Aquacultural Engineering 5 1.

986)235-252

Introduction to the Design of Coastal Aquaculture Systems in Taiwan Sing-Hwa Hu

Taiwan Fisheries Bureau. 8, Section l, Chung Hsiao E. Road. Taipei, Taiwan. ROC

ABSTRACT The traditional culture of shellfish in the coastal waters of Taiwan has a long history. The cultttre area was limited to the sandy beaches of the south and southwest coast. In the past decade, due to the shortage of land resources and water pollution, coastal water aquaczdture has been extended to intertidal rock)' areas and the sublittoral zone. Concrete ponds have been constructed on the intertidal zone of the rock)' coast specifically for culturing such species as small abalone, Haliotis diversicolor supertexta, grass shrimp, Penaeus monodon, grouper Epinephelus sp. etc. FMz culture in ~7oating cages and oyster culture on Jloating long-lines and rafts are also practiced. This" paper presents details of construction designs, with ernphasis on utilizing water circulation, construction costs and wave resistance. Some exarnples are selected to illustrate the lavoztts used and the problerns faced.

INTRODUCTION

In Taiwan, the developments in the field of aquaculture during the last

decade have resulted in an increase of about 100% in aquaculture production since 1975. Considerable attention is now being paid to the potential use of marine and coastal water for fish and shellfish culture (Chen, 1977). In 1983, aquaculture production in coastal waters was 1 0 0 2 0 8 tonnes which was 13 329 tonnes m o r e than the production in 1982. This consisted mainly of milkfish Chanos chanos, grass shrimp Penaeus m o n o d o n , oysters Crassostrea gigas, hard clam Meretrix htsoria, sea-weed Gracilaria conferoides, etc., some grey 235 Aquaczdtural Engineering 0144-8609/86/S03.50 - Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd, England, 1986. Printed in Great Britain

236

S.-H. Hu

mullet Mugil cephalus, small abalone Haliotis diversicolor supertexta, crab Scylla serrata, sea bream Sparidae and grouper Epinephelus (Li and Liao, 1979). Sea farming can be conducted in various ways depending on the topography of the coastal land, the climate, subsoil, water exchange and the species to be cultivated. Building ponds for brackish water species culture on the shores or intertidal zones of southwest Taiwan has a long history. Construction of facilities can be either on shore with pumping systems used to get sea water or in the intertidal zone where the tidal flux is used to fill and drain. The intertidal zone is traditionally used for mollusc culture. Shellfish farming in the coastal waters of Taiwan is confined to the south and southwest coasts where large stretches of sandy bottom are available (Kuo, 1964). Generally shellfish cultivations are extensive or semi-extensive. No food is given to cultured organisms and very little equipment is required. Due to limited land and pollution problems of coastal waters in Taiwan, many sea farms are now turning to off shore sites. The general concept of coastal culture has been changed. Intensive operations have been tried in the intertidal zone and surface water of sublittoral zone, using their advantages of good water circulation. Some of them have been successful and some are still under experimentation. The purpose of this paper is to present the design of coastal water culture in Taiwan. Figures are given for selected samples of each farming system. Recent information on the development of coastal farming in the intertidal zone and surface water of the sublittoral zone of Taiwan is detailed.

POND CULTURE IN T H E INTERTIDAL Z O N E Many fish farms have been constructed in the intertidal zone for the culture of brackish water fishes. The majority of those ponds were constructed from mud and sometimes clay on the intertidal mudflats near river mouths. The cost of constructing ponds on rocky shores is excessive. These are few intertidal concrete ponds which have been built. It is only recently that pond construction in the rocky areas of the intertidal zone specified for certain species, such as small abalone, grouper, etc., has been tried on the northeast coast of Taiwan and the Pescadores (Penghu Island).

The design of coastal aquaculture systems in Taiwan

P o n d s with n e t f e n c e

237

In the beginning, simple ponds enclosed by a 1-1"5 m concrete base with a net fence were built on the rocky areas between high tide and neap tide level. The sea water is exchanged freely through the net fence according to the tidal movement. The water level is maintained by the concrete base at low tide. A simple sluice gate is set at the base toward the sea direction so that the pond can be drained for harvesting or cleaning at low tide. Although these ponds are of simple desigaa at a minimum cost, for pond management and predator control it would be better to have separate inlet and outlet channels and a water control system. In 1984, a fish farm was constructed on the rocky areas of the intertidal zone in the Pescadores. The general layout and design is shown in Fig. 1. The 30 ha farm is a complex establishment including (i) ponds for various purposes such as live bait culture, hatchery, nursery, culture and holding ponds; (ii) a water control system with embankments,

Fig. 1.

Elevation and general layout of a fish farm in the Pescadores: A, cultural pond; B, fry rearing pond; C, hatchery house.

238

S.-H. H,~

canals and sluices; and <iii) other facilities. The total area of the fish culture pond is 8 ha and was built between - 0.5 m and + 0.5 m of EL (equal to mean high water level/. The ponds are enclosed by concrete bases 50 cm high and 40 cm wide into which the net fences are firmly driven. The fences are composed of two layers of plastic mesh attached to wooden posts. The distance between posts is 3 m. Beams about 20 cm wide are fixed at the top, middle and bottom of the columns to strengthen the net fence. The net fence is 1"2 m high above the concrete base so that the total height of the embankment with the net fence is 3-5 m above ground level. That is equal to the height of the maximum spring tide in this area (Fig. 2). The height of the perimeter dike and the net fence is decided by the tidal data at the farm site in order to regulate water exchange at a minimum construction cost. Within the perimeter dike there are 16 ponds, from 0"35 to 0.70 hectares, and a 15 m wide water canal divides the ponds into two

S.S
HH.W.L M.H.W.L

M + 3.54 net f e n c e
+ 2.6.5
+

1.80

I
concrete block

MSL

* 0.60

M.LW.L

~\,&&7-~,~-" _
2 75m

- 0.10

L L.W.L

(a)

~45

250

cm

~45 ~

u o

--,r-

wooden rail

J,

"

o concre I embankment

E u
0

(b) ~_, Fig. 2. Embankment (a)

and structure of net fence (b) of fish pond in the rocky intertidal z o n e in the Pescadores.

The destgn of coastal aquaculture systems in Taiwan

239

parts. The water gates are installed at both sides of the canal for intake of an adequate quantity of tidal flow and also for the discharge of water from the ponds. The walls between ponds also consist of a concrete base and net fence. Each pond has two sluice gates at the canal and sea sides for separate drainage. The bottom of the pond is about 0.2-0.6 m below ground level. There is also a ditch about - 1 m of EL along the perimeter of the embankment for drainage. In general. pond water is kept 0"8-1'2 m at low tide and exchanges freely when flood water goes up to 0.6 m of EL. Seven 300 m 2 nursery ponds are built at the site be~veen 0 m and + 0-5 m, also consisting of concrete walls and net fences. The hatchery ponds of 8 m x 4 m x 2 m are set in a hatchery house for fish breeding and larva rearing. The live bait pond consists of an algae pond and a zooplankton pond in a ladder construction. Sea water is pumped up to the algae pond for algae bloom then algae water is sent to the zooplankton pond at the second level through the pipes by gravity and zooplankton is collected at bottom of the pond (Fig. 3).

910cm
,

J crrl BOO f i

(a/

I/I I llll//lllll~/~

"77

r7

VA._

(b>

Fig. 3.

.___..I!.IIT
"L' 2" ~J'O~O l r-m
2ocm

1___

l-L~:)-l- 3o --4

~-- 50

Structureoflivebaitpond(a)andoutletoftheponds(bi.

240 Culture of small abalone

S.-H. Hu

Small abalone Haliotis diversicolor supertexta is one of the shellfish species which have been exploited in shallow rocky areas. The site selections of a small abalone farm are (i) clear sea water without pollution and fresh water dilution; (ii) rocky substrate without drifting sand and mud; and (iii) good water circulation to supply enough oxygen (Tzeng, 1977; Liao, 1979). Artificial breeding and seed culture of small abalones has been carried out in many places in Taiwan. The new techniques and equipment have produced abalone seed commerciaUy (Chen and Yang, 1979). Due to the high price of small abalones, concrete ponds are employed for easy management and long duration. The ponds are built in the intertidal zone with little tidal range. The layout of small abalone farms varies from place to place, taking advantage of the topographical features of the site, but the general scheme is the same. The general layout of a small abalone pond in Taiwan is shown in Fig. 4. Ideally, the pond is rectangular in shape, 150-250 m 2 in area, and is divided into six or more ponds. The pond is divided by 30 cm high bricks with 10 cm diameter PVC pipes at the bottom for water exchange. Water is admitted by means of a series of PVC pipes through the pond walls connecting them to the water inlet canal. T h e w a t e r inlet canal around three sides of the pond is about 1.2-1.5 m wide and 30 cm deeper than the rearing pond to facilitate drainage. Exchange of pond water is effected by the rise and fall of the tides through the sluice gate at either side of the open mouth of the canal. The sluice gate is surrounded by a screen on the inside to prevent the intrusion of predatory animals. The concrete wall of the pond is 3 m high and is penetrated by 8 cm diameter PVC pipes at 1 m and 1.7 m above the bottom. The distance between the pipes is 1"5 m. From those pipes, sea water is exchanged between the water inlet canal and the rearing ponds. Usually, the pond water depth maintained is at least 1 m to avoid high temperatures in summer. A small tank, 2 0 - 3 0 cm deeper than the canal, is built at the corner of the canal for pumping water out. In the rearing pond, stones about 10 cm 3 or more are laid on the bottom for abalones to adhere to. Reinforced iron is put into the pond to fix the stones on the bottom so that the stones will not be disturbed during the typhoon season. In small abalone culture, the stocking density of 1-5 cm seeds is about 20-30 seeds per square meter. Gracilaria is used to feed the

The design of coastal aquaculture ~'stems in Taiwan

241

r
G c c

I
.4

g
:i ~J

000~

L1

,.J

cJ

01

001

001

o,~

-~
v

8:
- -

c
i " ' ! " ' ' ' " ' " ' " ' " "

o,~

~-I

.4=

S.-H. Hu

abalone, with a conversion rate of 15" 1. After sLx months of cultivation, the abalones reach marketable size and are ready for harvest.

Intertidal underground ponds

Underground ponds in the intertidal zone are a special method used for fish culture in the Pescadores of Taiwan. The underground pond is excavated in the intertidal zone, allowing the flood tide to change the sea water and using the ebb tide to feed the fish. The pond site should ideally be such that the pond can be fed every day and be covered by flood water as early as possible. The structural characteristics and textural grade of the soil determine the bearing capacity of the foundation and the stability of the walls and also affect the cost of pond construction. Soft porous materials are to be avoided, because the wave action and wind force will erode and collapse the walls of the pond. Rock should extend from the top of the pond wall to the bottom for protection if the substrate is not suitable. Usually an underground pond is 10 m long, 5 m wide and 2 m deep. A small concrete surface which is 30 cm wide and 20 cm above the ground is built along the top of the pond wall. Timber battens are fixed on the concrete surface so that nylon net can be fastened and cover the surface of the pond to prevent fish from escaping (Fig. 5). There is no water gate or drainage pipe in the pond. The water supply is entirely from the pond surface. Pond size is limited, because harvesting is carried out by pumping water out of the pond at low tide.

Fig. 5.

Profile of intertidal underground pond.

The design o f coastal aquaculture svs;ems in Taiwan

~ ;

The cost of underground pond construction and maintenance is very low. It has little water temperature fluctuation compared to ponds above ground. Because the pond is underground the damages from wind force and wave action can be avoided. Marine foulings of various types are usually a serious problem in netting of the marine cages and enclosures. But the cost of maintenance was reduced to a minimum because less marine fouling was found on nets and it was very convenient to clean them Because the water in the pond is unchanged at low tide, the oxygen content of the pond water is consumed rapidly. From Tsai and Hu (1982), in an underground pond l0 m long. 5 m wide and 2 m deep stocked with 800 groupers, the oxygen content will decrease from 75 ppm to 2-5 ppm in 6 h. But when the flood water comes, the oxygen of pond water will go up to the normal content (Fig. 6). The cultured species and density rates are highly important in underground culture. Grouper salrnonoides is a suitable species for its high economic value and inactive habits. Stock density is limited to

?
u
o. 150 120 go 6o

low l~de

high 1'ide

low lide

hicjh tide

120~

=1 ~:
"~ E ~

3O

221
2O
, , i i J

\
surface

28 26

0
, . , , , , , i

(;.1)

10 12 14 16 18 20 22

(b)

10 12 t4

16 18 20 22

Fig. 6.

Change of water temperature and dissolved oxygen of intertidal underground pond, in winter (a) and summer (b).

244

S.-H. Hu

5-15 individuals m - 3 depending on the site of the pond. In addition to oxygen deficiency, there are also some problems in the culture such as sediment introduced into the pond by wave action, and limited time for harvesting. Not all of the intertidal underground ponds were successful, some having failed due to the poor site of muddy, sandy substrate or because of limited water exchange.

FLOATING FARMING IN THE SUBLITTORAL AREA Floating farming in sublittoral zones include fish culture in floating cages and oyster culture in floating long lines and rafts. The floating techniques permit optimal culture environment with minimal capital costs. Although floating techniques for sea farming have been developed in many countries for years, design and construction might differ because of environmental conditions and lifestyle of the people. In the coastal waters of Taiwan there is no well sheltered place protected from both typhoons in the summer and strong monsoons in the winter. The floating system should be designed with attention to resisting wind and wave action. Oyster culture The general culture season for oyster farming is from February to September. It is not only because the spat collecting period is mainly in the winter, but also because the strong monsoon which comes from October will wipe out the oysters if they are not harvested in time. Oysters cultured for the Taiwan market will reach a favorable size (about 5 g of meat weight) in 4-5 months (Lin and Tang, 1980; Hu and Sheu, 1982a).

Long-line culture
The long-line system consists of horizontal lines near the water surface from which strings of seed oysters are suspended. The horizontal lines are attached to a series of floats and the end of each line is anchored by a 60 kg anchor. Usually each set is 50-60 m long with 10 floats arranged in rows. Four main parallel polyester ropes, 3 cm in diameter, are fastened on the floats at a distance of about 20 cm apart. About 500 strings of oysters, each string about 4-5 m long with 20

 The design of coastal aquaculture s~'stems in Taiwan

-4_

cultches on it, are hung from the parallel ropes. Strings are hung 20 cm apart. Initially, oil drums coated by pitch were used for floatation. The oil drums needed continuous maintenance and replacement, having a life of about 1-2 years. Styrofoam boxes and balls and fiberglass drums used for floatation are stronger and last longer. From an economic standpoint floats made by styrofoam blocks covered with canvas or used-tire rubber are 50% cheaper than other types. In the beginning, four parallel main ropes for hanging strings were fastened on the floats. It was found that increasing the distance between two floats and using two parallel ropes instead of four would reduce loss in rough seas, without having to increase floatation equipment. Strings near the floats were broken easily by continuous strain from wave and wind. The small modification of strings hung on new rope instead of directly on parallel ropes can avoid direct force on the string (Fig. 7).

4'

(a)

(b)
Fig. 7. Long-line oyster culture (a) and modification (b).

246

S.-H. Hu

Hu and Sheu (1982b) found that by rotating culture of oysters, a combination of long-line (or raft) and harden seeds process, they could use the space and floating equipment efficiently. Oysters are cultured by floating farming from February to July whereas the harderring seeds in shallow water can grow to 4 cm of shell height at same time. The hardened seeds are transplanted to the floating equipment for when the oysters are marketed and can be harvested in 40 days. The third rotation, from September to October, after the oysters are moved from shallow water to the floating equipment, allows them to grow to 4.6 cm of shell height before the monsoon comes. The growth of rotating culture of oysters is shown in Fig. 8. Oyster drill Purpura clavigers caused heavy losses in bamboo stick and horizontal hanging oyster farming methods on the west coast of Taiwan (Kuo, 1964). In the long-line method, predation of oyster leeches caused as high as 25% mortality in some places (Lin and Tang, 1980). Changing the culture period from January to July to avoid the abundant season of leeches was operated. Bio-fouling is a serious problem in oyster culture. The shells are attractive areas for many species of algae, barnacles, mussels and other organisms. Some

,,~

6.0
5.0
c,

--" "/

olSt crop

.....-o 2 nd crop

c,
$ "r"

4.0

.~EL'_ -4~--"I --,~-"13rd crop

3.0

CO

4.0

/oZnd crop
Ist crop

-~

3.0
2.0

/
/

/
/ i~, /

crop

i.O
1 i I i

Month

Fig. 8.

Grossth of oysters by rotating culture; o; long-linc culture, e: seed hardening in the intertidal zone.

The design of coastal aquaculture systems in Taiwan

247

farmers put oysters on a raft for direct exposure to sunlight for 8 h in the second or third month of culture to get rid of foulings and leeches.

Raft culture
The floating rafts used for oyster culture in Taiwan are usually 10 m x 12 m (10 m long. 60 bamboo poles: 12 m long, 15 bamboo poles) with floats under the raft, with 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 strings of oysters hung on each raft. Bamboo poles of 10-15 cm in diameter are used, the distances between two poles being about 15 cm and 60 cm. Sometimes plastic tubes with styrofoam inside are used instead of bamboo poles. Buoyancy of the raft is from bamboo poles and floats but extra floats are added at the end of the cultural season when the oysters are getting bigger. The rafts are generally brought inshore in the winter for maintenance. The life of a bamboo pole is about two years. A 60 kg anchor at either side of the raft is used to fix the raft in position. Culture and growth of oysters by the raft method are the same as in long-line oyster culture.

Submersible cu#ure
Submersible culture of oysters by raft and long-line methods is used in many places in Taiwan coastal waters. Oyster farming by submersible culture requires areas where water depth is more than 10 m in order to maintain a safe distance off the sea bottom. In the long-line submersible oyster culture, the oysters are hung 2 m under the water surface. T h e main parallel ropes sink down to 2 m by fastening ropes to the surface floats. The floats are made of plastic balls filled with styrofoam. Each floating ball has a buoyancy of 45 kg. The oyster strings are suspended in sea water during the cultural period, but are lifted to the surface for hanging seeds and harvesting (Fig. 9). The average weight of a string of oysters at harvesting is about 20 kg. Each float ball can maintain eight strings of oysters suspended in sea water. Submersible oyster culture by the raft method is the same as in submersible long-line. A raft needs 20 float balls to keep the raft hung from the water surface without sinking. There is no difference in oyster growth rate between the floating and the submersible systems, but it is obvious that submersible oyster culture has less loss after typhoon or strong wave action. In submersible oyster culture, constant examination of floats and ropes is necessary to ensure that buoyancy is sufficient to keep the oysters suspended in the desirable place. If float

248

S.-H. Hu
/'~'x
I

(a)

160cm

{ct
__.,_

J
[

O, o:

Fig. 9.

Submersible long-line oyster culture: top view (a), profile (b) and at harvesting(c).

balls are found sinking into the water, extra floats should be added to increase buoyancy (Tsao, 1984). The submersible cultural systems have permitted the extension of oyster culture seaward where traditionally no farming was tried before.

Cage culture
The technique of farming marine fishes in floating cages in Taiwan has been practiced for eight years. Fishes cultured are mainly Sparidae of the species Chrysopho's major, Acanthopagrus schlegeli and Lutjanus russelli, and groupers of~the species Epinepheh~s salmonoides, and Plectropornus maculatum (Yen and Yen, 1984). The number of fish stocked in each cage depends on the species cultured, the size of the cage, and the practice of the owner. Usually the fry are reared and

The design of coastal aquaculture systems in Tai~an

249

trained in ponds before they are transferred to cages. Diced trash fish and artificial diets are used to feed fishes. The feeding rate depends on climate, water temperature and cost of trash fish. Although cages vary in size, those measuring 5 m x 5 m x 4 m are often used and 2-4 cages are linked together to form a unit. Each unit has two anchors weighing 60 kg at each side to keep the cage in position. Originally nylon bag nets were suspended from bamboo frameworks which were constructed by 4-5 bamboo poles of 15 cm in diameter fastened in rows and reinforced with beams. This bamboo pontoon was a combination of framework and float unit. The necessity for continuous replacement of the bamboo poles due to their deterioration in sea water has caused concern. There are no external symptoms of a spoiled bamboo pole, and it is too late to replace them when the cage is broken. Some farmers have begun to use PVC pipes filled with styrofoam for their floating cages. This framework can last _-~ years while bamboo poles could only survive 1-'~ years. The PVC pipe filled with styrofoam not only has longer life but has better buoyancy and is easier to maintain. The suspended cage net is composed of five pieces of nylon net. The bottom nets are reinforced and weighted by a 2 cm diameter rope strung with lead weights, 20 g each, at the seam edge of the net. Usually a single bag is suspended under the framework. A cover net which is 30 cm above sea surface is used on the floating cage to prevent fish escape and invasion of birds. In 1979, floating cages in the form of circular galvanized steel collars with metal bag nets supported by polydrums were introduced from Japan. The galvanized steel collar is initially more expensive but is stronger and has a longer life than the bamboo and PVC pipes. The metal nets are considerably more stable in sea water and require less cleaning. The metal net is a flexible chainlink wire which can be folded for transportation, but it is very difficult to raise at harvesting. The nylon n.et was therefore preferred by farmers as it can be hauled by hand and harvested easily. Plastic mesh has its advantages, being intermediate between that of netting and metal mesh. A fiberglass floating surface structure with a wooden framework with styrofoam inside and covered by layers of fiberglass was tried. Wood plate and fiberglass layers reinforce the structure and prevent water seeping into the floating frame. The fiberglass floating surface also acts as a catwalk during operations. The fiberglass framework has the advantage of longer life and is easy to maintain (Hu, 1980).

250

S.-H. Hu

Anchor ropes that were lashed directly to the cages have caused heavy damage to the framework by wave action and wind force. A mooring buoy is therefore set between anchor and cage. The rope from the cage is fastened to mooring buoys rather than directly to the anchor. The strain from wave action will be cushioned by the mooring buoys instead of being transmitted to the cage framework directly. One of the biggest problems encountered by fish farmers who used the marine environment for cage culture was that of net fouling by algae and mussels (Milne, 1976). Fouling and mussels make the net heavier, increases the drags in currents and prevents the exchange of water. The nets are replaced 2-3 times a year. Nets are dried and scrubbed on land and reused again. A biological method of controlling fouling of the cage net is recommended by putting doctor fish Siganus fitscescens, rudder fish Girella punctata, mullet Mugil cephalus, etc., in cages. Generally the products of floating cages are Sparidae 15-20 kg m - 3 and grouper Epinephelus 8-15 kg m- 3.

CONCLUSION In Taiwan, many sea farms have been selected to utilize the coastal waters of the shore. In general, concrete ponds with necessary facilities for water circulation and replenishment have been constructed on the shore for intensive culture of shrimps or for production of seeds of marine species. Concrete ponds for shrimp or seed culture are located on the shore not only because the animals need to be maintained in water of good quality but also a continuous freshwater supply is necessary for some cultural species or their live baits. Earthen ponds on the shore are commonly used for extensive culture of shellfishes, milkfish, shrimp, Gracilaria or polyculture (Tang, 1976; Chert, 1977 ). On many sites along the west coast of Taiwan, activities are restricted to farming of shellfishes on the sandy beaches of the intertidal zone, either by sowing seeds on the bottom or by han~ng out strings on the farming parks. The original methods of oyster culture consisted of driving bamboo sticks into the bottom and hanging strings horizontally within the intertidal zone. But cultural areas with accumulation of sediments around the bamboo sticks were regarded as unsuitable for oyster culture and this method has diminished in importance. It is very

The design of coastal aquaculture O'stems in Taiwan

251

difficult to obtain adequate space for oyster farming. Until 1975 floating hanging oysters on rafts or long-lines produced excellent results, when the oyster cultures were moved to the water of the sublittoral zone. The techniques and materials have been improved, and production of oyster meat increased from 13850 tonnes in 1975 to 25950 tonnes in 1983. On the northeast coast of Taiwan, concrete pond construction on the rocky tidal zone for small abalone culture has been developed for six years. Because pond construction has ruined the natural scenery in that area, almost all the abalone farms were closed and no more ponds were allowed to be built on the northeast coast. The production of abalones was 498 tonnes in 1981 and decreased to 221 tonnes in 1983. At present, small abalone has become a major species released into protected sea areas for resource supplement in Taiwan. The floating cages are of small sizes and strong frames mainly because of the typhoon and monsoon seasons in Taiwan. So far only a few farmers operate floating cages in the coastal areas of the Pescadores. Limitations in the use of the area beyond the mean high water level at neap tide for pond construction are associated with technique difficulties and cost of construction of ponds on sandy and rocky areas. Unless there is a significant breakthrough in technology of tidal land farming development, traditional shellfish farming and miniscale concrete ponds for high-value marine species will continue to be operated in the near future as the advantages of floating techniques and development of new techniques of floating cages and rafts reveal the potential of sea farming. Wave action damage to culture systems, interference with management, maintenance and harvesting are serious problems faced in the use of offshore water for culture in Taiwan. Development of new techniques, materials and water breakers have become topics for future exploration.

REFERENCES Chen, H. C. & Yang, H. H. (1979). Artificial propagation of the abalone Haliotis diversicolor supertext, China Fisheries Monthly, 314, 3-9 (in Chinese). Chen, T. R (1977). Aquaculture Practices" in Taiwan, Fishing News Books Ltd, England.

252

S.-H. Hu

Hu, S. H. (1980). Marine cage culture in Penghu. Harvest Farm Magazine, 30 (16), 39-42 (in Chinese). Hu, S. H. & Sheu, H. H. (1982a). Studies on the increasing production of cultured oyster C. gigas in Penghu - - L Growth of oysters in long-line culture. Ann. Coll. Rep. Penghu Fish. Lab. TFRI., 2.17-26 (in Chinese). Hu, S. H. & Sheu, H. H. (1982b). Studies on the increasing production of cultured oysters C. gigas in Penghu -- II. Growth of oysters of combined two seeding and of rotating culture. Ann. Coll. Rep. Penghu Fish. Lab. TFRI., 2, 27-38 (in Chinese). Kuo, H. (1964). Economic Molluscs of Taiwan, JCRR Special Publication No. 38 (in Chinese). Li, Y. & Liao, I. C. (1979). Introduction to aquaculture in Taiwan. Proc. World MaricuL Soc., 10,229-37. Liao, W. T. (1979). Culture of small abalone. Harvest Farm Magazine, 29 (4), 30-1 (in Chinese). Lin, Y. S. & Tang, H. C. (1980). Biological studies on cultured oyster in Penghu. Bull. Inst. Zool, Academic Sinica. 19 (2), 15-22. Milne, P. H. (1976). Selection of Sites and Design of Cages, Fishpens and Net Enclosures for Aquaculture. Advance in Aquaculture FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan. Fishing News Books Ltd, pp. 416-22. Tang, Y. A. (1976). Planning, Design and Construction of a Coastal Milkfish Farm. Advance in Aquaculture FAO Technical Conference on Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan. Fishing News Books Ltd, pp. 104-17. Tsai, W. S. & Hu, S. H. (1982). Cultivation of groupers of 'Intertidal Underground Pond'-- Introduction of a new culture method. Ann. Coll. Rep. Penghu Fish. Lab. TFRI., 2, 103-7 (in Chinese). Tsao, H. C. (1984). Oyster culture of submersible raft method. Harvest Farm Magazine, 34 (4), 16-17 (in Chinese). Tzeng, W. N. (1977). Studies on the growth and rearing environment of the abalone Haliotis diversocolor supertext. China Fisheries Monthly, 292, 2-7 (in Chinese). Yen, J. L. & Yen, Y. E. (1984). Cage culture of some marine economic fishes in Penghu. Ann. Coll. Rep. Penghu Fish. Lab. TFRI., 4, 78-85 (in Chinese).