
given. Consequently
it is
is
here
difficult to set
up any
land or between France and Australia as to "order" or "justice" or "security." It might be possible,
tion
'
classes of facts
is
seen in the report of the Civic Federation upon Public and Private
Utilities (1907),
Ownership of Public
Modern Democracies^
II,
chap.
Ixxiii.
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
121
sumed to cause the rank. Probably in this fashion a more penetrating analysis might be made and possibly more definite relations established. A
specific
is
them
it is
indicated.*
vague and
tions of
elusive,
certain instances
similarities in the
we
up
sets
than
is
we may
show the
and voting, or
To
much
ment
"
to set
American
statistical use
Statistics.
of corre-
lations, see L. L.
122
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and phe-
nomena.
A parallel case is the development of the method of prognosticating weather changes. Pressure
areas are observed over a wide range of territory,
movements
it is
possible to forecast,
Here is an instance of estimate and approximation, which gives, however, substantial and significant results. In economics
encies of the weather.
this
now upon
it
commer-
precarious though
may
be.
The
de-
method
to a
modern problem
of life.
Even
in
my day I
God,
as they
Shrewd
political observers
come of
For example,
1900, there
was
little
disagreement
among
the
To
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
was based upon
123
political
some extent
this forecast
We can predict
voters,
number of
crimes, the
list
number of
and
on through a
fairly constant.^
An
interesting
is
urement
number of roll calls yielding such a vote, he determined the percentage of party votes in the passage of laws.^ With this may be compared, however, the dubious attempt of Woods to set up a correlation between monarchs and their times studies in what he termed "historiometry."^ The study of non-
and
sis
See the interesting study by Edwin Grant Dexter on Conduct Weather (1899), an inquiry into the effect of meteorological conditions on conduct in New York and Denver. Compare the analy'
the
the
of the "pressure group" by A. G. Dewey, "On Methods in Study of Political Science," Political Science Quarterly y XXVIII,
types of measurement are found in Economica,
631. Interesting
passim.
'
Annual Report
3193 F. A. Woods, The Influence of Monarchs (1913); and Moral Heredity in Royalty (1903).
also
Mental
144
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
voting recently
made
of a governmental situation.^
such studies
would reveal
much
in different situations.^
The
ing possibilities of
more
precise
development and
of application in other
It is
fields.
many
obstacles in
in
method of measurement
The
student of government
in
is
may make
accurate
difficult
plex, containing
many
factors
which
it is difficult
to isolate successfully.
ables are not
*
The
XXXI,
XIV,
tion in Oregon," Publications of the American Statistical Association, 136; A. N. Holcombe, Political Parties of Today; Stuart A, Rice,
Politics; St. Philip's Settlement,
POLITICS
their
AND NUMBERS
125
confusion
may become
most serious
error.^
The
in
difficulty,
lie,
as
Bodin
will or
once said,
in the inscrutability
human
"human
found
in
the inherent
is
The
real obstacle
found chiefly
it is
sometimes asserted
itself,
the political
in different
much
the
same
making allowance for certain variables that must be calculated. Government is a series
same
order or series as
much
as in
Compare Giddings,
I
Forces,
Wheeler
among
species of bees
and
io,ocxd species of
studied.
126
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
When this difficulty is overcome, the mystery may yield as readily as in any other case
to analysis
units/
we
are really
trait,
characteristic,
figures as
character,
as
armies,
parliaments,
obedi(.
command,
At
this point,
Imrr-
of development
"i.
in the solution
of a scientific problem:
felt social
"2.
The phrasing
is
in the
form, 'What
"3.
titative
the effect of
A upon
B?'
The
and B, preferably
in
quan-
form.
"4.
"5.
The adoption of a unit of measurement for each variable. The experimental arrangement by which paired observations
may
be obtained for
"6.
and B.
analysis of these observations to determine
The The
statistical
and B.
arise
from doubts
in the interpretation
itself."
POLITICS
ence, taxes, prisons.
AND NUMBERS
are the
127
But what
common
re-
types?
And
and measurement?
or of isolation
What shall
ment? What
which we
cific
call political?
Do
or special
may
said,
be scientifically
outlined ?
Thus
far, it
must be
without
much
characteristic. It
government
as
it
would be to
political.
cal must be more vigorously defined. same question arises in all social measurements. In psychology, for example, we may ask just what it is that is specifically psychological, what is the
specific factor that
simpler elements.
The same
when
128
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
we begin
man
The
larger
subtle
and
political as dis-
nomic or
may become
political,
in-
as-
pect at times.
The church
or the association of
commerce
group
may
may
transform
it-
on the characteristics of
the state for the time, and perhaps for a long time.
becomes
in fact clear
enough
any event, the fundamental problem is that of human behavior, however we may separate its various
phases.
The
peculiar
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
may
129
ments or
be
in-
tegral part.
They are
at least as separate as
botany
integral relations,
and geology, or biology and chemistry, which have and in a certain sense are inseparable, but which are none the less distinguishable
And
for practical
purposes
we
nomena
Among
these
phenomena
Among
institutions,
we may regard
may
be
for the
purpose
in the
No
found than
domain of political operations. Furthermore, when the minute study of political operations and traits
is
tionships
We
I30
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
assumed that the quantitative study of government will supersede analysis of other types, either now or perhaps at any time. Insight, judgment, analysis are always of value and significance when employed by persons of special gifts or long experience and training or both. They will always continue to lead or to supplement
It
is
not to be
is
tistical analysis
and interpret
its
significant find-
ings.
quantitative measurement
may
work of the other. But 'inevitably the observer will tend more and more to use the simpler and ultimately the more complex forms of statistical analysis and will incline more and more toward the precision of measurement that underlies many of our modern scientific discoveries. At the same time the statistical
another, each supplementing the
material, from which illustrations
will increase
may
be drawn,
more than
POLITICS
all,
AND NUMBERS
relations
131
for discovery of
new
the goal of
sci-
entific effort.
cal
in
There are those who fear that through statistimeasurement political science may disappear microscopic monographs, isolated, never synwell be that politics
may
it
This
stage
is
not
inevitable.
It
is
absorbed in
and
in
measurement
come.
desirable.
There
is little
likelihood
to
some time
We
are
more
likely to err
meas-
The
ory
will
question
may
may
not
in reality
fall
not
May we
short of
132
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
on the
merged
all
in a flood of facts
and
figures,
is
and perhaps
of
may
no necessary rea-
The method
ployed
purpose of verifying
some
insight or
come upon. Professor Michelson once said that many of his best ideas came to him when he was in a meditative or perhaps even dreamy mood. The
ideas were, however, the hypotheses which precise
to verify or to disprove.
What
political scientists
have
too' often
done was
form
to meditate
in literary
And
outgrowth of
tion.
It
may
be really disastrous
if political investi-
measurement of facts without preliminary consideration and statement of what we call the "problem" and without certain hypotheses, not conclusions, which the proposed examination of facts
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
133
might be expected
There
ence,
is
and
come
to the
fertile
is
mind.
to provide
and
of the inquiry
it
is
may
may become
the subject
of further inquiry. It
a
fertile science
is
der investigation.
The
is
likely to include
some preliminary exploration of the problem, some tentative hypotheses, some effort to establish them by analogy (or to contrive others by logic); then the effort to verify by quantitative measurement, and if possible by controlled experiment. Again out of this very process may come new hypotheses which may again be tested and proven or disproven. Or unexpected relations may be discovered while looking for others, as has happened again
134
NEW
who
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and again
gator
Thus
the investi-
ered another.
may
un-
who
uses a sci-
and
and perhaps
is
who knows
even unwelcome.
It
this that
has
to
those
who
fools, half-tolerated
under the
raised as to
what
are the
most
measurement of political phenomena, the answer is that there are many inviting possibilities open to the student having time, energy, and resourcefulness. One of the most obvious needs is the development of governmental reporting or statistics. These
data are of joint interest to the
zen,
scientist, the citi-
political official.
But gov-
ernmental reports almost everywhere are grotesquely incomplete and inadequate. In the Unit-
POLITICS
AND NUMBERS
135
ed States such fundamental data as election, criminal, and judicial statistics are available only in the most unsatisfactory form, and there are great gaps in standard statistics that have never been filled.
In
all
filled,
which
may
many
investigators for
some time
to
come. Here
sity unite in
political
prudence and
scientific neces-
There
field in
is
measurement
for
the analysis of
many
Hypotheses
The
may
be indicated, and
made
the basis of
slow process,
much
less
equally fascinating.
At
the outset
we
shall
have
found to
136
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
result,
produce an undoubted
but
in
time
it
should
prove possible to untangle these factors and approach more nearly to a complete analysis of the
given situation. There
is
"measurement" per
se
may
may
scientifically.
entific
But
this
is
a peril
common
to all sci-
advance.
common problem
to
of
thumb
more
precise
way strewn
with
psychometry
advance
may
be
made
in the
ward discovery of scientific relations in the domain of political phenomena. Possibly the door of human nature is closed by some decree of nature against the scientist, but it is also possible that we
have not found the key that
'
will
unlock
it.^
See also
titles cited in
xvii
ff.
of this volume.
may
be asked,
What
and
it is
necessary to dis-
mental
On
was merely the adoption of scientific terminology for the advancement of popular causes, but not the introduction of a scientific spirit. Darwinism became the basis for a theory of laissez faire, and
also for a theory of state interference,^ as
one chose
Huxley^
in
defending
it.
Anthropology became
in Ireland,
Politics.
3
The
Man
138
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
key, Poland, Germany, England, France, and where not?^ Likewise the doctrines of the influence of environment upon mankind were employed for the purpose of defending particular environments
as especially favored
by God or nature
state.*
little
for the
growth of a particular
the earlier uses of
trines, as the
advance over
scientific
more primitive
doc-
non-Romans, or the middle regions over the north and the south, as in Bodin's theory, or of the
the
effect of climate
between
and the plain. Many modern writings differ little from the earlier type of local propaganda reinforced by scientific patter or jargon, but the whole
'
Theory" by F. H. Hankins
Times.
A History
* See Franklin Thomas, "Some Representative Contributions of Anthropo-Geography to Political Theory," chap, xii, A History of
was due
fibers
and a consequent lassitude of the body. See Myres, "The Inon the Course of
Political Science," Univeri.
fluence of Anthropology
sity
139
new vocabulary of
of the defense
Much
same
level of value.
may
yet to be
made from the rich material that is available. The stage we are passing through is the first and least
pleasant and fruitful one of left-hand alliances.
of the recent
developments
in
the
1.
now is: The idea of evolution The study of the specific characteristics
under consideration
groups
and
of
racial
'
Human
/iffairs.
Another type
is
Wiggam's The
Founda-
New
Decalogue of Science.
^
tions of tions of
Animal
Behavior, and C.
Behavior.
ISI.
Human
140
NEW
3.
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
of eugenics as a system of
The development
social control
4.
The
upon mankind These conceptions are fundamentally related to government in many of its phases. This is true, for
example, with reference to:
1.
Immigration
2.
Education
in general,
and
specifically politi-
cal education
3. 4.
Class relations
civilized states to
5.
The
war
The evolutionary
pated
idea
had
in a
way been
antici-
in the nineteenth
The
sig-
stitutions
was employed to prove that because human inhad taken a long time to grow, therefore
no significant changes could or should be made at any given time. The historical idea was, in short,
the basis of opposition to revolutionary proposals.
assumed a closed world, a completed book, or a world in which changes are so slow that none
It
if
they jeopard-
141
in
authority. History
was seized
it
first
as the
weapon
of those
who fought
Revolution. Later
used historical
istic
was knowledge
by those who
The
was likewise
of the
new
idea
was
any
damentals of
of
life
human
same
ment
any
will
The
past
is
we
find
of today,
ronment. In
tain
government
is
cer-
deep-seated
and far-reaching
142
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
change, which has not in fact yet been fully realized; indeed, scarcely at
all.
For
it
is still
largely traditional.
There are
still
still
There
idea that heredity limits in some manner the development of the type in question. The old biblical phrase, that we cannot grow figs from thistles, has its parallel in the modern biological doctrine of the
limitations of
human
inheritance. Unfortunately,
much about
the na-
any, nor do
we
know
to
what
extent,
characteristics
may
be transmitted. It
at this to carry
fails
enough
for the
ical control.
What may
we cannot,
It
is
groups of man-
kind
may
thropometry thus
to
groups of
cit.
143
groups of
unscientific,
made some
progress. Differential
itself
with the
differ-
haps
The
difficulties in
the
way
mankind,
ment of power and responsibility for the advanced and the backward states of the world is beyond power of exaggeration. In many ways the future of humanity for generations seems to be bound up
with the successful solution of
If
this
urgent problem.
all
agree
we can meas-
mankind, we
go a long
man, and toward avoiding struggles for prestige and power based upon assumed and unreal differences of caing their place in the parliament of
the biologist
original
144
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
this:
To what extent
any,
chromosome capable of variation, and under what conditions may these variations be most successfully made? This is the key to social training and education of every type. Thus far no conclusive evidence has been produced to show just what are the specific political or social differences between racial groups, but of course no one knows what the next generation of
in the original
inquiry
may
may
well be
be found far
less
may
be
wider differences between various types of Americans than between Americans and Frenchmen; or
between various
classes of
Germans and
Slavs.
Upon
moment we
and
lit-
may
grow
merely speculate
fat
or, if
we
choose, feed
upon the
rich
chemistry,
We
do
not
know
to
character.
145
yet unexplored,
may
fundamentally
affect political
may
be effected
through some of these agencies not now well enough known to be utilized.^ This is a field which may well be watched by students of government
with a view to utilizing the results that
may
be ob-
tained and the methods in so far as they are applicable to the study of the problems of government
attempts in
this field
may
be,
may come
Out of
come the
possibilities
method
there can be
how-
mankind may be to apply to human same processes that have produced such revolutionary results with plants and animals. Sparta is a classical example of a partly eugenic state, but its ruling purpose was military strength
ever reluctant
beings the
^
See Berman, The Glands Regulating Personality. See for clear exposition of modern progress in this direction the
S. J.
'
following:
the Race;
P. B. Popenoe,
Applied Eugenics.
146
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and conquest, for which end there can be little doubt that the methods designed were pre-eminently successful. Plato in his Republic suggested
compulsory mating some 2,300 years ago. It is unlikely that such methods will be adopted, but there
is
abundant opportunity, by forbidding certain unions on the one side and encouraging others, for the cultivation of a vastly improved breed of the
race, far transcending the present type of
human
criticism
can study at
made
domain within the last generation without turning to the most serious consideration of the future of the human race, when the methods of eugenics are more fully perfected than just now. The practical
politician
may
the
most
where
of
serious consideration.
is
Control
it
may
human
being
desired to have.
Then we
we wanted them.
We
147
symbolized
Capek's memorable play entitled R. U. R.y automata cheaply constructed for toil, dominated by more spirited beings designed for higher walks
of
life.
It
is
possible that
by mistake or through too great sympathy, and thus cause restlessness and even breed
is
The
point
it
is is
is
on the
man-
What man-
we
want.?
Democrats, aristocrats,
within the power of
may
well
lie
men
such assumption
may now
we
seem. It
is
to just such
is
modern biology
swift-
will or no.
Of
ernment and poHtics is the recent discovery of the influence of environment upon mankind. Always more or less dimly apprehended, the early fantasy
has been given
much more
definite
shape by the
148
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
modern students of geography and the earth environment of mankind.^ James Bryce in a notable
article in
government, but
this direction
little
made
in
by the
ernment down
zel,
Humboldt,
Ritter,
and Rathundred
all,
have pressed
their studies
made
advance.3
what
is
termed
geography, and in some few instances have geography, examining the ex-
and
activities
and Climate
(191 5);
World Power
J.
Human
World Power.
'
XII, 403.
Human
Ecology," An-
149
of these studies,
some of which might perhaps be subject to chalshow the importance of the study of environment in relation to humankind
for
polit-
undertakings and systems within certain limAll of these are of value to the student of gov-
with which he
is
concerned.
They
reveal
politics has set out to solve, and they some of the essential hmitations in the growth and development of states. Difficulty has
lem which
point to
been experienced
in
political characteristics,
social and and it cannot be said that this has yet been overcome to such an extent as to make the knowledge useful for purposes of scien-
precise influence of
environment upon
tific
application to
many
ernment.
is
the determination
I50
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
duce a
specific
and otherwise. But thus far it has not been possible to do this with sufficient accuracy to make the results reliable. Just what environmental factors produced the Athenians and the Romans and the British and the Turks? This is a problem which geography has not been able to answer down to the present time with any degree of precision, whatever the future
may
hold in the
way
of achieveeffect of the
ronments upon the material; and tial data have been lacking.
Would England's
produced the same
or the
results with
Hottentot stock?
Roman
But these
151
and eth-
may
but unfortunately
be hoped to es-
it
may
between
is
quite pos-
mine the disposition of the inhabitants of a region, and which even affect the social and political characteristics of the people;
isolated,
may
but which
may
in fact
have a very
phenomenon is presented by the development of what may be termed the secondary environment, that is, the environment created by man. In the development of cities, in the reclamainteresting
tion of lands
irrigation
An
from the
sea, as in
*For example,
152
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
swamps of
man
manner
modern
so significant as to
original
environment.
is
The
construction of the
city
a conspicu-
ous illustration of the creation of a new or secondary environment which in turn fundamentally influences the physical, mental,
istics
More
that in the future they will possess very great significance for our race, greater perhaps than the original or natural environment
itself, in view of the inpower of man over nature.
is
Of equal
which
is
significance
train-
Customs, manners, laws, institutions may be handed down from one generation to another as special types of characteristic, whether any other
153
may
The
American, and
early
To what extent the original biological inheritance may limit the possibility of taking on a particular social heritage we do not know, but presumably there are some hmitations. Would the English
social
in the
case of the
Bushman
child, or the
Turkish
social
in the case
made? This
cial science,
is
thoroughly investigated.''
It
is
For
is
not
man
a part of nature?
And how
him from that of which he is an inseparable part ? We cannot assume that man is created wholly by "environment," for he is himself a part of it, and he likewise and in
scientifically separate
^ See Graham Wallas, Our Social Heritage; A. Korzybski, The Manhood of Humanity; The Science and Art oj Human Engineering.
we
154
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
some measure
as the
He comes
it
out of
upon
and modifies
seriously.
And
as time goes
on the modification
man
in turn reacts
his character-
his
man, then,
is
to be
he omit-
and
if
what
"scientific"
it
This
is
chy, for
it is
fully
may
producing
and
logical inheritance;
produced widely
form of
To
155
and organization
is
politics,
difficult as it
may
be in actual accomplishment.
forces
If in the
work, we
controlled,
and
and
may seem
cated by
nevertheless indi-
by the
of government
who
and the
The
truth
is
when
control of evolution, or
will these
many
aspects of
it.
How
ments
there
in
is
they care
The wisdom
be the subjects
in the future
156
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
political control in
by the agencies of
munity.
the
com-
Directly before us
lie
many
the prob-
class relations.
and un-
may
it
may
be in the
But
and
is
forces of science
telligent
may
less
wasteful
method of
solution than
this
is
how
make
maining
for the
technical basis.
But
this is
not conceivable as a
permanent
as
situation,
and we
may
look forward to
political
and
so-
cial science,
ties
when
it is
fully
awake
to its possibili-
and
methods.
The problem
tifically studied. It
157
and emotionally, but not with the systematic thoroughness of science. What have natural science and political science working systematically together to say regarding this phenomenon ? Except
for scattered individual studies, nothing. I
am
not
unmindful of
The
Biology of War, and of the considerable war literature that has been accumulating through generations,^
but
am
inquiring
what considerable
effort
has been
made of a
phenomenon of human
history. Is
war a
bio-
a political necessity?
Or
is it
To
we have no answer, and, what is more significant, we have not set in operation the
machinery
ize a
is
possible to visual-
jective
and
scientific,
means
war.
may
be fa-
by the same
158
NEW
is
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
This
might
come
likeness
classes of hu-
mans.^
On
ically established,
we should know
better
how
to
Inter-
up
in
sibility
human hap-
most urgently needed is not the solution of specific problems, however important they may be of themselves and many are
is
Fundamentally what
still
broader sense to
we
as
This
in
is a world of experiment and change, a world which constant readjustments are being made and must continue to be made in the future even
in the past, as
man's control
human
nature,
new world
into
which we are
159
sive
still more extenand intensive adjustment than ever before in the history of the race, by just the extent to which
the
human mind
There
is
duct.
ment. There
will
no absolute type of state or governis no form of law that once adopted forever remain the best. On the contrary, the
world
is
political
and readjustment. The high type of citizenship is who piously follows the customs
who comes
to realize
Natural science
more whenever
tion
rapid,
it
is
is making the rate of adaptaand social science will equal this more fully developed. We have
new means
ahead of us
lie possibilities
way
of social dis-
will tax
is
our adapta-
i6o
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
make
it
and
political control to
new
situations
If the
new
discoveries,
made
either
by
sci-
dominated by tradition and myth, the result may be disastrous. The new situation might place in the
hands of medievalists the forces of the twenty-first century, with their tremendous possibilities in the
way
first
slow to recover.
If
we
learn
how
will,
to
ever types
we
what use
we make of
the
power? If we obtain complete control over the physical and psychical and social structure of the
individual or the group, as
we probably
shall,
what
use shall
we make
some new form of political tyranny, or precipitate some revolution against all science as a form of intolerable regimentation, or will
it
make
possible a
richer
and
I
questions
am
i6i
and they
may
find us
unready to answer
progress.
is
in a
way
and
the continuance of
human
The purpose
if
of these paragraphs
well served
litical
closer co-ordination
plines.
disci-
Darwinism" are significant of relations that are appearing more and more clearly as the boundary lines of inquiry are farther advanced. If we examine the earlier work of Galton and Pearson, or read the later and more flamboyant treatise of Wiggam, in which the biologist writes to the president of the United States, offering him the new decalogue of science, we observe that more and more the problems of politics are inextricably interwoven with the problems of the science of inheritance and environment.
biology," "social
Now
whether the
geography
we may
and that question But whether the groups of students who have fundamental facts in their possession and entertain different but imleave to the logomachists.
i62
NEW
form,
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
knowledge
in
and integrate
scientific
their
is
comprehensive
the whole
sideration
human
more
There
is
perhaps no con-
point of view.
And
if
the race. Geneticist and environmentalist, psychologist, anthropologist, biologist, social scientist
would all be brought together to consider the fundamental social problems in which they are all concerned and which cannot be effectively solved without their joint consideration and action. Fortunately there is no such despot, and we live
in a
and co-operation,
In a sense
is
it
may
heaviest load
tist.
VI
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
It
is
possible that
what may be
political
called "political
prudence"
may
than at present.
By
prudence
mean
the
wisdom
own
signifi-
must always be considered. Action may be imperative before there can be full research and final judgment. Just as the physician
treat a
may
be obliged to
wound
full scientific
effective
mode
community
act
is
must
indeed,
all
on the principle of
least scientific. In
is
many
no time
may
cal
mass of information, a
ment of
common
i64
NEW
or, if
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
not
this,
judgment,
an informed and
intelli-
of this
ing,
may
perhaps come a
intelligent
judgments
may
be based. In a repre-
men
it),
or
women, given
spirit
fact-gathering
and a dominating
and the
It
tical
issues are
may
example
were
al-
when
raised.
though
ment might be reached. But the division would be based upon at least superficially scientific grounds, and so would help to turn the organization of opinion toward more carefully investigated facts and
closer reasoning, interests
and less toward defenses of group awkwardly disguised. The language of prudence would be the common tongue which they must all speak, however clumsily, and those who made use of the arguments and facts and conclusions would follow the general method of appeal to
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
facts
165
and the
if
But
come together
to discuss
of political prudence for fear that violent and embarrassing disagreement might
ness,
weakcause
it
its
strengthening? If
wrangle;
if
they
then we must
temper, bal-
and
toward men.
be too late for im-
true that
when
munity are
fully aroused,
may
partial inquiry to be
made
or to
command any
wide influence
if
66
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
was one pre-eminently adapted to thoughtful consideration by political savants, but the final solution was reached through storms of hatred and violence that devastated the nation and still leave their marks upon our country. Perhaps there was no group of political wise men who could have changed the result, but had there been sufficient political prudence in the nation, and had it been effectively organized, a wasteful struggle might have been avoided, and human life and happiness conserved upon a large scale. At a later day the liquor question was settled without resort to the prudence of the community, acting in any organized way. As far as I know, there was almost no organized effort to study scientifically the solution of the liquor
problem.
in the
City Council of
Chicago calling
for the
pects.
fell
question that
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
167
and to formulate issues in a manner that would have materially raised the general level of the discussion on the wet-and-dry question. But the political prudence of the community was not mobilized for this purpose, and possibly it could not have been done. I am merely saying that it would have been desirable, from the point of view of intelligent
action.
An interesting example of an impartial inquiry was that conducted under the auspices of the National Civic Federation into the public and private
operation of public
utilities, in
was conducted by a board of persons, including utility-owners and operators, representatives of street-car unions, theoretical advocates and opponents of municipal ownership, impartial observers.
Two
in
still
dustrial
upon this important problem in American inand political life. It is an example of the
prudence
in respect
to a specific problem.
1 68
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
almost as useful
it is
an
of
community
intelligence.
may
is
the problem
carefully considered; or
tive values,
upon questions of relawhich may also be studied more careat the present time
There are
many
significant
questions that might well be subjected to the scrutiny of the political prudence of the
community,
may
modern communities, the nature and limits of freedom of speech, the Ku Klux Kian, proportional representation, methods of nomination, the scope of government activity, the limits of centhe press in
tralization, criminal justice in the
United States;
or,
The
is
an excellent ex-
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
in the international field, the
169
overshadowing prob-
perhaps
now
political
Ku Klux
almost impossible.
And
in
consequence of
this condition,
statement
on either
side.
In this darkness
retreat into
the background. a
Where
premium is placed upon dogmatic assertion rathupon careful judgment, and the most reasonable is overwhelmed by the least reasonable and
er than
least scrupulous.
No
would have the advantage of placing the discussion upon a more informed and higher level, with more of fact and less of unsupported assertion, with sharply drawn lines of cleavage based upon considerations that might be more closely examined as time went on. In any
I70
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
command.
It
may
be asked,
Whence should
the initiative
come
in the
how
can
will it
command
impartiahty and
its
wisdom and its representative character? At times the government itself may be able to organize representative groups for special purposes, as seen in
of the
German commissions
The na-
and Economy Commission of numerous state and local comPresident Taft, and missions illustrate the significance of inquiry under the auspices of men conceded to have the confidence of the political community. In other situations, however, the government may be ill adapted
velt, the Efficiency
may
be un-
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
171
Mr. Lippmann has indeed suggested that the government organize its intelligence work in such manner as to accumulate and co-ordinate the facts essential to intelligent national government. Intelligence bureaus, as
he
calls
gests,
The same method, he sugmight well be applied to the problems of state and local government. These bureaus he believes "would deal with problems of definition, of terpearing in Congress.^
they
would traverse concretely the whole gamut of the social sciences." There can be little question that a federal organization of the type suggested by Mr. Lippmann would be of very great value. It would run the risk of going stale, but that may happen even in the best-regulated laboratory, under the most distinguished auspices. In many cities and some states efforts have already been made in this direction, and bureaus of various types have been
set up, with widely varying degrees of effectiveness.*
^
May,
172
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
In the end it may be hoped that the Committee on Intellectual Co-operation under the League of Nations may develop an international clearinghouse of significance for the world. For informational and statistical purposes such an agency would possess incalculable value, while it might
also serve as a
medium
For
in general it
may
more
likely to be.
An
organization includ-
many cities would be better than one, and of many nations better than any individual commoning
is
an opportu-
and even
of theory.
We may
some day
see an international
political wise
men, gath-
fundamentals of
An
being
made
to
urban problems.
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
VilleSy
173
effort to
The
Science
and
parts of the
up
These
or-
"A
May,
of Municipal Research,"
1
January, 1925.
See Proceedings,
Parliamentary Union.
3
May,
1923.
174
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
may
development of statistical
notable progress.
is
made
Of even
cance perhaps
what
the
in question.
commonly called the "survey" of the office Of importance in this connection is work of the National Institute of Public Adis
The
Institute of
Williamstown
is
an interesting example
recently
Institute,
founded
law,
is
dential organization.
The University
of Chicago
Iowa Commonwealth Conference to consider electoral methods and processes, are other examples of the same general type. Similar groups are found in Geneva and Vienna. They all center around the assembling of men of experience and judgment in a special field
Institute of Foreign Affairs, the
^
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
175
programs of action.
Whatever may be the scientific value of these undertakings, and this possibility is by no means negligible, the prudential and educational value of such conferences is very large. If some specific
conclusions are reached, even though tentative, the
is
enlarged. If agreement
is
ef-
re-
moved from
the group
more
clearly outlined
tion of judgments
is
increased.
From time
ferences
government itself, the universities, private foundations and societies; and perhaps some day the professional associations of students of government may themselves set in motion the machinery for this purpose.
a variety of groups, the
by
More important by
far
in-
the representative
all
phases of opinion
may
who
of the prudentes
The
176
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
way
all
com-
bine to indicate the significance of the organization of political prudence for the welfare of the
state
and
for the
advancement of political
science.
Some
will
be merely forums
all
contain possibihties of
A study of the
suggested, and also the superiority of the conference method over the haphazard methods that now usually prevail.
On
sparks of light
and
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
out of this
177
may come in
when
it is
of great significance.
often comes
So true
may
is
techni-
a wide field
to the con-
The
To some
extent
it-
a wide range of
critical
and constructive
formal government.
fortunate in that
it
democracy
is
peculiarly
The development of political prudence need by no means be confined to formal assemblies of wise
men
problems.
Such prudence is scattered throughout the community in myriad forms. It is not as common as
common
sense, but
it is
some suppose.
indeed a pre-
178
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
in
political
affairs.
The
problem
ment.
is
With widely increasing education, the whole community tends to interest itself in and assume responsibility for decisions formerly made by the
.
and judgment throughout the citizenship of the words, the mass of the community must become politically prudent in order to insure prudent political conduct of the commonwealth.
state. In other
Political
affair
prudence
is
Nor
will the
much
unless their
who
is
might
utilize them.^
The
'
basis of this
ability of
form of
political
prudence
"The
would
depend upon
and
to
POLITICAL PRUDENCE
found partly
in
179
sound
political
and
social education
underlying admission to suffrage and adult citizenship; partly also in the organization of adult intelli-
gence
in
such fashion as to
judgment of the
citizens.
We
of voting alone, as
is
too
commonly supposed,
is
for
a constant pro-
made
calls
in the processes
by which the
woven.
intricate pat-
mine the type or form of these patterns, and there is a wide variation between those of the civilized and uncivilized political communities.
Political
prudence
is
the heights of
skilled
el
wisdom reached by the few more and experienced, but also in the general levof judgment and insight reached by the mass
of the
community
itself.
is
The
application of sci-
ence to government
i8o
this
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and from
view
political
prudence
will
always continue to be a prime factor in the character of government. It will determine whether
and
to
science shall be
will
determine the
VII
When
was exposed
first
in the
reaction of the
was
a general
demand
the
political
overthrow of the
Tweed, the incarnation of the "System," was thrown into jail. Many other minor Tweeds have been attacked with varying degrees
"bosses."
still
September, 1922,
181
i82
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
This latter took the shape
Government
in 1893.
The
meetings, conferences, and publications of this organization afforded an opportunity, hitherto lacking, for interchange of personal experiences, pro-
common aims
body
in a
model
charter.
The
significance of this
improve-
ment
mated.
remarkable combination of
local or a
a fine
toward the improvement as well as the strengthening of civic interests and ideals.
tion directed
In 1907 began the development of special bodies for the more detailed study of municipal problems
in a
more
technical
field was the New York Bureau of Municipal Research, closely followed by similar organizations in Chicago and Philadelphia and a score of other cities.* These institutions rendered and are still giving excellent service in their
183
in directing attention to
on the administrative side, these agencies have done much for American city government. In more recent years, the formation of
the
ise
offers
prom-
usually become
research.
of comprehensive
municipal
However,
ment, public
officials,
and
citizens generally
owe
them
for
much
in the
way
cal progress.
In the meantime,
many
arisen in the municipal field, designed for information or action, or for both.
social basis
have often become permanent city clubs with a and motive. No city is without one or
84
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Tax
Association, the
Board have undertaken important municipal work, and others have begun to deal with various aspects of the local problem. Community trusts and other "foundations" have begun to deal with some of the problems of the municipality. Bureaus of municipal research or reference have been established in
many
educational institutions.
for
The Institute
In-
ganized for research and training purposes. Professional societies of different types
have
also be-
gun
urban ques-
tion, as
am
number
185
Not even
by
the
away
smoke
entirely.
gaps
in
systematic
still
larger voids in
scientific
The
list
formation
is still
large,
but
in
view of the
fact that
classed as urban,
it
ought not to be
is
diffi-
effec-
DIGESTS
I.
AND REVIEWS
Charter Convention of 1905, in the various constitutional convention bulletins, in the census bul*See Munro's Bibliography, pp. 385-89,
for lists,
down
to 1915.
86
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
that of Clute; but
it still
re-
An
by
legisla-
constitutional
in
amendments. The statutory changes the various states of the Union were recorded
in the
New York
many
years,
An
ex-
ample of
this
is
New York
of The
New
City
present there
objective reports
Hence we are at the mercy of observers whose training and bias may render their information of dubious value. Some of the most important experiments ever undertaken in the history of democracy are being carried on with scarcely any skilled
observation or adequate record.
187
police, health,
lic utilities,
for all
quiries, if carefully
up
to date,
those
who
ment.
5.
An
of the United
and
lected
and reviewed by
different organizations,
field, field.
and
We
mass of municipal law made every year by our busy ordinance- and law-making bodies.
STATISTICAL DEVELOPMENT
It should also be possible to develop the statistical service
of American
results.
We
88
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and
not covered by
by
a considerable
num-
been made
Fairlie
in
I
recent years.
In 1905,
when Dr.
and
we encountered
extremely
Operative statistics of
in the publica-
and assembly even of the most usual types of statistics, such as election figures, criminal and judicial statistics; and even vital statistics are incomplete
cities
in
many
respects.
Some
of the larger
New
Berlin. In
many
cities
almost
no
might
be made by
says.
189
made by
the governments of a
number of
still
matter.
Beyond
ful
however, there
is
need of care-
what
nicipal operations
possible, useful,
Are there not fields in which without too great expense we might obtain data of the greatest practical value for the government of cities? Are the
very meager figures we
scientific
now
not a fixed
scientific obser-
which
it is
when found are of great practical usefulness. What we really know about the life-currents of our municipalities
I90
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
number
in
of
officials,
observers,
great value.
upon which we
rely
more
and more
munities.
rise
our com-
Of course no one
figures.
ment of municipal
It
is
might be persuaded
inquiry
make broader
schedules of
if the request were based on the thorough and mature inquiry by persons familiar both with the problems of cities and the technical aspects of statistics. The co-operation between the federal government and the accounting officials of cities is an interesting case in point, showing the large
The finan-
191
make
statistical areas.
made throughout
phenomena of
life. They have gone below the forms of government and law into the environment and have examined those social forces without which
municipal
Many of these
advancing
its
governmental
flashes of in-
side.
many
Many
made by
the sociologists in
forces conditioning
19a
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and practical
of children
problems of poor
with medical
relief in the
broader sense, or
more
ban
specifically, are
making
available
many
im-
and conduct. They pass from the realm of general theory to the specific problem of the individual case study. Masses of facts are being compiled in zoning, planning, housing, and transportalife
much
of the material
is
lost for
utili-
making
inten-
urban characteristics, tendencies, and growth, notably the inquiries of the telephone, gas, electric-lighting, and traction' companies. The
real-estate boards, the fire-insurance companies,
it
There
this
is
avail-
mass of
and conclusions
to the
problems
it is
true, exer-
and aiding
in-
193
Yet there
house for
and interpretation of all the various types of data collected. Perhaps no such central agency is possible or desirable, but is it not worth while considering whether some more effective device for interchange of information might be deture analysis
veloped than
we have
it
at present?
Even without a
would of course be possible to maintain a general committee or commission for the purpose of such co-ordination and co-operation
central agency
as
is
MUNICIPAL BEHAVIOR
Beyond
all this
a problem
we have
to be sure,
down
is
to this time.
We have,
which
is
not
accurate
An
objective study
of the characteristics and reactions of urban populations, of the genesis of these tendencies, of their
194
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and adaptation should throw much light on the problem of modern city government. There is no magic formula to be found, no occult force to be sought out and applied for the immediate and permanent relief of all the ills the body politic is heir to. However, there might be scientifically based conclusions which would be of the very greatest
value in elementary political education, in adult
information and co-operation, in structural and
administrative agency and appliance, in facilitating
that invention and discovery which should be characteristic of the
modern
product of
pliance.
scientific
Many
ness
and
care,
results.
We
quiry which
for
may
yield little at
first,
and perhaps
some time seem to be relatively unproductive. The emergencies of municipal life are so urgent in their demands and the workers are so few that we
have thus
far
may
is
not be
We may
just be-
195
ment of our
more
by
scientific
we may assume that cities will be governed when scientific observation and analysis is more nearly complete than at present, and when its conclusions are more seriously considered by the governing bodies of municipahties. It may be said that we have not yet
culation, but
effectively
applied the precepts of experts in politics and administration respecting structure and procedure of
government
in cities.
be reasonably
the counsels of
and prudence are not more readily taken up is that we do not yet fully understand the processes of social and political control
conditioning public action.
Many
is
of the aspects
psychology, or, as
sometimes
said, of
"human
entists
this
til
this
We
SIGNIFICANT TOPICS
Of
196
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and
ernment.
these only
by way of
illustrating
field
of municipal research
result in
results,
but
may lead
to a
out of which
may come
And,
siderable scale.
after
fundamental
re-
Farm and
of
field
man
over nature's
The
per-
its
place in the
and domain of
197
well as elsewhere.
in
way
citizens
modern
creative
which
is
by magic. Government does not consist in charters, ordinances, and rules merely, but in the habits, disas
if
factors
and
traits
are developed
cated, trained,
to co-
a great opportunity
human
we can understand
the political
may make
their contribution to
possibilities in
municipal
198
scientific
NEW 'aspects of
POLITICS
The
great and
the
clamorous, appeal to
who
look" forward.
CONCLUSIONS
My
1.
The urgent
is
now
supplied to
of the
many
now
in process.
observers,
and greater co-ordination of workers is needed. 3. The closer and more systematic study of
municipal
statistics
with a view to
filling in
the evi-
199
and
control.
of the
The better co-ordination and organization now scattered studies of municipal phenomena being made by students of sociology, econom4.
ics,
and
5.
politics.
The development
of fundamental municipal
and
economic process.
We
how
their
developed and
how they
are
and may be
the urban
in
and
dominant
determining America's
American standard of government. There are times when imagination is more important than moderation, and this is one of them. We need not stammer or stutter when we speak of the needs of our urban communities and
policies, in fixing the
200
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
which has made the physical
city to the further problems of
man
its
intelligence
framework of the
organization and control. These paragraphs are based upon urban conditions in American communities, but they are equally applicable to the government of cities elsewhere, for the urban problem everywhere, in Occident and Orient alike, taxes the ingenuity
and resourcefulness of men. The International Union of Cities, to which reference has already been ijiade, offers large possibilities of advance in
the direction of the organization of information, the interchange of experience, the perfection of
The
less
hope
in the
more
toward more
intelligent or-
VIII
in
urgent need of
It
and rejuvenation.
should be
of reorganization cannot
now
be traced by
any man or by any group of men. The ways in which future advance will come may be perhaps foreshadowed, but not forecast with any accuracy,
for
is
coming
in the
world
hundred years, and even within twenty years fundamental and far-reaching changes such as none could foresee have been made. In the social field we are far more helpless to predict
future development. It
is
made
in
any other
of inquiry.
new
*
quest
may
lead
The new world will not be without But to what distant shores the us, who can say?^ He would be a
202
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
undertake either to
bold or a rash
set
which we move.
Any
suggestions that
as tentative
may
be
and provisional in the highest degree. Like the whole of this sketch, they will be set up in order to be utilized by
others with keener insight or clearer idea of the
re-
peated
if politics is
advance to
its
proper place
among the scientific instruments of mankind. The significant changes in the modern world
rectly affecting
di-
in the
introductory chapter.
lated here.
recapitu-
a double one,
scientific
advances;
two are
long run.
The
situation
may
be considered,
The development
cation
2.
The
political
3.
prudence
organization of scientific research in
The
government
203
The
social
is is
generation
diate than
of
life
twenty-one
this
time a
years
it
would be possible
new
We
twenty years, were we minded and equipped to do so. We might make the coming generation aristocrats,
ternationalists at will,
machinery
lies
one
it is
that
we
Nor
is
being de-
204
NEW
this
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it is
voted to
problem, and
may
be ob-
much
of the secondary
is
but to intensify
manner
political
as to breed
war and
to
conflict.^
Secondary
education
is
government
impartial judgment
is
coming
is
on. It
a form
outcome
will
and a low
political
as perhaps
governmental attainment. Here nowhere else the services of genuine science are needed and may effectively be
level of
in the struggle against
brought to bear
ignorance
and bigotry
It
^
as the guides of
human
life.
is
See the reports of the National Council for the Social Studies,
Making;
J.
d'aprh
la guerre.
205
its
teaching, when developed, may be appropriated by the community or some part of it and employed
for the
we may be
sure
that to
some extent
it
this will
be inevitable. Yet on
a broader
the whole
The prime
what
desirable to inculcate.
The quest
and without satisfactory results.* We may well ask, what are the specific qualities of citizenship to be taught? Is there a standard upon which
atically
there
is
general agreement?
relate to information, to
vestigation, to
What
to efficient citizenship?
chical, social,
What
to
See
my article on "Citizenship,"
James Bryce, Hindrances
III, 275;
Good
Citizenship.
2o6
NEW
which
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
in fact,
new
politics
it is
just here
attainable.
ADULT INTELLIGENCE
But
schools,
if so-called
it is
certain to be sterile.
working of a self-governing
constantly readjusting
its
merely
in
in capacity for
adaptation
and
from
generation to generation.
Democracy presupposes
and reconstruc-
not only pious souls with lofty aspirations, but intelligent critics, analysts, adaptors,
tors of
government.
A major problem of politics is the organization and application of the intelligence of the community.
organized.
The political prejudices of every land are well The political greeds, the political haand parochial-
207
all
feasible,
difficult,
to
organize the
common
political intelligence as
over
or of
fel-
community
common
is
interest, the
common
sympathy and the constructive intelligence of groups of persons, and make them effective in the
common
life.
An
time
is,
upon
which the
shall
citizen's
mind may
feed.
Otherwise we
demagogue,
become
increas-
the arts of
Organization
and social psychology have been mad^his allies and have greatly increased his already formidable power. The demagogue and the
propagandist
may
menace
democracy and
2o8
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
organized
is
may
it
evident that
if
secondary
political
education were
met through
the
rise
of the constructive
Man
easily
to ap-
Such a type of mind and such a type of public opinion would demand and would respond to agencies of information and intelligence quite
heretofore.
different
intelligent atti-
narrow-visioned views.
It
is
idle to
may take
in the
209
the making.
The
and custom, or upon transparent rationalizations of interest, or upon ignorance of the fundamental relations between economic and social interests and political action can no longer be reckoned as an adequate basis for a government. It is not impossible to visualize a community where
upon
tradition
ly penetrated as to
and where shams and deceptions are so readimake them dangerous to those who attempt to use them. Whether or not one bezens,
ity" of the
human
race,
it
may
be conceded that
there
is
ment
in the
and deter-
The astounding
man
is
certain to transform
human
life in
ways now
little
dreamed
of.
It
is,
the leisure of
mankind
will
be expanded to limits
upon
is
a subject
2IO
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
when
the leisure of
men will
this.
A people labor-
and
ganize,
and
call.
Furthermore,
it is
may
call "political
may
be far more
By
political
prudence
is
and reflection regarding the problems of the race, wisdom that does not reach the state of science,
yet has
its
own
significance.
This constitutes a
nevertheless a precious
the
wisdom of the
elder
Both secondary
political
damental importance
to
in the
new
vi.
political
world
in-
211
the
movement toward
the creation of a
more
Some
it
suggestions
science
method of such a
will
perhaps be
some of the
steps that
seem
to be
These
may
be recapit-
ulated as follows:
1
organization of political
organization of political
observation
3.
and psychology
4.
The
ences into a
5.
new
politics
and perhaps
is
It
much more
ade-
quate
facilities for
search," chap.
212
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
may
be analyzed,
as to be as well as to
manner
available to students of
government
more
is
not a task of
scientific invention,
is
es-
The student
of government
this vast
mass
government warrants the outlay of far sums of money for this purpose than are now available anywhere. The value of the prompt collection of such material is all the more important when we reflect on the significance of the time element in political action and on the enormous reduction in time as a communication factor in rescience of
cent years.
is
like-
no
ini-
mod-
The
fact
is
human
213
means of recording or observing them. Archaeoand astronomical observations are amply endowed, and rightly so, but it is more difficult to
logical
obtain the ample resources essential to study properly the workings of the
commission government or
Not
all
experi-
ments
true,
but some
of the more important should be taken under the most intimate observation for the purpose of re-
prudence as well as
It
may
would be too heavy a burden to carry. But the enormous wastes now incurred by lack of proper relations between nations and groups and individuals
is
also heavy. It
is
war was
Annual
this
item applied to
it
Carnegie
Endowment
and the
NEW
human
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
race.
war
way toward
political re-
of a fundamental nature.
Likewise the
now expended
in industrial
and
agri-
way
of systematic study of
human
nature.
We now
greater
sums than would be necessary to equip and maintain the most elaborate political fact-finding
agency that has ever been conceived. In
bility,
all
proba-
much more
is
man. This
funds for
scientific
the importance
and the
and
social
The
study of
give
existing
politics
is
equipment for the systematic is a very meager one, far more rethose
stricted than
commonly supposed by
who
some
facilities
was made
in 1922,
215
to devote their
for scientific
may
in
be
much more
is
present time
possible. If
we can imagine
a world
in
which
all
the
other
and deeds of governfully ment are classified andrecorded and made available to all other governments, and where the wise and prudent are- accustomed to canvass such material and draw their tentative conclusions, we shall
acts
governmental mechanism."
Many
eliminated,
many
pleas of those
who preach
and
in gen-
i,
on
more
facts.
2i6
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
number.
Unquestionably" the
new
Some
have been indicated, and many others now undeveloped will be suggested with the advance of inquiry in this important
field.
There
is
no magic
in
many
government.
Statistics
and breadth of the observer's range, giving him myriad eyes and making it posincrease the length
sible
may be said
and useful
to him,
if
properly em-
human
investigapoli-
We
tics or
We know
but
much
greater
217
Likewise psychology offers material and methpolitics, and possibilities of Methods are being suggested by which much more accurate measurement of the human personality may be made, and much deeper
still
work
is
likely to
must
rest
must be founded
upon a study of the political process out of which institutions are made, as well as a description of
their external features or their operation. Politics
upon which
political action
from the history of political theory, would be very valuable. Such a close analysis of the methods of political reasoning is in fact indispensable.
218
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
a part.
We may
examine
and
behavior and
traits
traits
unknown
Locke
Thus
in Aristotle, in Machiavelli, in
in the utilitari-
were, and
how they
zeg.1
operated.
by the Natur-
who
cal "state of
fundamental
ly evolved
These
traits
were large-
by a
and would be
knowledge to attempt with any hope of success a comprehensive analysis of the traits to be studied
scientifically, or of the exact
method of procedure
to be followed.
We
where
is
this
219
would be
possible,
mode
of ob-
servation should
make
it
somewhat farther. might be possible to make a study of political hatreds and prejudices, as well as of loyalties and attractions. These are fundamental in political action, and they have never been isolated and examined with anything like scientific interest or accuracy. What is the process by means of which
these attractions and aversions, so basic in national
and international
stroyed?
cial
life,
are
developed
Some
made by
ency has been toward arm-chair speculation rather than toward detailed and painstaking observation.*
A study of the elements of pohtical morale might yield significant results. In some ways politics
but the
'
2ao
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
of the stimulation of good feeling on the part of individuals and groups in the political world, has
never been at
sibilities
all scientifically
tary morale have been made, and indeed are a part of the course of study in every military institute.*
It
would
also be possible to
undertake inquiries
and
it is
in-
The nature
is
field
nologists
but the
^
much
La
psychologie
du
commandement
thority, the subordinate, the influence of customs, the r61e of institutions, the chief, the
means of
La
of espe-
students of government.
in his Conditions
A Study
in Morale.
aai
or,
more properly, of
discipline,
still
gator.
It
is
political contriv-
in
what manner?
but
it is
Of
we know very
little in reality,
not
difficult to forecast
the discovery of
much more
and con-
much
mental situations.
triving ability
is
How
pressed
is
also a
constantly
leading
and
political
educa-
On
On
the
more has been done, but the study is still new and undeveloped, and hardly more than a beginning has been made. An exact inquiry into
sociological side
^
'
Op.
cit.
Meinung
(1921).
222
NEW
is
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
it
the process
will
not readily
be completed.
The
is
some of the
fundamental "instincts,"
they
may
be so termed,
political inquirer
likely to hold
way
of scientific treasure.
Such studies
as these
They might
cover
mental
and economic
basis of the
The
aid of statistics,
of psychology and psychiatry, of biology and of the allied social sciences with their apparatus of
tegral portion,
a;
of
the community.
The study
'
Seba Eldridge,
Political Action.
^
Very
made
in F.
H. Allport, Social
223
is
much-mooted
political
problem,
not
or
is
not divisible,
is
held by the
many
funda-
mentally a problem in
command and
measured
as
far
as possible.
this,
Early students of
but they assumed
critical
mand and
might be modified. Again, the problem of the balance of powers is not a question of logic as finally resolved by Kant into major premise, minor premise,
partments of government, but a problem of a balance of social and economic and political forces and
a problem of popular psychology.
It
may
that
is
we cannot
experi-
im-
Op.
cit.,
chap.
i.
Compare Lindeman,
Scientific
Social Discovery;
John A.
Fairlie, "Politics
and Science,"
224
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
possible to devise
trolled
By
The
rule of
thumb we have
arrived at a good
working knowledge of
military
many
political
phenomena.
the effect
commander understands
three of
them
upon the
the result
may commonly
sit in
be predicted. Five
thousand persons
and activity of an orator like Mr. Bryan has lashed them into a fury. The change of attitudes in a group of persons who read Tolstoi as compared with a group who read Roosevelt may be measured with* some approximation to accuracy. The attitudes, values, and interests of individuals may be measurably altered by well-known means of education and influence. It sometimes seems as if the
only persons ignorant of this fact are professional
students of politics.
difficult
and
interpret. In
my own
case, in 1900
op.
cit.
Compare
made by Snedden,
225
was mobbed on the streets of Paris in company men presumed to be English. We were saved by the intervention of the alert gendarmes. But on a later visit, in 191 8, I found the French and the British embracing each other. If I were to return today, I might find another situation, and five years hence, who knows but still another? When I first came into view of international politics, Russia was the great enemy of civilization, the bear who walks like a man. Later it was Germany. Later France. At another time the British. Again the yellow peril. Tomorrow? These shifts and turns in human political positions are susceptible of analysis, and the results should yield scienwith a group of
tific
Can we
political processes
may
not be
made
still
successfully?
mechanisms of measurement, and the patience and skill to apply them. Certainly the state has more material available for observation than any other
226
institution.
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
sonnel,
rectly
for
The army, the schools, the pubHc perand an array of public institutions are diunder its management, and may be utilized
if it is
purposes of experiment
so desired.
Out
come psychological material of army under the of emergency came important psychological
advances.
that
its
greatest students
in
have overlooked
experiment.
its
possibilities
the field of
many unforit
place,
has
left
who
were not
worked out under adverse conditions. In the next place, inadequate attention was given to exact observation of political experiments actually under
way
at
ail
scientific
times, and susceptible of much more measurement and analysis than was
achieved.
This conclusion
that
experiments in
was not reached as the result of persistent effort and many failures, but, on the other hand, without any serious attempt
politics are impossible
THE TENDENCY OF
POLITICS
227
The
ped, partly,
1
made
to
study
he
political process
Here, again, the failure was not due to unsuccesslong continued, but rather to lack of
ef-
Thinkers preferred to
cite
common
custom, or
some natural
law or to
tics,
of logical metapoli-
may
be
no such use of accurate methods has been attempted as in the case of astronomy and geology, where
control
is
sucj[j
domains
It is
as political education,
perhaps
228
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
sufficient to
em-
to state
the hy-
may make
its
attempted.
If
we wish
to
know
traits, it is possible to
determine
through the
signifi-
in various situations, it is
We
radical,
many
effect
of either as
we
like
by proper treatment,
We
upon
different groups
now with
degree of success.
It
mand and
On
the contrary,
it
229
it
is
be-
have not hitherto been subjected to close analysis even on the older basis of political science. What we are really aiming at is the underient types that
knowledge of the basic political habits, traits, and dispositions of mankind, how they act and react,
and how they are related to groups and situations out of which they grow, and which fundamentally condition them. These analyses might give us, if successfully carried out, an intimate knowledge of
the political process in
its
fundamentals, such as
we
sociology,
before
we
may
be pre-
way
from
lies
political prudence.
By more
interests
may
characteristics
may
23
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
ways and means of educating and controlling them further developed. We may better know what is the actual basis of governmental power, what are the causes of support or discontent and how they may be controlled, what is the significance of the radical and conservative, what are the limits of group activity, what is the composition of political ideals and their opposites, how the political forces in a given community may be appraised and utithe
lized for specific purposes,
waste
and
loss
through avoidable
political friction
may
be minimized.
Gradually there might be constructed a new
politics,
life
woven out of the new elements of modern It would be new not merely in the sense that it reflected new social and economic
and thought. and
bols.
political forces, formerly neglected or inade-
We
new
new
philosophies for
the
munism, internationalism, fascism, taking the name of science and colorful forms of literature. But politics would be new in that it utilized the new developments in modern science, social and physical
of psychology, of
statistics,
of biology, of eth-
231
may throw
The new
would be a synthesis of significant factors in modern mental life, applied to the problems of government, released from traditional or
politics
will
be the same as
may
new type
methods.
of the
own
special
may do damage,
this
many
strate.
For much of
science of politics,
now
It will be
political science
and
it
may
es for this
purpose
The inadequacy
time
is
and
if
may
The
232 in the
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
itself
government
stances.
and
still
know
of any
and operation of
human
nature on
its
political
such an institution
would be very
level
large,
and
in raising the
upon which
political
political scientists
is
it
are
made on broad
issues,
scientific
spirit
as well. In
any event, we
for-
ward
to the rapid
233
And
tists
of course there
must be a body of
scien-
undertaking.
The
willingness of
women
mitting
lems
is
a prerequisite to achievement,
and even
they
shows that
sterile
it is
easy
to
fall
into industrious
but
scholarship.
We
tools, often a
may
and the
mechanisms
of specific attainment.
The
political scientist
must
a statesman
and a
scientist
methods.
may
234
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
is
and
political control.
The
with
still
and the poor, the mountain and the plain, the center and the circumference, the old and the new may prefer blood and iron as their social medicine, and writhe in agony again as they have done before. And those who worship Jebefore.
The
may kill
or torture each
and
social control. If
human
nature
is
really un-
may
well be
more
terrible
pos-
But it may be said that there will be no life, no heart, no color, no emotion left in the new type of
politics.
The
psychologists
235
On the contrary, they have brought and more abundant life to many little ones. The physicians and the biologists have not put an end to love, even though they have brought scientific methods to replace ignorance and superstilarger
tion.
scientific
methods
plied. If
management of personnel
or in the
justment of the
men
might live a happier and richer life than when chance and ignorance determined their lot. May not justice and liberty and law have a basis in reason as well as in force, superstition, or formula?
Wrong, injustice, tyranny have flourished most rankly when and where the light could not penetrate, in the
illusion,
that they
might be
free,
common
will
when
truth
is
known than
when its
face
is
veiled.^
To
minimize the
^
losses
conflicts, to
See
W.
"The
236
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
of
human
co-operation and
social constructiveness
less
this is
man
mankind
to higher
levels of
all,
new
rationalization of the
will
new
forces of our
be rationalizations of
to strength
and
self-expression.
But
who
have or seek power in new forms. There will be far more perfect organization of political information than is found today, and of
political
observation
as
well.
it
modern
men
Toward
237
we seem
to be
mov-
cannot be wholly
lost in the
new
world.
would bridge the gap Finally, the between art and science, and bring us to more precise methods of political and social control than
politics
new
mankind has hitherto possessed. The new politics would look forward as well as backward, it would
supplement traditional lore with experiment; it would be constructive and inventive as well as cus-
would create and control handed down. It would use the mechanisms of education and eugenics for political and social organization and control. It would explore the recesses of human nature, of human political nature, uncontrolled by authority or tradition. The new politics would not be unmindful of history or tradition or of the "subconscious," but it would also consider inheritance and environment as science unfolds them rather than as power or privilege portrays them for personal advantage. The new politics would en-
it
238
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
for
un-
founded
This
belief.
is
eration, but
a necessary undertaking
if
and a
necessary accomplishment
the
and its new intellectual technique is to be governed under a system of social and political control of a similar type, and if a world of science is not to be mastered and directed by ignorance and prejudice. These, in short, are some of the elements of a science of politics as distinguished from an art, or
new
social forces
from a
set of historical
final
What
may
in
take
it is
im-
possible to predict,
and
it is
view of the
cer-
list
The development of
may
wise
seem an overambitious program at which their heads, and probably they will. Yet two considerations are significant
here.
man
has
239
is
no record of
endowed with
scientific
we shall soon-
resting.
PRACTICAL POSSIBILITIES
It
may
it
seem
most probable that practical advances may be made, assuming there is a development of the science of politics? This
state with
is
of course impossible to
may
be hazarded, taking
as such only.
A
tals
more thorough knowledge of the fundamenof man's political nature might be employed
This prob-
lem
fore,
is
and
solution
would unquestionably be
aid-
ed by
of citizenship
is
which
240
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
and experience
available to
possible
all
in
it
moment.
Another
field
is
observation
of political experiments
now
being undertaken
may
field is
purpose of obtaining
eflfective
co-ordination be-
and groups of human beings who now cause enormous losses to the race through struggle of a wasteful type. The war psychosis is one of the phenomena toward which a scientific politics would systematically and relentlessly apply itself, and with reasonable prospect of success. Pestilence, war, and famine have been the historic curses of man. All were originally regarded as the acts of God or the devil, at any rate beyond human
tween
classes, races,
Pestilence
trolled, if
way
to
War and
pov-
to attack
is
241
social control,
number of valuable
and contriv-
is
advance in all fields thus far, and there is no reason to suppose that it would not likewise be true
of the social and political, presuming the existence of a genuinely scientific spirit and also the existence
of a trained body of persons to
tions
whom
the sugges-
might carry an appeal and a strong probability of a response. Utopias and ideals have hitherto been so largely the rationalization of particular systems, from the spell of which the writer was unable
to escape, that they
significance.
little
more
special
probable that
many
more
fertile
ine pohtical
and
social inventions
scientific attitude
itself.
would be encourwould
in the past
and
242
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Possibly no
political cohesiveness,
and precanon-
later
and given political honors. But the new politics may be built in larger measure upon the forward look, upon the inventive and contriving spirit, without disregarding the
previous experience of the past.
With a genuine
in
knowledge of
political
and customs
will
will
social psychology, it
much
less
shorter
need
time for
be shortened. After
is
the
life
not
and within half that time therefore possible to modify materially the whole attitude of the group within say twenty-odd years. Within this time new
the group changes. It
is
more than
may
be created by the
it is
desired to do
In short, we
may
to a
much
at present control
243
mean
in-
it
may mean
a faster
its
future
ine interpretations of
also
human
experience. It
more genumeans
more prophecy,
existence.
prediction, inventiveness, as
of
human
It
may
is
attributing a far
larger part to
human
warranted
by any judicious forecast of the future or by any consideration of the actual role of the customary and the habitual, the emotional, the subcon-
scious in
human
nature as
I
it
political activities.
"intelligence" in
movements of
political
The steady trend of control has been toward the appeal to reasoned intelligence. The appeal to traditions
was
in lieu of
appeal to force;
it
was then
The appeal
244
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
The appeal
its
to various "principles"
and
notwithstanding
In increasing degree and to an increasing proportion of the political group, the appeal
is
made
to
some form of
the form
intelligence,
however undeveloped
may
be.
To understand
not
them.
Quite
the
contrary;
the
more intimate
from the
knowledge of the
reflex as distinguished
The
tors the composition of the human organism, and knows better the relative positions of the conscious and the subconscious, yet this knowledge does not
As Bacon
said,
we obey
the
We understand
human
action,
and
control.
The
individual
who knows
inti-
245
own
body
made less capable of directing and controlling them than one who is in entire ignorance or
is
not
The
knows the winds and currents and reefs and therefore guides his vessel more safely. The
pilot
most
intelligent course.
common
affairs,
and
gard for the habitual and customary or the subconscious and unreflective in political
ture,
it
human
na-
intelligence
trol
may even
as impossible, or
ileo are perfect
gence, in the one case in the ethical world, the other in the physical world.
and
in
Pestilence
and
our
condemned
profanation of the
human body,
246
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
nese/
Mystery
was
many
brilliant advocates of the type of DeBonald and DeMaistre. And mystery still has its advocates, qua mystery, and its opponents likewise.
is
often
work of those in power, and the attack upon it the work of those striving for authority. Technithe
cally,
however,
this historic
ing to do with the future role of intelligence in political affairs, for the
de-
Like a new
weapon,
it
will
be used by
all
served
if
the generif
the reis
lation of the
new
politics to the
new world
for
is
chal-
lenged. It
would be presumptuous
to
it
bounds of possibility
'
show the
significant chang-
247
modern world,
social
and
intellectual,
and
to
democratic and
scientific, there
ques-
institutions of
ingly,
be shaped accord-
there
is
little
doubt. Democracy,
inter-
dictatorship,
The
and
ical
prudence and
by
these new developments. The world will not put new wine into old bottles, politically or otherwise.
live in the
same world.
The
when
human
its
vast,
teeming
fertility to the
INDEX
Accountancy,
statistics and,
109
Bossuet, Bishop, 99
British,
Adams, Herbert
history and, 57
B.,
American
187
Bruere, H., The
ment, 186
Adams,
Jolin, cited, 56
New
City Govern-
74
Statistical Society, 59
politics, 85
1
American
226
statistics and,
10
sci-
36,37.67,68,93,103,179,218, 219
Calhoun,
120
Army
J.
C, cited,
56
Tests, 76
political,
Attitudes,
ment
of, 90,
224
Chamber
of
Commerce
of the
Biography,
political,
value
of,
and, 20,
fF;
88
rise of,
37,38,39,
26
Communication,
politics, 5
modern,
and
32
Comte, Auguste,
Conference for ernment, 181
politics and,
250
NEW
139
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Experiment,
litical
controlled: imporof,
tance of trend
science
method
and
228
ff.
W. C, on
139
science
Fairlie, J. A.,
on
politics
and
sci-
politics,
ence, 188
Darwin,
Raymond,
cited, 187
Freeman, H. G.,
cited,
42
Downey
40
tests, 91
Geography, beginnings
of, 13,
(i2,i
34
64
Economics;
ic
politics
and econom1 1
;
Government
ence, 183
Research
Confer-
interpretation,
fF.;
recent
methods in, 26
States, 64
in the
United
Education: adult,
politics
206
fF.;
new
219
ff.
Hamilton, Alexander, 56
Hart, Hornell, on attitudes, 91
secondary
Efficiency
203
ff.
mission, 170
29
ff.
Environment:
eral
in the
discussion
137
ff.;
Hobbs, Thomas,
and,
7, 69,
103
Hobhouse,
148
cited,
39
13,
150
ff;
secondary, 151
lots,
Esprit des
38
INDEX
Immigration, and science of politics, 140
Inheritance:
eral
politics
251
cited,
LeBon, G.,
Leisure,
32
new
politics and, 3
and, gen-
137 ff.; race propaganda and, 138; relation of, to specific problems, 139
Institute
fF.
discussion
of,
for
Government Re-
Lincoln,
Abraham,
cited,
75
Lippmann, Walter,
79.
Terman,
political
184
Intelligence, relation of, to
intelligent
and
non-
artist,
action
in
politics,
234, 243
ff.
7, 68,
science
study
of,
Marx
and, 28
International
Congress of Ad-
legisla-
60
Iowa
Commonwealth
Confer-
ence, 174
Jellinek, George, cited, 41, 115
Madison, James,
cited, 56
method,
politics and,
40
Marx, Karl,
cited, 28
Maxims,
political,
103
ff.
Ku Klux
litical
Methods of
search
research,
see
Re-
96
Mill,
252
Montesquieu,
50, 102, 103
NEW
ASPECTS OF POLITICS
Observation, political, organization for, 212 fF. .
Ostrogorski, cited, 43
Morale,
political,
study
of,
fF.
219
develop-
Patterns, political, 92
ment
of,
digests
and
Pearson,
III, 161
Karl,
biometry
and,
reviews, 185 fF; municipal behavior and, 193; next step in,
181
fF.;
significant
topics
in,
195 fF.; statistical development, 187 fF.; surveys and, 191 fF. conclusions regarding, 198 fF.
information, organiza-
tion of, 21
National Civic Federation, 167 National Civil Service Reform League, 184 National Conference Workers, 184
of Social
and, 172
Pound, Roscoe,
cited, 41
of,
Propaganda, study
221
National Institute of Public Administration, 75, 174, 184 National Municipal League, i8a National Real Estate Board,
National
1
84
Tax
Association, 184
political
and
ice,
political,
47
fF.
Neo-Hegelianism, 39
Public
167
see
Bureau of Municipal
Quantitative
Statistics
measurement,
186
War,
57
Numbers,
fF.
INDEX
Ratzenhofer, cited, 32
Redlich,
J., cited,
^S3
43
IF.;
advance
tics,
po-
loi
fF.;
rise of,
11
soci-
ology and,
Statistisches
no
Jahrbuch Deutscher
possibilities of,
219
fF.
Stddte, 188
of,
in
233
rise of,
43
fF.
64
Taylor-Emerson
studies,
44
of,
political
Temperament, measurement
Tolstoi, cited, 115, 224
Aristotle
on,
7,
117
67; Bryce on, 72; early study of, 67 fF.; Hobbes on, 69;
Lippmann
on, 74; Locke on, 68; Machiavelli on, 68; Plato on, 67; Rousseau on, 70;
utilitarians on, 71
of.
;
Wallas on,
229
73 Tropisms,
political,
S.,
study
of,
Social
heritage,
politics
and,
i52fF.
Turner, F. and, 62
American
frontier
Social science-:
opment
32
in,
66
126
fF,
rise of, 9;
Von
anthropology and, biology and, iii; census and, 112; early writers and,
War,
scientifle
study
of,
156
no;
Ward, Lester
loi;
future
of,
118
fF.;
fF.;
in-
munic-
Wiggam,
cited 16
A., 123
187;
new
Woods, F.
Wurzel, cited 41
U.S.A.
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