Chemistry in The Home PDF

Cornell Xllntvetstt^
OF THE
IRewjôrli State College of Hgrlculture
8101
uomeii universiiy uorary
TP 146.W4
Chemistry
in
the
home
3 1924 003 623 521
Cornell University Library
The
tine
original of
tliis
book
is in
Cornell University Library.
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text.
the United States on the use of the
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924003623521
DYEING
SILK.
CHEMISTRY IN THE HOME

BY
HENRY
T.
WEED,
N. Y.
B.S.
HEAD OP SCIENCE DEl'ARTMENT MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL

BROOKLYN,
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

NEW YORK
CINCINNATI
CHICAGO
Copyright, 1915
By
WEED.
henry
w.
f.
T.
weed
OHEMISTET IN THE HOME

3
PREFACE
This book
of pupils
It
is
the product of an effort to meet the needs
who
elect chemistry in their high school course.
aims to train them in scientific thinking and to give of information concerning the chemistry of things, irelated to industries and the home. everyday
them a fund
Much
of the theory
common
it
to high school chemistries
has been omitted, because

effort
has been found to be unnec-
essary, in fulfilling the purpose of this text.
Constant
style sim-
has been
made
to keep the language
and
ple
and
to select subject matter suitable for boys
and
girls in the
high school.
The book
represents the result
of
many trials and much
elimination from an overcrowded
field of subject matter.
It would have been impossible to prepare the book without the efficient aid of my colleagues of the Manual Training High School of Brooklyn, New York. I wish especially to thank Dr. Charles D. Larkins, the principal of the school, to whose suggestions the book is primarily due, Mr. Charles Germann, who has read the proof and made numerous suggestions. Dr. William Lamb, Mr. Mattuck, Mr. Holly, and Mr. Foster. Mr. Frank Rexford, of Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, has allowed the use of his food tables in the food chapter,
and assisted
J.
in
the preparation of the chapter.
Miss
Jenness, of the Girls
used the notes in

suggestions.
High School of Brooklyn, has her classes and has made many helpful
6
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
T.
Physical and Chemical Changes
....
PAftE
II.
Water
Solution
III.
rV.
V. VI.
VII.
VIII.
Oxygen and Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen Atomic Theory

Combustion
....
...
.
14
27
38
44 48 58 76
96
IX.
Heat The Atmosphere

Formulas, P^quations, and Valence
. .
.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
109
Chlorine
123
130 137
.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
and Salts Sodium and its Compounds Ammonia and Ammonium Compounds Metals Photography Carbon and its Compounds The Oxides of Carbon Baking Powders Hydrocarbons and Derived Compounds Oils, Fats, and Soaps Carbohydrates
Acids, Bases,
.
145
149
166 175 188 195
202
211
225 260
Foods
XXIV. XXV. XXVI.
Food Preservation Silicon, Silica, and Silicates

Textiles
6
....
283 304 816
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
XXVII. XXVIII.
Laundry Chemistry The Chemistry of Cooking XXIX. Calcium and its Compounds XXX. Dyes and Dyking XXXI. Some Common Chemicals
.
325
.
332
336 346 354
APPENDIX
Metric Measurements Physical Constants of Common Elements
....
377
878 379
INDEX
CHEMISTRY
IN
THE HOME
I
CHAPTER
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Every thinking person realizes that, in order to get the most out of hfe, it is necessary to understand the laws that govern the world in which we live.
Importance of science.
The consequences
of not understanding, or of disobeying,
these natural laws cannot be evaded.
The
State
a law ordering us to pay a tax upon bonds which
may make we may
own.
this
An
unscrupulous person might evade the payment of
tax and thus prevent the carrying out of the law.
It
is
not so with the laws of nature.
'
Nature never employs

If
courts and officers to carry out her decrees.
we
violate
her laws, the penalty
is
certain to follow, hence the import-
ance of understanding and obeying these laws.

the laws of nature, unlike
that
Moreover,
what we learn
of
man-made laws, never change, so them in our study of chemistry, will

life.
be of use to us throughout
We
suits,
must not think
of physics
and chemistry as
studies
useful only to those
who
expect to engage in technical purwill help us to live
but as everyday studies that
more
satisfactory lives, because they help us to understand the
reasons for the numerous things that
we must
or
must not
do
if
we
expect to secure .the greatest amount of health and

life.
enjoyment from
10
CHE.MISTRY IN THE HOINIE

Matter
is
life,
continually changing.
everyday
about
we
see that
is
one
of the
As we consider our most striking things
it is,
that there
everywhere continual change.
Our
soil.
clotlies
wear out, iron

then,
rusts, trees
decay and
die,
even the
rocks that seem so eêrlasting crumble and change to
Our world,
is
not an unalterable mass, but
is
in a
constant state of change, and what
we must do
is
to learn
to understand
and direct
so
for
these
changes,
that
they
may
be
our
benefit,
and not
This,
learning
for our
injury.
man
to
is
slowly
do.
Until
we had
learned
we know how to prevent it, but now that we understand the reasons why foods spoil, we
the cause of decay,
coidd not
can
e ^ e n t
such
are
changes.
i'lu.
1.
Scientists
CrunihiiiiiJ:
take place, and finding

\'antage.
fully,
constantly studying these changes which out how to use them to our ad^.-arious
When
^ê
examine these
changes careclasses,
we
find that they are divided into
two great
physical and chemical.
Physical changes.
When you
and
all
cut out and
you
ha\'e
changed the shape
of the cloth.
make a suit, You have taken

clianged the
cloth, thread, buttons,
lining.
You ha\e
is
relative
arrangement of
these materials, but every particle

still
of the cloth, thread, buttons, etc.,
in
existence as

cloth, thread, buttons, etc.
11
When
the suit
is
worn, you
brush against the furniture, and tiny pieces of the cloth are
worn off, but they are essentially the same cloth particles. Such changes as these are called physical changes. Mixing a batter, boiling water, and 'the falling of rain are
other examples of physical changes;
of physics
is
in general the science
the study of such changes.
We
we
see ourselves
reflected in mirrors, our trolley cars run,
telegraph and
telephone,
by taking advantage
of the laws governing such
physical changes.
Physical changes are those in which the
composition of the small particles of the original substance
remains unchanged.
Chemical changes.
paper
If
we
tear
up a newspaper, we
illus-
trate a physical change, since every particle of the original

is still
in existence.
If,
however,
we
(a
set fire to the
paper, a different kind of change takes place.

particles disappear,
The paper
and new substances
white ash and
an invisible gas), having new properties, take their place. Such a change as this is a chemical change, and the study of such chemical changes and the laws which govern them,
constitutes the science of chemistry.
Importance of chemical and physical changes.

difficult
It is
to
overestimate the importance of the study of
these chemical changes.
The
beautiful colors of silks
and
ex-
ribbons, that so delight the eye, are produced
by dyes
tracted
by a chemist from
black, vile-smelling coal tar

rails
by
chemical processes.
The
ores
on which our
trolley cars
run are possible only because a chemist found how to extract

iron cheaply from
its
selection of foods for the
by chemical changes. The proper home may be made when we have
learned of the chemical changes which each type of food
undergoes in digestion, and the body requirements.
12

we wish to study include both physical
Often actions which
and chemical changes. In the making of bread, the mixing of the flour and water is a physical change, but the action of the yeast in making the bread light is a chemical change, so that the baked loaf is a result of both physical and Every day, in a hundred different ways chemical changes. we are making use of both physical and chemical changes. Let us at the very beginning try to understand and appreciate the importance of the study of these
physical and chemical changes in their relations to our everyday

life.
Matter
is
indestructible.
In
many
of these
physical and chemical changes, theiê seems to
be a destruction of matter.
burns,
is
When
a candle
and our natural conclusion that the matter composing it has been deit
disappears,
Fig.
ter
We know that is not destroyed in our impressions are not always to be relied
jump
at such a conclusion.
burning.
2.
Mat-
stroyed.
It
is,
however, not safe for us to
upon.
You know how

how
necessary
difficult it is to deteris
mine by your
pression
possible
feelings,
whether a room
at the proper tem-
perature or not, and
it is
to correct your im-
by
it is
consulting a thermometer.
You know how
im-
to estimate the size of a room, or to guess a person's
but with a yardstick you can measure room with the and a scales you can find a person's weight. You must always try to find a way to test the truth of
weight accurately;
your impressions, and, in the case of the candle, the test

easy.
If
is
you place a candle in a large bottle filled with air, seal the bottle, weigh it, and then set fire to the candle without opening the bottle (which can be done by the aid of a burning glass), you are sure that' no matter can either get into or

escape from the bottle (Fig. 2).
13
a time, and then go out.
If
The candle will burn for you allow the bottle to cool,
and then weigh it again, you will find that its weight has not changed. That is, the materials making up the candle have
formed new combinations with the
air,
and, these
new
sub-
stances, being colorless gases, usually escape our notice.
No
matter has been desti-oyed, and no matter has been created,
but new substances have been formed, the total weight of which is the same as that of the original candle and air.
Similar experiments verify the fact that the total weight
of the
new products
All
is
always equal to the total weight of
the original substances.

matter.
is
We can
is
neither create nor destroy

its
we can do
to change
combinations.
This
the
Law
:
of the Conservatipn (or Indestructibility) of
Matter
Matter can neither be created nor destroyed.
SUMMARY
Matter
A
A
anything that occupies space. physical change is a change in which no particles of matter different in composition from the original substance are formed. chemical change is one in which the particles of matter in the
is
original substance are so altered that the identity of the indi-
vidual particles
is
destroyed.
Law
of Conservation of
Matter
Matter can neither be created nor
destroyed.
Exercises
1.
Name
three
common
chemical changes.
Three physical
changes.
2.
of
iron.
Are the foUowiag changes chemical or physical? Rusting Striking a match. Beating an egg. Making coffee.
Digesting food.
Sweeping.
3.
A ton of coal when burned wiU produce only about

Is this
200 pounds
Explain.
of ash.
4.
not a case of the destruction of matter?

it
Iron rust weighs more than the iron from which

created?
Explain.
was made.
Hasnot matter been
CHAPTER
WATER
Occurrence of water.
liquid,
is
II
Water, a tasteless and odorless
earth.
its
one of the few indispensable substances of the It is found even in places where no visible trace of
exists.
presence
The paper on which
these words are
printed contains
about
8%,
the solid rocks contain
small amount, and our foods are largely composed of it. The table below shows the amount of water present in
some common substances.

Bananas
....
. .
75
Beef, rib roast
44
78
31
Cabbage
Cheese
....
% % % %
Eggs
74
Our bodies
Potatoes
....
'
65 78
12
Wheat
flour
% % % %
it
Properties of water.
When we
Ordinary
cool water to 32 F.,^
changes to a transparent
blue in large, masses.
solid, colorless in small,
and
light
clear,
ice is
not perfectly
because the water from which

solved in
it,
it is
made
is
contains air dis-
and, on freezing, this air
distributed through
freezing point of
the ice in the form of small bubbles.
The
water
1
is
the same as the melting point of
ice,
namely, 32 F.
is
Our ordinary house thermometers are graduated on what

as the Fahrenheit scale.
known
to F.
The name is
Fahrenheit is usually abbreviated given in honor of Dr. Fahrenheit, a German, who

14
devised the scale.
WATER
Expansion of water.
that solids expand
15
Most of us are familiar with the fact when heated. The next time you cross
if
an iron bridge, see

joints are used in
you can
find the expansion joint pro-
vided to allow for the expansion of the iron.
Such expansion
Thei-e
many places
it is
to prevent the straining of the
metal that occurs when

are
held rigidly and heated.
many
such expansion joints in the steam
lines of
your
school building.
Figure 3 shows a section of one of these
Fig.
3.
An expansloa
joint.
expansion joints used in long pipe lines for steam and hot
water.
See whether you can find one. The blacksmith takes advantage of this expansion of iron in putting the tire on a wagon wheel. He makes the tire too
small to go on the wheel while cold, but, on heating the
tire,
it
expands
sufficiently to allow it to
be forced on.
When the
tire cools again, it shrinks and'grips

it
the wheel so tightly that

it.
stays on without bolts or screws to hold
Water expands
an unusual
at 32 F.,
fact
its
in the
same way when heated, but there

expansion.
it
is
about
its
If
we
start with
water
freezing point,
F., at
contracts
on heating, up to the
begins to expand.
its
temperature of 39
which point
its least
it first
At
39 F., then, water has
volume, and therefore
greatest, or
'
maximum,
density.^
That
is,
a cubic inch of
By
volume
density we mean the quantity of matter contained in a given of a substance. A cubic foot of water weighs 62^ pounds. A
cubic foot of iron weighs 437^ pounds. These numbers express the density of water and iron respectively. Volume for volume, the
16
water at 39 F. weighs more than a cubic inch of water at any other temperature. As a result, when the surface water cools, it becomes denser and sinks to the bottom. This continues until all the water
has reached
its
temperature of
maximum
density,
39 F.
Then, as the surface water becomes slowly

less dense,
cooler, it
becomes
and therefore
floats
on the surface of the warmer

ice is
water beneath.
The
ice
forms on the surface and acts as a

a poor conductor of
It
is is
protective blanket.
Because the
heat, the water below freezes very slowly.
for this
reason that a long cold spell
necessary
before we have skating on a pond or lake. The water at the bottom of the ocean has
about
the
temperature
of
maximum
it- is
density, 39 F., the year round.
As water
this
freezes, it
expands, and
expansion that cracks water pipes.

noticed the forcing
'Fia. 4.
Expansion
freezing.
You have
up of the
from
cap of the milk bottle in winter, due to the expansion of the milk .in freezing
is
(Fig. 4).
This expansion
the reason
why
ice floats
on
the water.
Can you
explain
why
thick cut glass dishes
break, if put into hot water, while thin glass tumblers do not ?
Steam. If we melt ice, and heat the resulting water to 212 F., and continue the heating, the water boils, that is,
is not steam at all. Notice the spout of the tea-kettle when the water is boiling vigorously. For the space of a half inch from the end of the
changes to an invisible gas called steam. The mist that is commonly called steam
iron weighs seven times as much as the water, or a cubic foot of iron contains seven timfes as much matter as a cubic foot of water. The density of iron, compared to water, is seven.
WATER
spout, nothing can be seen
;
17
beyond that ppint we have the mist formed by the steam cooling and condensing into very tiny drops of water. That is, we have transparent steam issuing from the spout, and beyond this a cloud of condensed
steam.
Water
boils at 212 F. only
when the
^
pressure of the air
is
normal, that is, when the barometer stands at 30 inches. At Denver, the ordinary air pressure is much less than at New York, owing to its elevation above sea level. Water This makes it necessary boils in Denver at about 202 F. to boil foods longer in Denver than in New York, as the temperature
of
the
boiling
water
there.
is
so
much
the
lower
of
it
On
tops
some high mountains,

is
almost
impossible
to
hard boil an egg, the temperature

of
the
boiling
water
is
so low.
Increasing the pressure

raises
the boiling point.

boiler, if the
In a steam
pressure
is
100 pounds per the boiling

is
square
inch,
Fig.
5.
A pressure cooker.
meat
food, with water,
point of the water

to. 337 F.
raised
this fact, in boiling
Advantage is taken of and vegetables at high altitudes.
The
is
placed in a steam-tight vessel, called a pressure cooker

'
an instrument that tells what the pressure of the This pressure varies from day to day. When it is sufftoient to make the barometer stand at 30 inches, we say that the air pres(See page 97.) sure is normal.
air
is.
A barometer is
18
(Fig. 5),

and heated.
The steam, unable to
escape, increases
it is
the pressure, this raises the boiling point, and so

ble to cook the food satisfactorily.
possi-
As found in nature, water usually purest form is rain water, colThe contains impurities. lected after the rain has fallen for a time sufficient to wash the dust from the air. If we consider the cycle of water in nature, we shall understand better why our spring and river
Evaporation of water.
waters must contain some impurities.
We know that if a pan of water is allowed to stand exposed

to the action of the air
and the sun, the water disappears.

it
Where has
air.
it
gone?
it is
Since
does not disappear

it
when
in a
closed vessel,
It
vapor.
must have passed into the is not visible, but exists in the form of an invisible We say that the water has evaporated, and we call
inferred that
the change evaporation.
This same evaporation occurs on a large scale at the surface of the ocean. Sometimes the phrase, " the sun draws
the water," is used. This " the water evaporates."
is
not exactly true
we should
say,
The
resulting water vapor mixes
air. A given quantity of air cannot hold more than a certain amount of water vapor, the exact amount depending upon the temperature. The higher the tempera-
with the
ture of the
air,
the more water vapor
it
can hold.
The
rises
air
over the ocean absorbs the water vapor which
from it. blown inland.
The
air,
laden with water vapor,

it
may
be
When
the air cools,
cannot hold as
much
water and so some of
it condenses and forms clouds. Fog and mist are due to the same cause, and are really low clouds.
This condensation continues until the drops of water become so large that they fall as rain. Before it can rain, then,
it is
necessary that the air contain water vapor, and that
WATER
this air
19
be cooled.
This explains
why
certain regions
have
more or less rainfall than others. The water cycle. The ram, in falling through the air, dissolves certain gases from it, and washes out the dust.
Notice
how
dirty the
first
rain water that falls

of
is
is,
especially
in the city. in the
The amount
of rain or
water that
falls
is
each year
if it
form
snow
very great.
fell all
It
enough,
were equally distributed, and
at one time, to
make a
Fio.
6.
Water
table.
The ground
dotted
is
saturated with water below the
line.
layer about three feet deep over
all
the land.
This amounts
sinks in,
to about 30,000 cubic miles of water.
When
the rain strikes the ground, a portion of

soil,
it
and slowly passes through the

ous layer, such as a bed of clay.
saturate the
soil
until
it
it
meets an imperviclay.
Here
may accumulate and

This
is
for
some distance above the
reservoir of water contained in the ground

water.
It
is
called ground
wells.
this
ground water that supplies water to

soil is called
The upper surface of the saturated

table.
the water a gentle
This
is
not necessarily
level,
but
may have
is
slope.
In case this water table

WEED CHEMIBTRT
rises as
high as the surface of
the ground, a spring, pond, lake, or stream
formed
(Fig. 6).
CHEMISTRY
The height
ainfall,
IN
THJ!i
tLumni
of the water table varies with the

it
amount
of
and
hence, during very dry seasons,
may become so
3w that
un.
,
springs,
and even streams,
may
dry up and cease to
The
river,
spring water flows into a brook, the brook into and the river into the ocean. Thus the water cycle is
ompleted.
The water came from, and
returns to, the ocean,
nd this continues over and over again. How water becomes impure. In passing through the
;round, the water dissolves
any soluble matter that
may
be
Fig.
7.
Contamination
if
of well water.
present,
and thus becomes somewhat impure.

it
Most
of these
impurities are harmless, but
the water comes in contact
with sewage,
may
be so contaminated as to be dangerous
WATER
to drink (Fig. 7).
It
21
can usually be made safe by boiling,

is
and
this is a wise precaution to take, in case there
doubt
as to the purity of the water.

Distilling water.
The commercial
it.
purification of water
is
usually accomplished by distilling

is
The water to be purified

and provided
boilis
placed in a vessel
(still),
closed at the top,
with dnly one escape pipe.

ing point.
The water
heated to the
Most
of the impurities, such as salt
and calcium
sulphate, are not volatile,
and
still.
so remain in
the
Many
is
of
you have noticed the

crust that
formed
of
is
on the inside
tea-kettle.
the the
This
result of
the evapothe water,
ration
of
leaving the dissolved
matters behind.
The
Fig.
8.
Distillation of water.
water
in
the
still
(A, Fig. 8) changes into steam, and this steam passes through
the escape pipe, which
is
surrounded with cool water in the
condenser
C.
Cooling the
steam condenses
it,
and pure
distilled
water drops from the end of the pipe into D. water

will
This
not be perfectly pure, as

it is
it still
contains some disit is
solved gases, but
so nearly pure, that
used in the
laboratory for chemical work.
This same process,
distillation, is
used to separate two

Alcohol,
liquids having different boiling points.
when
it is
made,
is
a very dilute solution of alcohol in water.

is distilled,
This
mixture
and
it
as alcohol has a lower boiling point

boils first,
than water, 173
F.,
and on condensing the
22

is
vapor, alcohol containing only a small percentage of water

obtained.
This process, called fractional

it is
distillation, is also
used to separate crude petroleum, as

Purifying water.
pumped from
thfe
oils.
earth, into gasoline, naphtha, kerosene,
and lubricating
Water
as
it
comes from the ground often

is
contains suspended matter.
This
especially true of the
waters of the western rivers.
This suspended matter
may
be removed by
until the
filtration, or
by allowing the water
to stand
suspended matter has settled.

of cities
The water supply

It
must sometimes be taken

rivers.
from
muddy
by
may
be
cleared
filtering it
through large
beds of sand.
This removes the
suspended matter, but does not remove the bacteria, nor the dissolved matter.
Composition of water.
Water was
its
long thought to be an element, that

is,
a substance so simple in
it
com-
position that
could not be broken
up
into other substances.
We
now
know
water
that this
is
is
not true, but that

of
composed
two gases comexact composi-
bined chemically.
We
tion
determine
its
by means
will
of electrolysis.
Pure
water
Fig.
9.
Electrolysis
not conduct the electric current, but if a little sulphuric acid

is
apparatus.
added,
it
allows the current to
This acidulated water is placed in a U-shaped tube, so arranged that an electric current can be sent through the water. The electricity
pass.
WATER
breaks up the water particles, and two gases are set
23
free,
one
in each
arm
of the
tube (Fig. 9)
There
is
twice as
much of one gas as of the other. The gas present in the larger volume
and
is
is
named hydrogen,
noteworthy because
it
it is
the lightest gas known, and
because
burns with an exceedingly hot flame.

is
The
air,
other
it
gas, oxygen,
is
one of the gases contained in the

life.
and
essential to
When we
its
pull
any substance apart
in order to find
out
composition,
we
call
the operation analysis.
By pass-
ing the electric current through the water, we analyze it, and find its composition by volume to be two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen. Elements. Chemists have analyzed many thousands of different substances to find of what they are composed. The results are somewhat surprising. They show us that all the materials that form our world are made up of only about 83 different kinds of matter, and that by combining these in
different proportions,
we may make
Thus, sugar
is,
all of
the various sub-
stances that
we know.
is
found to contain three
different kinds of matter, that
three elements.
They
are
oxygen and hydrogen, the elements that we foimd
in water,
and carbon, which

material in coal.
is
the
name chemists
is
give to the black
Occasionally a
new element
found.
in
ample
of this.
It
was discovered
Radium is an ex1898 by Madame Curie.

is
Notice that the definition of element

that cannot
be,
not a substance
but a substance that has not been decomposed

In the past, materials have been
into simpler substances.
thought to be elements, that later have been decomposed.

the 83 elements
known we shall study only a few of common ones, as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, iron, and sodium.
Of the more
24

When
elements combine to
Compounds and mixtures.
form pure, definite substances, we call them compounds. Sugar, salt, and starch are examples. If elements or compounds are mixed together without any chemical change taking place> we call the result a mixture. Sea sand is hl
mixture.
It
contains sand,
salt,
seaweed,
etc., all
mixed
is
together, but not chemically combined.
Muddy
water
another example.
The mud
is
mechanically mixed with

it
the water, and can be separated from
by
filtering.
Law
of Definite Proportions.
One
distinction
between a
compound and a mixture is pound is always the same, while the composition of a mixture may vary between wide limits. Water has been analyzed
thousands of times with the invariable result that its composition is always found to be, hydrogen f , and oxygen |, by
volume.
that the composition of a com-
Water, then, must be a compound, for
we cannot
imagine that any accidental mixture of
hydrogen and oxygen
would always have the same proportions.

Brass
is
made by melting
from
together zinc and copper.
On
analyzing different specimens,

of zinc varies
40%
to
we find that the percentage 75%. Brass, then, must be a

These
facts give us the Law
mixture and not a compound.

of
Definite Proportions, which
may
be stated thus: The

is
composition of every pure chemical
compound
always
the
same.
Synthesis of water.
We may
If
show the composition
of
water in
still
another way.
we mix two volmnes
of hydro-
gen with one volume of oxygen, put the mixture in a glass

tube, one end of which
is
closed, set the
open end in a dish
of mercury, so as to prevent
any
air
from getting
set fire to the mixture, the gases will disappear,
drops of water, formed by the combination of
and then and a few the two gases,

in,
WATER
will
25
appear in the tube (Fig.
10).
We
can easily set
fire
to the gases
of
by passing an
wires
in
electric
spark between the points
platinum
glass
which are sealed

the
tu]be,
so
that their ends do
not quite touch.

J'he formation of
water
is
in
this
way
called
synthesis.
Chemists can build
up
this
in such
ways
as
great
many
substances that nature

aaid
makes
have
in plants
animals.
Thus
we
synthetic
indigo> vanilla,
phor, etc.
camThese are
Fig. 10.
Syiithesia of water
not imitation's, but are the real substances, formed by man,

instead of
by
nature, from the materials of which they are
composed.
Often such synthetic products are cheaper than

It
is,
the natural, and equally good.
of course, a fraud
they are sold as natural products, instead of

synthetic.
when being marked
Composition of water by weight.

volimie for volume, sixteen
water by weight can easily be determined.

Since water
The composition of Oxygen weighs, times as much as hydrogen.
is
composed
of
of oxygen, its composition
two volumes of hydrogen to one by weight must be two of hydrogen

^ hydrogen and | oxygen.
to sixteen of oxygen, or one of hydrogen to eight of oxygen.
That
is,
by weight water
is
26

SUMMARY
Density
is the mass per unit volume. Water boils at 212 F. and freeses at 32F. The composition of water by volume is one of oxygen to two of hydrogen by weight, eight of oxygen to one of hydrogen. An element is a substance that has not been decomposed into
;
simpler substances.
A compound
A
mixture
is
is
a pure substance (Jomposed of elements chemically
combined.
a substance composed of two or more ingredients the
individual particles of which are not chemically combined, but
exist side
by
side.
it is
Analysis
is
the pulling apart of a substance to find out of what the formation of a
composed.
Synthesis
is
compound from the elements com-
posing it.
Electrolysis is analysis
Law
of
Definite Proportions
is
brought about by electricity. The composition of every pure

:
chemical compound
always the same.
Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
water free from all impurities? Êxplain. an element ? Explain. Name two common elements. Is a lamb chop a compound, an element, or a mixture?
Is distilled Is brass
Explain.
B. 6.
How can you prove that wood is

make the water
fit
not an element? Does the boiUng of water remove the impurities ? If not, why
to drink?
does
it
would you distinguish between distilled water and perfectly clear colorless spring water? 8. Why may water drawn from a well near a farmhouse be clear, and still unfit for drinking purposes ?
7. 9.
How
Is synthetic indigo as
good as natural indigo ?

in cold
Explain.
10.
Why do water pipes sometimes burst
weather?
CHAPTER
III
SOLUTION
Solution explained.
We
are
all
familiar with the change
that takes place
when we
stir
sugar in our coffee.
.The solid
it
sugar disappears, the tiny particles that compose

distributed imiformly throughout the coffee.
liquid
being
The
of
resulting
we
call
a solution of sugar.
We
are so accustomed to seeing
and thinking
matter in
large masses, that

particles are
we do not realize how small the individual that make up these masses. A bit of dye,
head of a
pin, will distinctly
is,
aniline violet, as large as the

color five gallons of water,
the individual particles

small, that,
when dissolved in it. That that make up this substance are

are separated from each other,
of
so
when they
and
in
mixed with the water, there are enough

each drop of the five gallons to give
it
them present
a distinct color.
in this
Many
way.
substances
when mixed with water behave
Their particles are separated from each other and.
spread uniformly through the water, and, even on long

standing, these particles
do not separate from the water,

it.
but remain uniformly mixed with

a solution.
This intimate, uni-
form, and permanent mixture of a solid and a liquid
we
call
and water are shaken together, they mix, but on standing the two separate. If, however, some mucilaginous material is added to the water, it seems
Emxxlsions.
oil
When
27
28
to coat over the small globules of the oil, and even on long Cream standing these do not separate from the water.
and milk are examples

emulsions.
of
such mixtures.
We
call
them
Suspension explained. Other substances when mixed with water behave in an entirely different manner. At the seashore you have doubtless watched the waves roll in on
the beach.
dissolve
The sand mixes with the

it
water, but does not
settles, and the sea and disappear. Instead, water is once more clear. We cannot produce a lasting and uniform mixture of sand and water. Muddy water is an example of the same thing. Fine soil from the ground mixes with the rain water, and makes it
soon
turbid.
It will not, however, remain uniformly mixed, but,
on standing, the particles of soil slowly settle, and the water becomes once more clear. The time required for the particles
of soil to settle
depends upon the

it
size of these particles.
If
they are very small,

soil
may
take days, but eventually the
and water
will separate.
We
call
such a mixture of a
liquid with the relatively coarse particles of

siispension.
a substance, a
Coffee,
The same liquid is often both a solution and a suspension. when properly made, is a solution, but we sometimes
bottom of the cup, showing that the was not only a solution, but a suspension as well, and that, on standing, some of the fine particles have settled. Solution and suspension defined. A solid is in solution in a liquid when the particles of the solid are uniformly and permanently scattered through the liquid, while a solid is in
find a sediment in the
coffee
suspension in a liquid
state are
when
its particles in
a finely divided
will
mixed with a
one.
liquid,
but the mixture
not
re-
main a uniform
Before reaching the end of the chap-
SOLUTION
ter,
29
however, we shall see that these definitions need to
be somewhat modified.
Filtration.
To
distinguish
between a solution and a
suspension, the easiest

filter it.
way is to strain, or, as chemists say, In the laboratory we use filter paper for this purpose.
to pass through, but will not permit the small
This
is
a porous paper that will allow water and dissolved
particles
particles of
suspended matter to pass.
If
we pour muddy
will
âter through such a paper, the sediment

back, while the clear water passes
liquid
be held
clear
through.
The
that runs through

left
is is
the
filtrate,
while the solid
matter
on the paper
the residue.
In the home, a
number of thicknesses same purpose.
of finely
woven
cloth will serve the
Many
is
of the
water
filters
that screw on to water faucets

its fine
contain charcoal, and the water passing through

filtered.
pores
Do
not forget, however, in using such
filters,
filter,
that the dirt removed from the water remains in the
and that the filter should be frequently cleaned. In some water filters made of earthenware, the pores
the
filter
of
are so fine that even bacteria are kept back.
The
use
finer the pores, the
more thoroughly the
filter acts,
but also
the more slowly the liquid passes through, so

discretion
in
we must
selecting filters.
The
larger
the pores, the
better, so long as
of the size
they are small enough to retain particles

to
filter out.
we wish
To remove
cranberry seeds
is suffi-
and skins from the cooked mass, a

cient^ while, to filter
is
fine cheesecloth
muddy
water, a very
much
finer filter
necessary.
Naming different kinds of solutions. There is a limit to amount of a substance that will dissolve in a liquid. If we add a little granulated sugar to a test tube full of water.
the
30

It has dissolved,
and shake, the sugar disappears.

obtain a clear solution.
tion of sugar,
If
it
and we
por-
we then add a second small

also dissolves.
If,
and shake,
however, we
continue to add sugar, shaking after each addition,

last
we
at
come to a point where it remains in the bottom of the

a
saturated solution
all
will
no longer
dissolve,
call
but
test tube.
We
such a
solution,
at that
temperature.
The
If,
water has then dissolved

however,
of the sugar that it can.
we warm
the test tube, the excess of sugar in the
bottom
that
it
will dissolve.
As we again add more

is,
sugar,
is
we
find
also will dissolve, that
the solution
no longer
of
in
saturated.
We
sugar, to produce the condition in
must again add a considerable amount which some remains

is,
the bottom of the test tube, that

at the higher temperature.
to saturate the solution
On
cooling, the solution will de-
posit sugar crystals, similar to rock candy, until the cooled
solution contains the
same amount
of sugar that it did before
heating.
It
solid
is
generally true that hot water will dissolve

It
is
more
of a
than cold water.
not enough, in speaking of a
it is saturated; we must also state the temperature. A saturated solution of alum contains only 5 parts of alum in 100 parts of water
saturated solution, to say simply that
at 32 F., while at 190 F.
it
contains over 200 parts in 100.
When
it
a solution
is
nearly but not quite saturated,

If it contains
we
call
a concentrated solution.
it is
somewhat
if it
less of
the dissolved substance,
called strong, while,
contains
only a
little,
we speak
of it as
weak or
dilute.
A tincture is a solution in alcohol, such as tincture of iodine.

Vanilla and lemon extracts are tinctures.
It
is
awkward
'
to
'
have to speak continually of the "
dis-
solved substance.
We therefore give this a name
it is called
SOLUTION
the
solute,
31
it is
while the liquid that dissolves
called the
solvent.
We
is
speak of their mixture as a solution.

is
Thus,
our sirup of sugar

the water
a solution, the sugar
is
the solute, and
the solvent.
is
When
nothing
said as to the natiire of the solvent,

is
it is
understood that water

stance
is
meant.
Other solvents such as
ether, alcohol, gasoline, etc., are often used

is
when the
sub-
not soluble in water.
For instance, grease, which
not soluble in water, dissolves in gasoline.

Solutions of liquids.
soluble in liquids.
Not only solids, but many liquids, are When we buy alcohol it is often labeled
95%.
water.
liquid.
This means that
95%
of the liquid is alcohol,
and
5%
all
The
water, a liquid, has dissolved in alcohol, another
In this particular case, alcohol and water mix in

is,
proportions, that
alcohol in water.
miscible.
we cannot have a saturated solution of When this is the case, we call the liquids
Usually, however, with liquids, as with solids, only
a certain amount of one liquid will dissolve in another.
We
may
therefore have a saturated solution of one liquid in
another, as ether in water.
That liquids can dissolve gases, is shown by what happens when a glass of cold water stands for some time in a warm room. You know that the inside of the glass becomes covered over with tiny bubbles of some Knowing as you do that fish require air to live, it is gas. easy to guess that this gas is air that has been dissolved in the water. Evidently, gases do not behave as solids do, for warming the water has decreased its ability to dissolve air, and so the air forms bubbles on the glass. The ammonia water that you use for cleaning purposes is
Solutions of gases.
a solution of ammonia gas in water.

the
Why
does the cork of
ammonia
bottle sometimes fly out on hot days?
Soda
32
water
is

another
common example of a gas dissolved in water.

it
Remember
liquids.
that, while heating generally increases the solubil-
ity of solids in liquids,
decreases the solubility of gases in
Effect of pressure
on
solubility of gases.
The next time
you draw a
glass of vichy or seltzer

fills
from a siphon, notice that

because the solubility
of
the liquid inside the siphon
with gas bubbles, and that on

is
standing these disappear.
This
a gas in a liquid
is
dependent not only upon the temperature,
but upon the pressure.

of the gas,
When we draw from
the siphon, we
diminish the pressure inside.
This decreases the solubility
and gas bubbles form.
This goes on until enough

is
gas has escaped so that the water

pressure,
saturated at the new
when the water once more becomes clear.
Roughly,
doubling the pressure doubles the solubility of a gas in a

liquid.
Many
gases are very soluble in water.
so soluble in water, that

dissolve in one quart of
ture.
Ammoijia gas is more than 700 quarts of it will water at ordinary room tempera-
Solution not limited to solids.

dissolve water, because
air,
it is
if
You know
is
that air will
a pan of water
exposed to the
the water disappears.
Water
will also dissolve air, for
this dissolved air that fish breathe.
You are also familiar

Gases
with cases of solids and liquids dissolving in liquids.

also dissolve in solids, as
we
shall find later in
our work.
We
must then not

liquids,
limit our use of the
of solids dissolving in liquids,
word solutj'on to the case but we must think of solids,
and gases as being
all
soluble in other solids, liquids,
or gases.
This of course does not
mean
that every gas,

solid,
every other gas, liquid, or but certain ones are soluble in certain others.
liquid, or solid is soluble in
SOLUTION
Crystallization.
33
is
When
a saturated solution
allowed to
stand, exposed to the
air,
some
of the solvent evaporates,
and the
that
is,
solute
in the
is
tleposited in the dish in the

of
form
of crystals,
form
some geometrical
solid,
bounded by
plane surfaces.
Fig. 11.
Crystals,
a,
rock candy;
h,
snow;
c,
washing soda.
At the
will find
first
opportunity, examine .some rock candy.
You
that the pieces of sugar have a definite shape, and

its
that each resembles
neighbor (Fig. 11, a).
You may have

frost
noticed the regularity of form of snow and

If
crystals (Fig. 11, 6).
snowfall, catch a few flakes of
you have not, at the next snow on a black cloth and
34

glass.
examine them under a reading

be distinctly seen.
The
crystals
may
then
There are many substances, such as

line,
ice,
that are crystal-
that
is,
composed
of crystals.
These
may be so
in
crowded
together that distinct separate crystals cannot be seen.
When
we separate
crystals that
have formed
a liquid from
the liquid and dry them, a substance comparatively free from impurities, is obtained. Crystallization is often used
to purify compounds.
Examine some
salt at
home with a
small magnifying glass.

of its crystals
You will
without
stance
find that
difficulty.
you can make out the shape
The
crystals of different substances
have
different shapes,
and
it is
often possible to identify a sub-
by the shape
of its crystals.
Not
all
substances
crystallize.
Flour does not.
We
call
such a substance
amorphous.
Water
soda
is
of crystallization.
Occasionally, crystals in form-
ing from solution combine with water.
Common
washing
an example of
of
this (Fig. 11, c).
crystal of washing soda in a test tube,
amount
pounds
water
is
given
,
off,
If you place a dry and heat it, a large and a white powder remains in
the bottom of the test tube.

of
In this particular case, 106
washing soda
will
combine with 180 pounds

crystalline
is
of
water, to form 286 pounds of
washing soda.
This water
That
is,
more than
half of the crystal
water.
which
is
not mechanically mixed with, but chemically comis
bined with, the washing soda,

Efflorescent, deliquescent,
If crystals of
called water of crystallization.
and hygroscopic substances.

air,
fall
washing soda are allowed to stand in the

called efflorescence.
they give up this water of crystallization, and powder. This

is
to a white
Only a few
of the
com-
pounds containing water
of crystallization are efflorescent.
SOLUTION
Soda
lye, or, as chemists
35
sodium hydroxide, beIf
name
it,
haves in quite a different manner.
a lump of this comair,
pound is exposed to the and becomes a solution.
air, it
absorbs water from the

is
This
are,
called deliquescence.
Many
little
substances that
If
not deliquescent will absorb a
water.
paper
it
is
dried, weighed, exposed to the air,
and weighed again,
will
be found to have absorbed about

call
10%
it
of water.
We
cannot
paper deliquescent, because

it
will
not go on absorbing water until

it
dissolves.
Instead,
all
we
call
hygroscopic.
Cloth, wood,
and leather are

or,
hygroscopic.
Supersaturated solutions.
If
vinegar,
as
chemists
name
it,
acetic acid, acts
on washing soda, a chemical change

is
takes place and a
new
substance, sodium acetate,
formed.
This substance
is
readily soluble in water, but its solution
shows certain
If
peculiarities.
we
prepare a cold saturated solution of sodium acetate,

of the solid,
and heat, the solid all disyou would naturally expect that the excess of sodium acetate would crystallize, and that we would again obtain a cold saturated solution mixed with crystals. Most substances do act in this way, but sodium acetate solution on cooling behaves differently, since no solid separates. By preparing a hot concentrated solution and then cooling, add a large excess
solves.
On
cooling,
we have obtained a
solution that contains
many
times as
much sodium
is
acetate dissolved as
solid
we
could have dissolved
by merely shaking the
with cold water.
Such a solution
called supersaturated.
A
if
supersaturated solution will remain in a fluid condition,

in a flask
it.
put
and corked^
until a crystal of the solute
is
dropped into
Then the
excess of the solute over that
required to form an ordinary saturated solution crystallizes,
36
and an ordinary saturated solution, containing crystals of the solute, results. During the process of crystallization much heat is given out, and the temperature of the solution rises. A number of substances form supersaturated solutions, among others the " hypo " of the photographer. Advantage has been taken Self-heating hot water bottle. of supersaturated solutions to prepare a hot water bag that can be used at any time without requiring hot water. A
rubber bag
long as
it
is filled
with a supersaturated solution, which, so

will
remains corked,
remain fluid.
cork,
When we wish to
it
use the bag,
we take out the
blow upon
to evaporate
upon the and then replace the cork. Crystallization then takes place and the mass becomes warm. The bag can then be used as any other hot water bag would be. Before using again, the
the water, thus obtaining a thin film of crystals
cork,
rubber bag, corked,

crystals
crystal,
is
placed in hot water until

It
is
all
of the
have dissolved.
necessary to be sure that every
no matter how
small, has dissolved, as otherwise the
supersaturated solution would again crystallize as the fluid

cools.
is
Such bags are not
in
common
use because hot water
so easily available.
You can easily prepare such a device for home use, using a bottle containing a supersaturated solution of " hypo," or,
as
it is
correctly
such a solution,
boiling water.
it
named, sodium thiosulphate. To prepare dissolve a pound of hypo in a half ounce of

the solution
is
If
not perfectly clear,
filter
through absorbent cotton, pour the liquid into a pint

seal tightly.
jar,
and
SUMMASY
A
solution
a uniform mixture of substances which do not separate even on long standing.

is
A suspension
is
a mixture of substances that separate on standing.
SOLUTION
Defining the parts of a solution.
solved
;
37
solute is the
The
substance dis-
the solvent the material in which the solute dissolves

is
and a
solution
the result.
Strength of a solution.
saturated solution
is
one containing as
much
of the solute as will dissolve at the given temperature.

is one not quite saturated. a weak solution.
A
A
The
concentrated solution
is
dilute
solution
tincture
is
a solution in alcohol. the clear Uquid that passes through the filter paper. Miscible liquids. When one Uquid will dissolve in another in any
filtrate is
proportion, the liquids are miscible.
crystal is a natural geometrical

of crystallization is
Water
soUd bounded by plane surfaces. water chemically combined in a crystal.
An
efflorescent substance gives

air,
up
its
water of crystallization to the

air, finally dis-
without being heated.
A A
deliquescent substance absorbs water from the

solving in
it.
hygroscopic substance absorbs a hmited

the air but does not form a solution.
amount
of water
from
Heat and
solubility.
Heating generally increases the solubiUty of
sohds and decreases the solubility of gases in liquids.

Exercises
1.
Is a
cup of tea a solution or a suspension ?
Explain.
2. 3. 4.
5.
Why does dipping a greasy waist in gasoline clean it ? Why does alcohol clean eyeglasses better than water? How would you test silk, to find out if it is hygroscopic?
In buying washing soda,
Explain.
is it
well to insist
on having
clear
glassy crystals?
6.
Why
is
soda lye put up in soldered tin cans?
7. 8. 9.
Name Name
three natural crystals with which

three
you are
familiar.
amorphous substances.
Explain.
Is ice crystalline?
CHAPTER
IV
OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN PEROXIDE

Occurrence of ojcygen.
From the study of water you know
something of the properties of oxygen, and of the great importance of this element to
where.
Water
sand
is
Oxygen is found everylife. by weight f oxygen; our bodies are |

while marble, washing soda,
it
oxygen;
is
^ oxygen;
vinegar, meats,
and vegetables contain
in
considerable
proportion.
That compounds containing oxygen should be so widely is natural. You will remember the action of the air on various substances. The rusting of metals, the decay of wood, and the spoiling of foods, all result in the
distributed
formation of oxygen compoimds.
These changes have always
been going on, and, as a
result, large
amounts
It
is
of
such oxygen
compounds now
exist everywhere.
is
estimated that
50%
of the earth's crust
oxygen.
Methods
of preparing oxygen.
You have
already learned
that the decomposition of water
by
electricity yields oxygen.
But when we wish to obtain it in considerable amounts in the laboratory, we resort to another method, the heating of potassium chlorate. This white crystalline compound, that you may have used in the form of tablets for the throat,
contains
heated.
stance,
39%
of oxygen, all of
which
it
gives off on being
It has been found that the addition of another sub-
manganese
dioxide, causes the potassium chlorate to
38
39
decompose at a lower temperature. We therefore use a mixture of these two substances in preparing the gas. A mixture of three parts of potassium chlorate, and one
part of manganese dioxide,
is
placed in a test tube (Fig 12)
provided with a cork and a delivery tube, and the end of the
delivery tube placed under water in a pneumatic trough.
When the
mixture in the test tube

off
is
heated,
it
decomposes.
gas passes
through the delivery tube and, bubbling

air.
through the water, escapes into the

escapes
is
The gas which
first
the air that
was
in the test tube.
As soon
as
all
the air
off,
has been driven

escapes
the gas which then

is
oxygen.
If
a bottle water
is filled
with
Fig. 12.
and
inverted
Preparation of oxygen.
and
will
over the end of the

delivery tube, the oxygen will displace the water,
fill
the bottle with pure oxygen.
Many gases can be collected

is
in this
tion
manner over water. This method by displacement of water.

After
all
called collec-
Catalytic agents.
off,
the oxygen has been driven
water, added to the contents of the flask, dissolves one

If
of the residues.
the mixture
is
filtered
and the
filtrate is
evaporated, a white solid different from the original potas-
sium chlorate
of these
results.
It
is
called
potassium chloride.
Notice carefully the difference in the endings of the names
two compounds.
residue on the
filter
The black
are
paper
is
the manganese
dioxide originally used.
It has
undergone no change.
There
many
such cases
in
chemistry where
we add
a substance
40
for the
purpose of aiding or checking some chemical action, which the added substance does not itself undergo any permanent change. Such an action is called a catalytic
in
action,
and the substance added, a
catalytic agent.
Properties of oxygen.
An
this.,
examination of the oxygen in

as the air which
tasteless.
the bottle shows that

gas.
it is
a colorless, odorless, and tasteless

is
We
is
should expect
one
fifth
it
oxygen
colorless, odorless,
and
By
subjecting
to great pressure
and intense
cold, it
can be changed into a
pale blue liquid.
All gases can be liquefied
Oxygen
volumes
is
slightly heavier
than
air
and
is
by this method. somewhat soluble
in water, 4.1
of
volumes
of
oxygen dissolving in a hundred

Fish breathe oxygen.
water at 34 F.
Were
it
not for this oxygen in solution, they would drown.

Oxides.
At high temperatures oxygen
is
an exceedingly
it,
active element.
A heated piece of iron burns in

it.
and most
of
elements, as sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, copper, zinc, and
magnesium, combine directly with

in nature.
These compounds
elements with oxygen are called oxides, and are very
common
Water might be
is
called
an oxide of hydrogen,
of
while sand
an oxide of
is
silicon.
Oxidation and oxidizing agents.
The combining
if
oxygen
with any substance

is
called oxidation, and,
the combining
accompanied by
light
and
heat,
it is
called combustion.
Substances such as potassium chlorate, that readily cause

oxidation, are called oxidizing agents.
ment
ignite
of charcoal into
If you throw a fragsome molten potassium chlorate, it will
and burn
air
is
furiously.
is
The
charcoal
is
oxidized and
It
is
the potassium chlorate
the oxidizing agent.

life.
the oxy-
gen in the
that supports burning and
Oxygen
an element
in
which we should be intensely

it.
interested, for
our existence depends upon
It
is
the

oxygen that we breathe in from the
air that
41
alive.
keeps us
Our
fires
burn because the
fuel
combines with the oxygen
of the air.
The
organic waste of the world disappears be-
cause
it is
oxidized
by oxygen.
There
is
perhaps no other
element that
we
use so continually.
Ozone.
silent electrical discharge is
found to change
In the
first
the properties of oxygen in
many
ways.
place
of a
three volumes of oxygen contract to form
two volumes
is
new
gas. It
The new form

is
of
oxygen thus produced

is
called
of
ozone.
a gas of irritating odor and

is
an active form
oxygen.
It
a more powerful oxidizing agent than oxygen.

is
For example,
oxide.
silver
not acted upon by ordinary oxygen at
any temperature, while ozone attacks it, forming black silver Ozone cannot be kept for any considerable length of time, as it slowly turns back into ordinary oxygen. A
number
lead,
of other
elements
also
exist in
different forms.
Carbon, for example, exists as the diamond, graphite or black
and lampblack.
of
All these different forms consist only
of particles
carbon, yet the physical properties of the
different forms are dissimilar.

tropic modifications.
of oxygen.
Such forms are called alloOzone is such an allotropic modification

use of ozone
is
Uses
of ozone.
The most important
in
the purification of drinking water.

concentration,
it will kill
When
used in the proper
any number
of bacteria,
first.
and attacks
the
pathogenic
or
dangerous germs
Imperial Board of Health has shown that

will kill
The German one gram of ozone

in
30,000 cholera bacteria per cubic centimeter, in

It
is
250 gallons of water.

Russia to purify water.
much used
when used
France and
Ozone does not
kill
the bacteria
to ozonate
air,
but does remove the odors due to tobacco smoke, perspira-
42
tion, etc.

Owing
to its strong oxidizing power,
its
it is
an
its
ideal
bleaching agent for oUs, but

mercial use for this.
is
high cost prevents

its
com-
Owing
to
extreme activity, ozone
a poison, and must be used with care. Hydrogen peroxide. Like many other elements, hydrogen and oxygen combine in more than one proportion. In water, one part of hydrogen imites with eight parts of oxygen by
weight
;
in
hydrogen peroxide, one part
of
hydrogen unites
is,
with sixteen parts of oxygen by weight.

one part by weight of hydrogen, we
sixteen parts
That
for every
these
of 1
:
by weight of two numbers, eight and
may have either eight or oxygen. You will notice that

sixteen, are in the simple ratio
2.
The importance
of this fact
you
will see later,
when
we come
to study the theory of chemistry.

is
This new com-
pound, hydrogen peroxide,

of the elements.^
not formed by the direct union
Hydrogen
for
peroxide,
when
pure,
is,
is
a thick, colorless sirup,
which decomposes
easily.
It
in fact, impossible to
keep
it
any great length of time, as it decomposes, giving off oxygen and leaving water. This makes it useful as an oxidizing agent. Whenever it is mixed with anything that can be easily oxidized, the oxygen combines with the other material and destroys it. Thus, if hydrogen peroxide is poured on the pus in a wound, the pus is oxidized, and the wound
cleansed.
In medicine
it is
used as a disinfectant because
it
leaves only water as a residue.
A 3%
solution of
it
in
w^ter
is
sold under various names, as hydrogen
dioxide,
1 The commercial way of preparing hydrogen peroxide is to heat the oxide of a rare metal, barium, until it has taken up an extra portion of oxygen, forming barium peroxide. Barium peroxide is
then mixed with cold, dilute sulphuric acid. The barium and hydrogen exchange places, forming barium sulphate and hydrogen
peroxide.

hydrogen peroxide, or dioxygen.
It is
43
a safe and cheap

it is.
it
home remedy, and should be more widely used than

Bleaching power of hydrogen peroxide.
has a second important use.
Chemically,
There are
many
substances
that need to be bleached, but the ordinary bleaching agents,

as chlorine, are so powerful that they not only bleach, but
attack the material

peroxide
is
itself.
For these substances hydrogen

it
an excellent bleach, as
bleached by
its use.
oxidizes the coloring

Silk, wool,
matter without injuring the material

ivory are
all
itself.
and
SUMMARY
Oxygen
prepared by the electrolysis of water, or by heating a mixture of potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. At high temperatures it is very active, combining with most elements to form oxides. It supports burning and life.
is is
An
a combination of oxygen with one other element. the combining of some substance with oxygen. An oxidizing agent is a substance that readily gives up oxygen, thus
oxide
Oxidation
is
oxidizing other substances.
catalytic agent is a substance that aids chemical

itself
change without
being permanently changed.
Ozone is an active form of oxygen and is a good oxidizing agent. Hydrogen peroxide is a good oxidizing agent, and because of this a good bleaching agent and disinfectant.
Exercises
is
do goldfish, kept in a glass globe, die if the water is not often changed? 2. If oxygen is' an active element, why does not the coal in coal mines burn up ? 3. Name three common oxides that you will find in every house. 4. Why does the cork of a hydrogen peroxide bottle often fly out ? 5. Why is the cork of a hydrogen peroxide bottle bleached ?
1.
Why
CHAPTER V
HYDROGEN
Occtirrence of hydrogen.
Every organism
is
made up
of
many
It
is
different
compounds.
One
element, however, exists
in practically all of these
compounds, namely, hydrogen.
found combined with carbon in almost every organic
compound. Meat, kerosene, candles, fats, and oils all contain it. Hydrogen is found free in nature only in small
quantities,
but we have reason to believe that large quantities

sun and
stars.
exist in the
Natural gas, rock
salt,
and mete-
orites all contain it in small quantities.
Preparation of hydrogen.
To
prepare hydrogen
we may
it
;
decompose water by
electricity, or
by
the action of certain

or,
metals (as sodium) on

best of
all,
we may obtain it from an acid by the action of

a metal upon
it.
Zinc, for
example,
fitted
is
placed in a flask
with a thistle tube and

(Fig.
is
a delivery tube
13).
Dilute sulphuric acid
added
It
through the
thistle tube.
acts upon the zinc, forming Fig. 13. Preparation of hydrogen. zinc sulphate and setting hydrogen free. The hydrogen is then collected by water displacement. Other metals, as iron, and other acids, as
hydrochloric acid,
may
be used to prepare hydrogen.

44
HYDROGEN
Properties of hydrogen.
colorless gas.
45
Hydrogen
is
a tasteless, odorless,
It
can be condensed to a liquid under high

It
is
pressure at an extremely low temperature.
the lightest
gas known, air being 14.43 times as heavy as the same volume
of hydrogen. It
burns with an almost colorless flame, giving
an intense heat.
coal.
A pound of hydrogen,
as
in burning, gives
out
more than four times

cost
much
heat as a pound of the best
It is therefore a most excellent fuel, but owing to its and bulk, it is not often used pure. Mixed with other gases, hydrogen forms illuminating gas, and those of you who have gas stoves at home know how convenient a
.
fuel that
is.
The
air
lightness of
hydrogen
filled
weighs 14.43 times as
is made use of in balloons. As much as hydrogen, volume for
volume, a balloon
ble weight.
with hydrogen
will lift
a considerafilled
The German
military balloons are
with
hydrogen.
Oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
intense heat, such as
is
When we
wish an
especially
is
required to melt platinum, which
one of the exceedingly infusible metals, we resort to the

oxyhydrogen blowpipe
(Fig. 14).
This
is
a
of
device
consisting
two
concentric
tubes.
Through the
Fig. 14.
outer larger one hy-
Oxyhydrogen blowpipe.
drogen is forced, and through the inner tube oxygen. These gases are both used under pressure, and give, when they combine, an intensely hot, pointed flame.
almost invisible, but when
is
This flame
light.
is
sometimes used to produce an exceedingly bright

is itself
it falls
It
of
upon a piece
quicklime, which
infusible
even at that high temperature.
46
the lime
is

heated to incandescence and a dazzling bright
light results.
This
is
the so-called calcium or lime light

It
is
which
is
used in theaters and magic lanterns (Fig; 15).
being replaced, however, to a large extent
by the which
elettric light,
is
brighter,
cheaper,
and
more
convenient.
Hydrogen a reducing agent.

Fig. 15.
The
acis,
Burner
for lime light.
tion of
in
hydrogen
many
ways, the
reverse of that of oxygen.
If
we heat
oxide of copper
in a stream of dry hydrogen, the hydrogen will combine with the oxygen, forming water, and leaving metallic copper
Fig. 16. Reduction of copper oxide by hydrogen, c, copper oxide 6, calcium chloride for drying
;
a,
;
d,
hydrogen generator anhydrous copper
sulphate.
(Fig.
16).
Such an action as taking away oxygen from

is
a compound
of oxidation.
called reduction.
It
is
evidently the reverse

is
Hydrogen
is
then a reducing agent, and
HYDROGEN
largely used
in
47
that purpose.
is
the laboratory
for
Car-
bon
is
another excellent reducing agent, and

Iron
used com-
mercially to extract metals from their ores, which are largely

oxides.
is
made
in
enormous quantities by
this process.
SUMMARY
Hydrogen is prepared by the electrolysis of water, by the action of sodium on water, or by the action of a metal on an acid. It is a colorless, tasteless, odorless gas. It is the lightest gas known. It is a good reducing agent. It binns with an intense heat.
reducing agent
is
a substance that readily takes oxygen
away
from its compounds. The oxyhydrogen blowpipe
is
used to produce an intense heat.
Exercises
1.
2.
How Why
can you prove that kerosene contains hydrogen? is it very difficult to keep hydrogen, even in tightly
corked bottles ?
3.
Do you regard a mixture of hydrogen and

Explain.
oxygen as an explo-
sive?
4. One should never apply a flame to apparatus in which there is hydrogen without testing to see that the hydrogen is pure. It is not
safe to guess.
Why?
CHAPTER
VI
ATOMIC THEORY
The
of
alchemists. All through the Middle Ages, hundreds men, called alchemists, worked in laboratories, studying
call
discovered many chemmany interesting and useful facts about them. They learned how to make sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids; how to extract some of the metals, as zinc and lead, from their ores; how to purify
what we now
ical
chemistry.
They
compounds, and found out
substances by distillation;
many
of the substances
in
your work
in short, they knew and used and operations that you have used in chemistry. Yet they knew little or nothing of
call
what we, to-day,
the science of chemistry.
This was
due to several reasons.
They were not
trying to find out the
laws of nature, or to build a science, but to learn
how
to
transmute base metals into gold, to make the
elixir of life,
and the philosopher's stone. They had no idea of the use of the balance, or any orderly way of working. They made their discoveries by mixing substances at random, and then seeing and recording what happened. Nor was one man willing to help others by publishing what he had found out.
They
learned a considerable niunber of isolated facts, but
failed to discover those laws
and quantitative relationships

based.
until the time of the
of
on which modern chemistry

Chemistry a science.
It
is
was not
48
French Revolution that chemists realized that the science
ATOMIC THEORY
49
chemistry must be based upon knowing not only what chemicals are used in chemical changes, but how much of
each, the weight of the products formed, and,
of
all,
most important
the laws governing these changes.

first really
time that chemistry

chemical facts
It was at this became a science, and that were studied with the aim of discovering the
laws governing them.
Law
of Defitiite Proportions.
Just as soon as chemists
began not only to pull things apart, but to weigh the products obtained, a remarkable fact became known. It was found
that the composition of every chemical
compound was
al-
ways the same.

88.8"^
Thus, water was found always to contain of oxygen, and 11.1"^ of hydrogen by weight.
%
if
Or, 8 pounds of oxygen always combines with
pound
of
hydrogen,
to
produce 9 pounds of water.^

pure,
its
No
matter
is
where the water comes from,

found to be always the same.
If a substance
;
composition
of
Hundreds
other com-
pounds have been analyzed, but always with a similar

result.
is
is,
pure,
its
percentage composition
is
is
always the same

weight.
that
a compound
always made up of
the same elements combined in the same proportion
by
This fact has come to be called the
Law
of Definite
Proportions, and
may
be stated thus
is
The composition of
every pure chemical
compound
always the same.
Law of Multiple Proportions. Soon after the discovery of the Law of Definite Proportions, it was found that oxygen and
hydrogen combined not only
"
in the proportion of
8 to
1,
but
It
must be remembered
that, for the sake of clearness in these
round numbers. Thus oxygen and hydrogen really combine in the proportion of 8 of oxygen to 1.008 of hydrogen. The exact values are in most cases given in the tables In solving problems, the approximate values in the appendix. only are to be used.
notes,
facts are stated in
many
50
that a second
16 to
1.

compound
existed in which the proportion
was
This second compound, hydrogen peroxide, you
have already studied. You will notice that in these two compounds, the amounts of oxygen that combine with one pound of hydrogen, namely, 8 to 16, form the simple ratio
with each other of
1
to 2.
Compounds
show
oxides.
this
of
many
fact.
other elements have been found that
same
Carbon, for example, forms two
We can combine 16 pounds of oxygen with 12 pounds

forming carbon monoxide, the poisonous gas
of carbon,
found in our illuminating gas.

of
Or we can combine 32 pounds
oxygen with 12 pounds of carbon, forming carbon dioxide,
that gaseous substance that makes soda water effervescent. That is, 12 pounds of carbon will combine with either 16 or 32 pounds of oxygen. Here, again, you will notice that the amounts of oxygen that combine with the same amount of
carbon form a simple
ratio, 1 to 2.
The same
elements.
ing
fact
is
true of
oxygen with nitrogen,
compounds of iron with sulphur, and of the compounds of many other'
From
these facts
we have formulated the

:
follow-
Law
of Multiple Proportions
to
If two elements,
and B,
combine
element
form more than one compound,

that
to
the weights of the
combine with a fixed weight of the element A,

each other.
bear a simple ratio
Matter
is
non-continuous.
Our next task
is
to find an
explanation as to
why
these laws are true.
There are only

Either
two
possibilities as to the constitution of matter.
matter must be a continuous substance, or it must be made up

of small particles held together
by some
force.
Many
To
facts
show that the

in reality
it is
latter
view
is
the correct one.
the eye, a
plate of iron seems to be a continuous solid.

not, for
We know that
it is
by applying an enormous pressure,
ATOMIC THEORY
possible to force water through the solid iron.
51
The
iron
does not break, yet drops of water find their
way
through.
This must be because the iron

particles,
and the water

is
finds its
made up of very small way between them, showing

is
not only that the iron
made up
of small particles, but that
these small particles do not touch each other.
This gives us
an explanation how
it is
possible for a bar of iron to expand
when heated without undergoing any change in weight. The small particles that compose it have been driven further
apart,
drives
and thus occupy more room. Cooling and hammering them closer together, and so the bar becomes smaller,
its
although
weight does not change.
Matter
is
made up
of small particles.
If
we mix a
pint yf
alcohol with a pint of water,
we
naturally expect to have two
pints of the mixture.
Instead,
similair to
we
get only 1.8 pints.
Evi-
dently this
is
a case
the mixing of a pint of coffee
beans and a pint of granulated sugar.

quart of the mixture, as the sugar
coffee beans.
in reality
filling all
There would not be a

between the larger
particles not
sifts in
In the same way, the alcohol and water being

of tiny particles,
made up
and these
sift in
the space, .the smaller particles
between the
larger ones, thus reducing the
There and alcohol as before, only the space between them has diminished and therefore the volume has become less. The weight of course remains
of the mixture.
volume
are just as
many
particles of water
unchanged.
It
is
impossible to explain such facts as these
is made up of small particles, and that these small particles do not completely fill the space occupied by the body. Molecule defined. A drop of water is made up of countIf you will in less myriads of exceedingly minute particles. drop divide and subdivide a of water, imagination you must
except by believing that matter
WEED CHEMIRTBY
52

if
you divide it again, you will no longer have water, but oxygen and hydrogen, the elements of which water is made. This smallest particle
of
at last have a particle so small that,
water that can exist as water

can
exist in the free state
all
is
called a molecule.
We may
Wood, made up
define a molecule as the smallest particle of

that
any substance,
and
still
he that substance.
sugar, salt, iron,

of molecules.
seemingly so
solid, are in reality
Molecules are so small that

as these molecules are,
it is
impossible to see them,
even with the aid of the most powerful microscope.

it is
Small
possible to obtain
by physical
methods- some idea of their
size.
Lord Kelvin has calculated
that the distance between centers of contiguous molecules in a

solid
must be not more than

250,000,000
If
inch,
and may
be only one half of this distance.

250,000,000; you will obtain a
possible
then you will cube
number that gives the smallest number of molecules in a cubic inch. The number is so huge that we are totally unable to obtain any real idea of its value. If you counted one molecule each ^second, worked ten hours a day, and 300 days a year, it would take you more
than 23 years to count one
If
line of molecules
one inch long.

it is
you
will
imagine a drop of water, magnified until
as
large as the earth, the water molecules
would be somewhat
imagine the
only by believing in
of the laws of
smaller than baseballs.
It
is difficult
for us to
existence of these molecules, yet

their existence that
it
is
we can
explain
many
chemistry and physics.
Atoms
because
defined.
You have
already learned that certain
substances, as oxygen, gold,
and
iron, are called
elements
we have found it impossible to pull them apart and produce from them other and simpler substances. You
ATOMIC THEORY
have
also seen that
53
it is
by combining elements
p6ssible to
produce new substances, as when you combined oxygen and
hydrogen to produce water.

cule of oxygen will
to
We
can prove that one moleof
combine with two molecules
hydrogen
form two molecules of water. Since each molecule of the water produced contains oxygen, we must have split the oxygen molecule into two parts. The oxygen molecule must
then be
give the
made up of two name of atoms.
still
smaller bodies, and to these

define an
that
we
We may then
an element
atom
as the
smallest part of the molecule of

other atom.s to
can combine with
form molecules. The difference between the molecule of an element and the molecule of a compound is that the atoms in the molecule
of the
alike,
element are
all
(o) = (o)
^-^
^^-^
Fig. 17.
^-
while the atoms
- (o) 2
in the
molecule of a
compound are different. The molecule of oxygen

force
1. A molecule of oxygen. ^ ""^'"^^ ^ ^^*"'-
contains two small bodies,
exactly alike, called atoms of oxygen, held together
by a
that
we
call
chemical attraction (Fig. 17).
The
like
molecule of water, on the other hand contains two
atoms of hydrogen and. one of oxygen, different from the other two, all three atoms being held together by this force
of chemical attraction.
Atoms
are alike.
of
an element are
If
all alike.
all
The Law
of the
of Definite
Proportions proves to us that
atoms
same element
every atom of oxygen did not have exactly the
as every other atom of oxygen, then, in water, a compound containing oxygen atoms, the proportion by
same weight
weight in which the oxygen occurs would sometimes vary.
The same thing is true of atoms of all other elements. If we could divide a particle of any element minutely enough, we
54
would obtain molecules first and then atoms. These atoms would all be exactly alike. Most of the common gaseous elements, as oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, contain two
atoms to the molecule.
Law
of Multiple Proportions explained.
How
can we ex-
plain the
Law
of Multi^xle Proportions ?
Since the amounts
always form a simple ratio, we have evidently one, two, or three atoms of the second element present. That is, in the case of water, we have two atoms of
of the second element present
hydrogen combining with one atom

of
of oxygen. of
In the case
hydrogen peroxide, we have two atoms
hydrogen unit-
two atoms of oxygen. The weights of oxygen in the two compounds must be as que is to two, because the number of atoms is as one is to two.
ing with
Composition of molecules.
Molecules of elements
are
composed of atoms, and these are all alike. Molecules of compounds are composed of atoms, and these atoms are different. Molecules of most elements contain two atoms, while molecules of compounds may contain from two to many hundred atoms. The molecule of albumen, the white
of egg, contains over in a molecule of
250 atoms, while the number of atoms

is still. greater.
protoplasm
By ways
tell
that
we cannot here
of
discuss, chemists
have determined the com-
parative weights of these tiny atoms, and can
how many
them
are present in a
compound.
S3rmbols of atoms.
composed
stand the
of
Now that you know that matter is atoms and molecules, you will be able to underin
way
which chemists write abbreviations of the
names of these atoms and molecules. One molecule of sugar is composed of 12 atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen. To write all this, every time we wish to give the composition of a sugar molecule, would take too
ATOMIC THEORY
much
time.
65
Chemists have therefore agreed on a kind of

is
what You may not be able to read German, but nevertheless you can, if you understand the simple principles used,^ read and understand the abbreviations in a
all
shorthand, which
used by
chemists, no matter
their nationality.
German chemistry. The symbol of one atom

of its
of
any element
Thus,
is
the
first letter
name, written as a
capital.
means one atom
one atom of carbon. Where there are several names of which commence with the same letter, this system has to be somewhat modified. In these cases we use two letters, writing the first with a capital and the second with a small letter. For instance, one atom of carbon is C, one atom of chlorine -CI, and one atom of chromium Cr. Co is one atom of cobalt, but CO is one atom of carbon and one atom of oxygen. In the case of some elements that have been known for a
of oxygen,
elements, the
long time,
we
use in their abbreviations, or symbols, the
Latin names.
Thus, the symbol of one atom of sodium
is
Na, the abbreviation coming from the Latin name, natrium. Some others are iron, Fe, from ferrum copper, Cu, from cuprum mercury, Hg, from hydrargyrum. A complete list
:
of
symbols
is
given in the table of physical constants of

(p. 378).
common
elements in the appendix
Formulas of molecules. Two atoms of hydrogen combine to form one molecule. We must, have some way of writing the symbol of hydrogen so as to distinguish between two separate atoms of hydrogen and two atoms united to
form one molecule.
or after the symbol.
This we do by writing a figure before
H means
one atom of hydrogen.

1
;
It
is
not necessary to write the coefficient

indicate 2,
3,
it is
understood.
To
or
more atoms
of hydrogen,
we
write a co-
56

the symbol.
of hydrogen,
efficient in front of
Thus, when we wish to
two atoms atoms, 3 H.

indicate
we
write
2H;
for three
When we
wish to indicate that two atoms of hydrogen are
combined to form a molecule, we write I^'. The symbol H3 would be meaningless, as there are only two atoms in one molecule of hydrogen, and the symbol H3 would mean a molecule made up of three atoms, which does not exist.
compounds afe written in the same way. A molecule of water is composed of two atoms of hydrogen, combined with on"e atom of oxygen. We might write the formula 2 H 1 0, but this would be inconvenient, as when we wish to write two molecules, we might confuse the coefficient 2 that meant two molecules with the coefficient 2 that meant two atoms of hydrogen. We, therefore, in molecules of compounds, write the number that expresses the number of atoms of each element present after, instead of
of molecules of
The formulas
before, the symbols of the element.
We
then,
also write
;
it
below
HjOi but since it is unnecessary to write the 1, the formula is H2O. The formula of sugar is C12H22O11. This means that each molecule of sugar is made up of 12 atoms of carbon, 22 atoms of hydrogen, and 11 atoms of oxygen. You will notice that the rule that there are two atoms of hydrogen in a molecule
the
line.
The formula
of
water
is,
applies only to the element.
In molecules of compounds
there
may
be any number of hydrogen atoms present.
Physical and chemical change defined.
Now
that
we
know what matter is composed

tions of physical
is
of,
we can improve our
defini-
one in
and chemical changes. A physical change' which no new molecules are formed, but where the
molecules are rearranged or separated.

is
chemical change
one in which new molecules are formed.
ATOMIC THEORY
SUMMARY
Small units of matter.
cules.
57
All matter
is
composed
of
atoms and mole-
is the smallest particle of a substance that can exist and have the properties of the substance. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can combine with other atoms to form molecules. Law of Definite Proportions. The composition of every pure chemical compound is always the same. Law of Multiple Proportions. If two elements, A and B, combine to form more than one compound, the weights of the element B that combine with a fixed weight of the element A, bear a simple ratio to each other.
molecule
"^
Exercises
1.
Is there
Is
2.
any difference between 2HzO, and H4O2? Explain. there any difference in meaning between 2H and Hj?
difference
Explain.
3.
What
would
it
make
in the
atomic theory,
if
we
should find that lead was made up of two substances, instead of being an element ?
4.
and Y,
H2, 2H, 2H2. Does H3 have any meaning? CuSOa, KCIO3, CO2, HNO3? 6. How many atoms are there in 7. How many atoms are there in a molecule of cane sugar, C12H22OU; vinegar, HC2HSO2; washing soda, NasCOs 10 H2O?
5.
:'
NameH,
CHAPTER
VII
COMBUSTION
Combustion defined.
In your work with oxygen you
studied the burning of substances such as charcoal, sulphur,
and phosphorus, and reached the conclusion that burning was a combination of the substance burned with oxygen. Chemists call " burning " combustion, and define it as any chemical change accompanied by light and h^t. Oxygen is the great supporter of combustion, and the majority of cases of combustion that you will'encounter are combinations of fuel, such as coal and wood-, with oxygen. Slow oxidation. The ordinary burning of wood is an oxidation accompanied by light and heat, called by chemists a combustion. Wood can, however, combine with oxygen so slowly that there is no evidence to our senses of either light
or heat.
If
you have ever wandered through a woodland, you must

fallen
trees.
have wondered what becomes of the

ground'
is
The
littered
with fragments of bark
rotten wood, but despite the fact that trees ing in that ground for centuries, there
of
is
and pieces of have been grow-
no large accumulation
wood from dead trees. We should expect to find huge piles of wood as a result of the death and overthrow of the trees,- and the falling of twigs and boughs. But this dead wood has combined with the oxygen of the air. It has undergone a kind of burning. The same products, largely carbon
58
COMBUSTION
dioxide and water, have been formed as
if
59
the
wood had been
burned in a stove.
the
This oxidation, though, has been so slow
that at no one time has heat enough been generated to raise
wood
to a temperature at which
it
would give a
large
enough amount of heat to be perceptible to you. Such a slow combination with oxygen as this is called slow oxidation.
Some chemists
amount
is
c^\[ it
slow combustion.
The
final
products
total
are practically the
same as
in quick combustion,
is
and the
of heat given off
the same, but the heat evolved

is
distributed over such a long time that the substance
not appreciably heated.

Kindling temperature defined.
until it has
No
substance will burn

its
been heated to a
but
definite
temperature called
kindling temperature.
different substances,
This temperature, varies widely for
is alwaj-^s the same, for the same same conditions. You have used one substance, phosphorus, which has a low kindling temperature. Iron, on the other hand, has a high kindling temperature, so high in fact that most people do not realize
substance, under the
that
it
can be burned.
build our fires well illustrates the use
The way we
of
we make
strike a
various kindling temperatures.
We
first
place paper,
then wood, and lastly coal in the stove.
Then we
is
match.
Friction heats the composition
on the head
low,
of the
match
to its kindling temperature, which
and the
head burns.
then touch
This heats the wood of the match to the temit
perature at which
ignites,
the flame of the

its
and the match burns. We match to the paper in the stove.

is
The
paper, because
kindling temperature
fairly low,
and because we need heat only a small amount of it, is easily raised to the required temperature and bursts into
flame.
The burning paper
heats the
wood
to
its
kindling
60
temperature,
burns.
CHEMISTEY IN THE HOME

and
this
in
turn
heats the coal
until
it
Kerosene burns
freely,
yet a lighted match can be thrust
into a barrel of kerosene without danger.
The match
does
not give enough heat to

ture at which
it
warm
If,
the kerosene to the tempera-
takes
fire.
however, you should throw a

fire, it
cupful of kerosene on a blazing
would burn
fiercely.
on a feebly burning fire extinguishes it. There is not enough heat in the fire to warm the coal to its kindling temperature, and so the fire goes out. Had the coal been added gradually, each small portion would have been heated to its kindling temperature, would have caught fire, and the fire could have been saved. Spontaneous combustion. There is one kind of combuscoal placed tion that
bustion.
is soft, is
A large amount of
very dangerous.
It
is
called spontaneous comis first put on a house becomes hard. Paint

,
We know that when

of linseed
oil,
paint
it
it
is
but that in a few days
composed
hardening of
mixed with some pigment, and the the paint is due to the oxidation of the oil,
forming a solid substance.
Many
oils
oxidize in the
is
same
way.
As
in every case of oxidation, heat
evolved.
In the
on the house this heat passes into the air and does no harm. Suppose, however, you wipe up the kitchen floor with an oily rag, and then place the rag in a pasteboard box in a closet. The oU will begin to oxidize.
case of the paint
This causes heat, and, as the heat cannot easily escape, the
rag becomes warm. This in turn hastens the oxidation, more heat is evolved, and soon the rag is in flames. Damp hay tightly packed in a barn, so that the air cannot circulate through it, will do the same thing. Even soft coal (bituminous coal) when it is in a fine powder will oxidize fast enough to catch fire, and ships have been lost at sea
COMBUSTION
because of their cargo of coal catching
fire
61 from this cause.
The remedy
in the
home
is
never to put away oily rags where
the heat produced will be confined.
Some almost
result of
tric
unbelievable things have happened as a
unexpected oxidation.
A manufacturer of small elecsteel
motors was in the habit of allowing the
turnings
for a car
he produced to accuniulate until there were enough

load,
the
when they were shipped to be remelted. One winter day, watchman built a fire near the heap. The heat started
it, the heap of steel Such things show that we cannot be too careful.
the steel to burning, and for a whole day in spite of the
streams of water that were played upon

burned.
What to do
since in such
in case of fire.
is
The danger
of being
all
caught
in
a burning building
one to which we are
exposed, and,
an emergency most persons
lose their self-posis
session, it will
be well for you to think in advance what

in the night
the best course to pursue in such a case.
by the smell of smoke, do not wait to dress completely, but wrap a blanket around you, and go out at once. Often the smoke is so thick that it is
If
awakened
difficult to breathe.
The
air close to
the floor will be found
purer than that higher up, so you can usually get through a
smoke-filled hall
wet cloth held to the nose and
by crawling on yotu* hands and knees. A mouth is an aid, as it prevents

fire
the inhalation of the hot air and smoke.
Should your clothing catch
at
any time, do not
run.
This only serves to fan the flames.
Instead, throw yourself
on the
floor
and
slowly roll over so as to smother the flames.

off,
it.
Often a blazing skirt can be torn
or the
fire
all,
smothered
keep calm.
by throwing a rug or coat over If you do, you will escape with' only a slight if you lose your head, you may lose your life.
Above
injury, while
62

fire start^ in
Should a small
extinguished
your home,
the
it
can usually be
by throwing water on
burning substance,
not on the blaze.
A bucket kept filled with water, and placed
on the kitchen
It should
shelf, would often prevent a disastrous loss. have a small dipper kept in it, as it is better to throw the water on the
fire in
small quantities,
rather than to pour the
contents of the bucket
on the
fire
at once.
siphon of vichy makes
a very good
fire
extinIt
is,
guisher (Fig. 18).
however, useless to
throw a small quantity
of
water on blazing
oil
orfat.
Such fires should

wet
be smothered with sand,

ashes, or flour, or a
cloth or rug.
If it is evident that
Fig. 18.
Extinguishing a
carbonated water.
fire
with
the
trol,
fire
is
beyond confire
notify the
de-
partment.
You
should
know
the position of the fire-box
nearest your home, so that this notice can be quickly given.
you have a telephone in the house, use that. Here, number of the fire house should be looked up in advance, and written on a. card posted near the telephone. It is easy to do such things in advance, but most of
If
again, the
us neglect them, with the consequence sometimes that our
house burns down, when a

saved
it.
little
forethought would have
Be
careful to close the door
when you
leave the
COMBUSTION
burning room to give the alarm.
fire
63
This tends to confine the
to
its
starting point.
fire
The average
loss
in
the
United
light a
States
is
over
$200,000,000 annually.
Much
of this
comes from
careless-
match in a dark Never leave matches where small children can play with them. Never keep
ness in the use of matches.
closet filled
Never
with hanging clothes.
matches
cause
on,
in
anything but metal boxes.
Parlor matches
are a source of danger, as mice
gnaw the heads and thus
fires. A match dropped on the floor may be stepped and so cause a conflagration. Safety matches cost but little more than parlor matches, and are much safer. Methods of ejrtinguishing fire. There are two general methods of extinguishing fires. We may lower the tempera-
ture of the burning substance below

or
its
kindling temperature,
off
we may smother
the
fire
by shutting
the supply of
oxygen.
Carbon tetrachloride, CCI4, a volatile, non-combustible a good fire extinguisher. A little thrown on a fire gives such a heavy vapor that air is excluded and the fire
liquid, is
goes out.
Fireproofing fabrics.
Conditions often
arise, as in theaters,
where
light,
combustible fabrics must be exposed to the
danger of contact with fiame.

to fireproof the material.
certain salts, as
In such cases,
it is
desirable
This
may
be done by the use of

Either of the
fol-
lowing formulas
ammonium phosphate. may be used to fireproof
cotton fabrics, by
soaking them in the liquid, and then drying.
material
treated with either of these will char, but will not burst
into flame.
off are
The
cotton bags in which flashlights are set
treated with a similar solution.
The
fireproofing
should be repeated every time the
article is laundered.
64
(1)

Carbonate of
Boracic acid
ammonium
5 16
3
ounces otmces ounces
Common alum
Borax
3| ounces 6
pints
Water
(2)
Ammonium
Boracic acid
phosphate
8
1
ounces
ounce
Water
^ pints
is
similar preparation
used on the wood from which
safety matches are made.
Wood, once
ignited,
glows for
some time
spark
is
after the flame
has been extinguished, and this
a source of danger.
cause a
By
impregnating the wood,

carelessly
this glowing is prevented,
and a match
thrown
down cannot
If
fire.
the articles are to be starched, the preparation below
may
be used.^
The
materials should be well mixed.

. .
Hyposulphite of soda (granulated)

Cornstarch
3
3 3
Common
salt
Borax (powdered) Talcum powder
1|
pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds
The
starch, is
made by taking
it
four tablespoonfuls of this
mixture and stirring
into three pints of boiling water.
The mixture
thickens, resembling ordinary starch,
and
is
then ready for use, either hot or cold.

starched should be dipped into
it,
The
articles to
be
allowed to remain for one

It
is
minute, removed, and wrung out.

too
best not to remove

It is
much
of the mixture.
Dry and
it
iron as usual.
will
J.
not necessary to wax the iron, as

This formula
is
not stick to the

Jarman.
due to Mr. A.
COMBUSTION
cloth.
65
would often avoid
The use
fuels.
of such a preparation
deplorable accident^.
Common
There are three
fuels, coal, kerosene,
and
be
illuminating gas, that
we
use so
commonly that
it will
worth our while to study them at this time.

will find in
Coal, as you
a later chapter,
is
the product of the partial
decay
of.
vegetable matter.
anthracite, or hard coal,
There are two principal varieties, and bituminous, or soft coal. They
In the
else-
both consist mainly of carbon, but soft coal contains in addition a considerable proportion of volatile matter.
eastern
cities,
hard coal
is
used in the household, but
where in the country
soft coal is generally used.
When
oxygen
either variety burns, the carbon combines with the

of the air to
form carbon dioxide, GO2, while any

oxygen, forming water.
air insufficient
hydrogen present combines with

If,
however, coal
is
burned using an amount of
for complete combustion, the carbon burns only halfway,
and forms, instead of carbon dioxide, the gas carbon monThis gas is a poison, as it combines with the oxide, CO. red coloring matter of the blood, and renders the blood incapable of absorbing oxygen.
How
to regulate coal fires.
Since ordinary burning
is
combining' with oxygen,

stove or furnace,
when we wish
is
to burn coal in a
we must provide
for a free access of air.
In an ordinary range (Fig. 19) the air
drawn up through
the grate bars, passes through the coal, burning it, and the waste gases formed then escape through the chimney. To
control the
fire,
close the passage through
dampers are provided. These partially which the gases escape, and so
fire.
diminish the amount of oxygen fed to the

fire
Thus the
fire
burns
less briskly.
Closing the doors under the

is,
does the same thing, that
diminishes the supply of oxygen.
66
If

the
fire is
not raked, the accumulation of ashes prevents

air,
and the fire goes out. The ash that forms when coal is burned comes from the mineral matter in the vegetation from which the coal was formed.
the passage of the
It is often desirable to
keep the
fire
over night
when no
heat
is
needed.
This can be done by shutting the dampers,
of/wf gases
tv/ifi/tfop
f/ue-aperi/ft^ is c/oSPd-
Fig. 19.
Diagram of cooking range.

The
fire will
and
lightly covering the fire with ashes.

little
then
smolder, and in the morning, a
fresh coal, raking,

it.
and opening the dampers

out
will quickly revive

if
the stove or furnace in your house, and see
Examine you can find
how
the
fire is controlled.
Heating value of
power.
coal.
Coal varies
much
in its heating
One pound
of
good coal should be able to heat

Large corporations now buy
14,000 pounds of water 1 F.
COMBUSTION
coal on the basis of its fuel value, instead of
67
by the
ton.
It
would not pay you to have the necessary analysis made to enable you to do this, so yoxi, will have to trust to the coal One thing though you can do, and that is to watch dealer.
the
amount
of ash that forms.
Good
If
coal should not give
you find that your coal gives more than this, it is well to buy another brand next time. The veins of coal in the mine occur between layers of slate, and this is often not completely removed from the coal. You should, of course, not buy coal that on examination shows slate mixed with it. Kerosene. Kerosene is a mixture of a number of compounds known collectively as hydrocarbons. They are all compounds of carbon and hydrogen, and on burning form carbon dioxide and water. If you have a kerosene lamp,
over
of ash
10%
by weight.
notice that,
when
it
is
first
lighted, a
mist collects on the inside of the chimiêy.
This
is
water formed by the burning
hydrogen of the kerosene combining with the oxygen of the air. As the chimney
becomes hot, the water evaporates. By keeping the chimney cold by surrounding it with a water jacket, the water will
continue to be deposited until at last
will run down in drops. From what you have
it
learned about
combustion you
of the
will see the
advantage
Pig. 20. Lamp showing air currents.
lamp chimney
air.
(Fig. 20).
light,
kerosene to give a bright
If we are to burn enough we must have a plentiful
supply of
draft.
If
The chimney
gives this
high,
by creating a good
it
we turn the lamp too
smokes.
Know-
WEED CHEUISTHY
68
CHEMISTRY
-IN
THE HOME
ing the eagerness with which hydrogen and oxygen combine,
you can explain
this
smoking.
If
we turn the wick

is
too high,
we vaporize
so
much
kerosene that there
not
chimney to burn both the hydrogen and the carbon of the kerosene. Since oxygen would rather combine with hydrogen than with' carbon,
in the air in the
enough oxygen
the hydrogen burns and leaves the carbon

is
free.
This carbon
the smoke that
is
sometimes so annoying, and blackens
the ceiling over a lamp or a gas flame.
When we
taken of this
wish to manufacture lampblack, advantage

fact.
is
We
in
burn a hydrogen and carbon coman

insufficient
pound, as natural gas,

black.
amount
flame smokes, and, on collecting the smoke,
of air. The we have lamp-
Luminous flames explained. To produce a flame, we must have a burning gas. In the case of the lamp, the heat
of the flame converts the liquid kerosene into a gas.
This
Since
burns, and gives the flame.
You
will
remember that hydrois
gen burns with a flame, but that this flame
colorless.
the only difference between the hydrogen and kerosene flame

is
the presence of carbon, the color of the flame
way be due to the carbon.

this.
must in some The probable explanation is
The heat
is
of the flame
decomposes the kerosene, and
sets the
carbon free in the form of very small particles.
Since there
no oxygen
in the interior of the flame, these
carbon particles cannot burn, but are heated and glow with a
yellow
light.
When
they reach the edge of the flame, where

air,
they encounter the oxygen of the carbon dioxide, disappear.
they burn, and, forming
This explains
why
a thin,
flat,
wick
is
used.
It gives
more
is
surface for oxygen to reach the
carbon and so combustion
more
perfect.
By
lowering a cold plate over a kerosene or a luminous gas
COMBUSTION
69
flame for a few seconds, you will findj on removing it, that carbon is deposited on the plate in the form of lampblack.
This
is
below
its
because the cold plate cools the carbon in the flame kindling temperature, so that it cannot burn.
Illuminating gas is a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and some gases rich in carbon.
The Bunsen burner.
The hydrogen and carbon monoxide burn and

while the other gases set free
furnish heat,
carbon which, being heated,

gives a luminous flame.
The
in
products of
this
combustion
are of course the
same as
the case of kerosene. gas stove,
In the
we do not need a luminous flame, but we do require a hot flame.

this
We
gain
by using what is called a Bunsen burner (Fig. 21). The

difference
-^
between
is
this
and an
mixed
Fig. 21
-
//
ordinary burner
that, in the |_
is
//y
Section of a Bunsen burner.
Bunsen burner,
air
with the gas before

the flame, a,nd
in the flame.
it is
burned.
Instead of the hydrogen and carbon having to pass through
come to the edge before burning, they burn The carbon then does not pass in an incandescent state through the flame and so the flame is nonluminous. The Bunsen burner flame is much hotter than
the ordinary luminous flame.
Bunsen burner flame requires a This is accomplished by gas. turning the regulator that opens and closes the air holes at
obtain a
perfect
To
nice adjustment of air
and
the base of the burner, until the flame
is colorless,
but does
70
not
hiss.

When
using a gas stove, you will sometimes find
that a kettle put over the flame becomes covered on the

bottorh with a coat of soot.
This
is
because the burner
is
not properly adjusted.

if
You
can remedy the trouble
easily,
you, will examine the construction of the burner, and bear
the above facts in mind.
A gas and air mixture is an explosive. A mixture of air and illuminating gas forms a violent explosive. Therefore,
do not carry a flame into a room containing such a mixture.
Many bad accidents have been caused by persons lighting a match to look for a bad gas leak. Bear this in mind when you light the gas oven. Some cooks
have turned on the
allowing
it
gas, and, after

air in the
to
mix with the

it.
oven, have lighted
You can imagine
the consequences.
tensely hot flame of
Welsbach gas burners. The intheBunsen burner,

it is itself
although
non-luminous,
may
be used to produce a bright light. The

oxides of certain rare metals,
when
heated to a high temperature, glow

brightly.
Fig. 22.
By
immersing a loosely
in a solution of the
Gas mantle.
woven cotton wick
mixed nitrates of these metals, drying and then burning the cotton, the nitrates decompose, forming oxides, which are left in the shape of the original
it,
wick.
The
result
would be too delicate to transport.

This forms a
It
is
therefore dipped in collodion.

tive coating over the whole.
flexible protecit
In this form you buy

(Fig. 22).
fire,
as the
mantle of a Welsbach burner

is
When
the mantle
off,
placed in position and set on
the collodion burns
COMBUSTION
leaving the oxides behind as a fragile web.
71
This
is
heated
of
by the hot, non-luminous Bunsen burner flame Welsbach burner, and gives an intense light.
These burners use only a small quantity
very bright.
of gas,
tne
and are
Their disadvantage
is
the delicate mantle.
slight jar is sufficient to

is
break
it
to fragments.
is
The
in-
verted form of mantle
especially useful, as there

is
nothing
under the
light,
out waste where
and therefore the illumination it is most useful.
sent with-
new forms
Reading your gas meter. Stores are continually offering of gas burners and gas heaters, and the statement
Fig. 23.
Gas meter
dial.
is
usually
made
is
that they burn such a small
amount
of gas
that their cost
saved in a very short time.

such devices
it is
is
Naturally, the
manufacturer
of
inclined to underestimate the
gas consumption, and

for yourself just
well for
you to be able
is.
to find out
how expensive
their use
This you can
do by learning to read the gas meter. When you study this lesson, as a part
ine
top,
of
your work, exam-
your gas meter.
You
will find
a series of dials at the
and over each

is
dial a figure (Fig. 23).
The
arrange-
ment
not, always the same, but usually there are three
72
dials,

marked
1
thousand, 10 thousand, 100 thousand.
Each
dial is divided into ten parts,
from one to
measures.
ten.
and these parts are numbered The number over the dial means the num1
ber of cubic feet of gas that one revolution of the pointer
Thus, when the
thousand
dial
hand has made
one complete revolution, one thousand cubic feet of gas have

passed through the meter.
The
exact mechanical arrangement
is difficult
to explain
is this.
without the use of an actual meter, but the principle
The meter
contains a pair of bellows.
The
pressure of the
fill it.
gas causes the gas to flow into one of these bellows and
As the bellows expands,
it
moves a wheel that
is
connected
to the dial on top, and thus causes the pointer to go around.
These pointers- are so connected that one complete revolution of the 1 thousand hand advances the 10 thousand hand
one tenth of a revolution.
the
1
Thus
it
takes ten revolutions of
thousand hand to make the 10 thousand hand go around
once.
As you burn the

which
fills.
gas, it slowly flows
out of the
full
bellows,
collapses, while at the
same time the empty

is
bellows
The
position of the pointers of these dials
read by the
meter inspector, each month, and by subtracting the reading
month from the reading of this month, the gas company can tell how many thousand cubic feet you have used, and so what your bill will be. The next time your
of the last
is read, go with the inspector and read it also. Tell him what your reading is, and ask him if it is correct. You will then be sure that you understand just how the amount of gas you use is determined. At the extreme top of the meter there is usually a small dial that registers two cubic feet. By using this small dial you can tell just how much gas the various burners of your
meter
COMBUSTION
gas stove or gas lights use.
73
all
Be sure that
the gas jets in the
house are closed.
Light the burner, the consumption of
which you wish to know.

dial
is
Wait until the pointer on the small
exactly over a mark, and then note the exact time,
using the second hand of a watch.
When the hand
has
made
one complete revolution, note the time again.
You now
tell
know how many minutes that

burn two cubic
feet of gas.
particular burner takes to
simple calculation will
you the number

pense per hour.
of
of cubic feet
burned per hour, and, knowing

feet,
the cost of a thousand cubic
you can compute the
ex-
In this
way you can compare
the efficiency
compute the expense of heating It is more accurate the small hand, you if, instead of using only one revolution of allow the burner to use enough gas to cause the hand to
two
styles of burners, or
a room by the use of a small gas stove.
make two
or three revolutions.
This small hand

ence of a leak.
may
also be used to test for the presof the small

all
Note the exact position

off.
is
hand
in the morning, being careful to see that in the house are turned
the gas cocks
Read
its
p6sition in the
evening, before any gas

position of the
turned on.
change in the
gas-
Gas
heated
flatiron.
hand shows the presence of a leak. One simple, useful gas device is the
In the
flatiron.
summer a
becomes
hot,
if
small kitchen
uncomfortably
the flatirons are
heated over the gas stove
on ironing
day.
This
excessive heat
may
be
Fig. 24.
-A gas-heated
It
is
flatiron.
avoided by using a gas iron (Fig. 24).

flatiron,
like
an ordinary
but
is
made hollow
to allow the uSe of a
Bunsen
74
'

This heats the
iron,
and avoids the The consumption of gas is. necessity of changing irons. not llarge. If you have one at home, it will be worth while to test its consumption of gas and find out just what it costs to operate it. Test also the gas consumption of the burner that you would use to heat the ordinary iron, and you can
flame on the inside.
tell
whether
it is
a real economy to use a gas-heated flatiron.
How to
use a gas stove economically.
Care in the use of
gas stoves will enable you to save a considerable proportion

of your gas
bill.
In using a gas oven, for example,

roast
is
it
is
often possible,
when the
almost cooked, to turn
off
the gas and let the heat of the oven finish the cooking.
The
use of a fireless cooker will stilLfurther cut the consumption

of gas.
You
will find this described in
another chapter.
SUMMARY
any chemical change accompanied by light and heat. union with oxygen. It may be slow or rapid. When it is rapid enough, it becomes combustion. Kindling temperature is the temperature at which a body will begin
Combustion
Oxidation
is is
to burn.
Flame is burning gas. Kerosene forms water and carbon dioxide when it burns. Luminous flames are often due to incandescent carbon. A Welsbach burner Ught is due to the incandescent mantle. Spontaneous combustion is combustion which occurs when no definite outside heat has been furnished to raise the body to its kindling temperatiue. It is brought about by slow oxidation under conditions which prevent the scattering of the heat so
produced.
Exercises
1.
What
Can
is
an explosion?
Explain.
oily
2.
flour dust explode?
3.
Why is
waste kept in metal cans in shops?
COMBUSTION
4.
5.
75
Explain.
Can hydrogen be used
in a
Welsbach burner ?
gasoUne not suitable for use in a lamp? 6. What would be the result of throwing a hghted match into a barrel of gasoline? Of sewing machine oil? 7. Why is water a poor thing to use to extinguish an oil fire ?
is
Why
What would you

8. 9.
use and
why ?
fire ?
Why is Why is
What
a heap of fine soft coal dust dangerous ?

it
necessary to rake the ashes from under the

it
mean, when your Welsbach mantle becomes covered with a black deposit ? How would you remedy the trouble ? 11. What should you do with a rag with which you have oiled
10.
does
the furniture ?
12.
Why ?
you would do them,
all of
State in the order in which
the
things you
13.
14.
would
do,
if
fire
broke out in your house.
Where does the fire escape on your house lead to? Where is the fire alarm box nearest to your house ?
Can you 16. How would you get to the roof of your house ? walk from the roof of your house to other houses ? 16. If a fire should start in your house, would you go upstairs or downstairs, and why? 17. What steps should be taken to prevent an explosion in a mine f uU of fine coal dust ? 18. Why are lace curtains and a gas flame, both near a window,
a dangerous combination?
CHAPTER
HEAT
Work defined.
VIII
In the study of heat we need to understand

call
the exact physical meaning of two words, work and energy.
In physics, we do not regard everything that you might

labor as work.
If
you should support a pail of water in your hand, without motion, -you would not be doing work in a mechanical sense. To do work on the pail of water, you must lift it. By work we mean overcoming some resistance
(as lifting a weight) through
some
distance.
all.
The element
is
of
time does not come into the thought at
convenient unit by which to measure work

If
lift
the foot
you you do one foot pound of work. It makes no difference how long you take to do this, the amount of work done remains the same. If you lift 6 pounds 4 feet, you do 6 X 4 = 24 foot pounds of work. You can measure work, then, by multiplying together the number of pounds lifted by the vertical distance through which they are lifted. It may interest you to calculate the foot pounds of work you do in going from the street to the top floor of the building.
pound.
gravity,^
one pound one foot, against the force of
Energy defined.
Energy
is the capacity for
doing work.
When you walk upstairs, you are lifting the weight of your body, or you are expending energy. Winding a watch gives energy to the spring. It is then capable of doing work in
'
We call the force that
tends to pull bodies to the earth gravity.
76
HEAT
making the wheels
steam thus produced
turn
of
77
Coal possesses
boil,
the watch rotate.
energy, for in burning,
it may may be used
cause water to
in a
and the
in
steam engine, which
may
be used to
lift
a weight.
is
Our great source
of energy
the sun.
tained in the sunlight causes the grass to grow.
The energy A cow
coneats
the grass, and converts
it
into beef.
You
eat the beef,
and
convert
of
its
energy into the energy contained in the muscle
your arm.
This muscular energy you use in winding up
the spring of your watch.

spring enables
it
The energy thus given

In this
its
to the
to cause the wheels to rotate.
This rotation
series of
causes heat, which passes off into space.
energy transformations, you have changed

neither created nor destroyed
form, but have
energy.
This
fact,
that
we
can neither create nor destroy

energy,
is
called the
Law
of the
Conservation of Energy.
Heat
For
thought
is
a form
years
to
of energy.
many
heat
a
was
be
material
substance
called
phlogiston.
it
That
weigh
is,
a body, after
had
been burned, was believed to

less
the phlogiston
than before, because had been taken

This
belief
Fig. 25.
Primitive method
fire
of
making
by
friction.
from
it.
we now
when they
all
know was
incorrect, for bodies gain in weight
are burned.
This we can prove by weighing
of
the
products formed, the gases as welFas the solids.
When two pieces of wood are rubbed together, they become

hot.
In
fact, so
much heat
is
thereby developed that savages
78
have used
this method to obtain fire (Fig. 25). Since the wood does not change in weight, mechanical motion (energy) must have been converted into heat. It is always true that a body in motion possesses energy, and that anything that
arrests this
motion converts this energy into heat.
This
energy change
may
is
be reversed.
That
is,
heat
may
Such
be used
to cause motion, as
when the energy contained
in steam,
due to
its
heat,
used to run a steam engine.
facts as
these cause us to believe that heat is a form of energy.
When we
it
heat a body, the particles (molecules) composing
are set in motion.
The
faster the molecules vibrate, the
hotter the
body becomes.
body
is
changed into
The energy that you put into, the molecular motion. The difference,
is
then, between a cold and a hot piece of iron
simply that, in
it
the hot piece the particles of iron composing
are
moving
see
more rapidly than
are those in the cold piece.
These iron
particles, called molecules, are so small that
we cannot
Calorie
them, yet their velocity can be measured.

Fahrenheit and Centigrade thermometers.
fined.
deof
You must
carefully distinguish
between degree
heat and amount of heat.
Boiling water under standard
(barometer reading 30 inches) conditions always has the
same temperature, 212 F.

cannot contain as
although
of heat
its
A pint of boiling water, however,

the same.
much
heat as a quart of boiling water,

is
temperature
We
measure degrees
by the aid of a thermometer. To measure quantity of heat, you must learn a new unit, the calorie. A calorie is the amount of heat that wUl raise the temperature of one gram of water 1.8 F. (1 C). There are two thermometer scales in use, the Fahrenheit
and the Centigrade
scales (Fig. 26).
The Centigrade
and
scale
divides the distance between the freezing
boiling points
HEAT
of
79
water into 100 degrees, calling the freezing point of water
C, and
the boiling point 100 C.
On
the Fahrenheit
scale, this interval is
divided into 212-32 or 180 degrees.
Thus, 100 Centigrade degrees corresponds to 180 Fahrenheit degrees, or 1 C. =1.8 F. The FAHEENHEIT CENTIGRADE real definition of the calorie is, Boiling Potent
lOOr
the
amount
of
of
heat that
will
of Water
212
raise the
temperature of one
Since
gram
water one degree Cen-
tigrade.
we
use
the
20
Fahrenheit scale in our work,
"Room Temperature-Freezing Point
we put
instead of 1
equivalent, 1.8 F.
C, its The large

In our
use
'ofWateV
32
calorie, or Calorie, is equiva-
lent to 1000 calories.
study of foods
we
shall
Calories constantly.
Absolute zero defined. Since

the
temperature
molecules
of
body
Boiling Point of
-182.5
depends on the rate at which

its
Oxygen
-296.5
are
is
vibrating,
when a body
less.
cooled, this
molecular motion must become
Evidently there must come a time when the molecules are at rest, and at this temperature there must be an
absolute absence of heat.
-273
'-
Absolute Zero
This
Fig. 26.
Comparison of Centiis
grade and Fahrenheit soalej
temperature
lute zero.
is
called the abso-
On
the Fahrenheit scale

it is
it
459.4,
on the
differ-
Centigrade scale
causing
its
273.
Heating a body consists in

rapidly.
molecules to
move more
This
80

is
ence in the rate at which the molecules are moving

only difference between a cold and a hot body.
test thing that
the
hot-
The
we can make
higher than
is
the electric arc, which
may
of
reach a temperature of about 6000 F.

the sun
is
The temperature
It
is
much
this.
Solids, liquids,
and gases defined.

is,
the amount of
motion of the molecules that determines the physical state

of a substance, that
gas.
whether
it is
solid,
a liquid, or a
In
solids the molecules vibrate
more
'
or less rapidly,
but do hot move far from their original positions.

molecules attract each other.
The
In liquids, the molecules not
only vibrate back and forth, but are able to change their
positions relative to each other.
There
is,
however, a feeble
attraction between the molecules.
In gases the molecules
act as
if
there were no attraction between them, and separate
as widely as possible.
These facts will enable you to understand why the following

definitions are true.
solid is a substance that does not

it is
^ ^ ^
take the shape of the vessel in which
placed.
Solids have
a definite weight, volume, and shape.
A liquid is a substance
it
is
that takes the shape of the vessel in which
placed.
Liquids have a definite weight, a definite volume, but no

definite shape.
gas
is
a substance that takes the shape

it
is
of
any
vessel in
which
placed,
and
distributes itself
uniformly throughout the space.
Gases have a definite

the
weight, but neither a definite volume nor shape.
Sources of heat.
sun.
If it
The
great source of heat in nature
is
should
fail us,
the earth would soon become a

is
dead planet.
Fortunately, there
no reason to anticipate
any such calamity.

chemical action.
Other sources of heat are the interior
heat of the earth, heat,caused by friction, and heat due to
In
this last
we
are especially interested.
HEAT
Effects of heat.
81
is,
When we
heat or cool a body, that
when we add
effects
to or subtract from its energy, a
may
be produced.
The temperature
its
of the
number of body may

is,
change, or
it
may
change
physical state, that
a solid
may melt,
or a liquid be converted into a gas.
Also the pres-
sure of the
body upon the containing
vessel
may
change, as
in gases, or its properties, as hardness, color, electrical con-
and volume, may vary. Heat expands bodies. When a body is heated, it expands. This is true of solids, liquids, and gases, with practically no exceptions. The way in which water expands is somewhat unusual, and it will be well for you to refer back to the chapter on water and review the facts. The expansion of solids may cause the housekeeper expense and annoyance. If, in washing a large cut glass bowl, you put it at once into hot
ductivity,
water,
it is
apt to crack.
This
is
due to unequal expansion,
caused by the outside of the bowl becoming hot, while the

inside is still cool. The remedy is to put the bowl first into lukewarm water, and then to raise the temperature slowly by pouring in hot water. The same principle applies whenever breakable objects are to be heated. Suddenly cooling
a hot glass will also crack
it.
Why ?
the innumerable
The
gas.
raising of cake
is
partly due to the expansion of a
When the batter is placed in the oven,
gas bubbles, derived from the reaction between the com-
pounds of the baking powder distributed through it, are heated, the gas expands, and so the cake is made light. Why, then, do you think that banging the oven door, soon
after the cake has
Those
it is
of
in, is likely to make the cake fall ? popovers know how essential made you who have
been put
that the batter be very thin.

is
If it is
too thick, the force
of the expanding gas
not sufficient to
lift
the upper crust.
82

results, instead of
and a tough doughy mass

one.
a Ught puffy
Heating bodies changes their physical

effect of
state.
Another
heat
is
change of
state.
air,
If
you leave an open pan
of
water exposed to the
the water slowly disappears.
It evaporates.
is
This process
air
will
go on until either the pan

will find
empty, or until the

If
has become saturated with water

that the change
vapor.
you heat the water, you
from a liquid to a vapor proceeds more rapidly. have heated the water to 212
of
F., it boils.
When
is,
you
That
bubbles
steam form
all
through the mass of the water.

is
This change of liquid to a vapor

volatilization.
called vaporization or
When the
Most
change occurs at low temperatures,

Alcohol and gasoline are
solids
the liquid
volatile
is
said to be volatile.
liquids.
when
heated,
first
liquefy
(melt),
and then vaporize.
few, as sal
ammoniac (ammo-
nium
chloride), iodine,
solid to the gaseous state
and camphor, pass directly from the and when this vapor is cooled, it
returns to the solid state without passing through the liquid

state.
This we
call sublimation.
The substance
is it is
is
said to
sublime,
and the
solid product obtained
called a sublimate.
Water
will evaporate,
even when
in the
form
of ice.
Wet
clothes,
hung out
in the winter to dry, first freeze,

ice.
and
\
then dry by evaporation of the

Fractional distillation.
The
is
rate of evaporation depends
upon many
liquid.
it
things.
First,
upon the
to
its
boiling point of the
The
nearer a liquid
boiling point, the faster
evaporates.
If,
Water
then,
boils at 212 F., while alcohol boils
at 173 F.
we heat both
alcohol
and water
to
160 F., the alcohol will evaporate the faster, because
it is
nearer to
its
boiling point.
If
Advantage
is
taken of this fact

of alcohol
in fractional distillation.
we heat a mixture
HEAT
and water, the alcohol
behind.
free),
83
water
will distill off first, leaving the
The
alcohol will not be quite anhydrous (water

so.
but nearly
This process
is
often used to separate
two
also
liquids having different boiling points.
Conditions affecting evaporation.
The
rate of evaporation
depends on
the extent of surface exposed.
The
larger
the surface, the more freely the air will dissolve the liquid.
Liquids to be evaporated should be placed in large shallow

pans, rather than in deep narrow vessels.
When
the air
over the liquid becomes saturated with its vapor, evaporation

ceases.
Evaporation in a deep vessel

is
is
very slow because
the air
renewed with
difficulty
and quickly becomes

liquid, so as
saturated with the vapor.

air is
In chemical works, a blast of
sometimes blown across the evaporating

it.
to bring dry air continually in contact with
Would you
still
expect clothes to dry faster on a windy or on a
day?
of
Why? Do
clothes dry faster on a cool or a warm day?
Why ?
clothes
is
In the sun or the shade ?

of
Why ?
The drying
much importance
to the housekeeper.
Amount of water evaporated from the earth's surface. The total amount of water evaporated from the earth each year is enormous. The average yearly rainfall is between
30 and 40 inches.
rated
All this water (about 175
pounds
for
each square foot of the earth's surface) must
first
be evapo-
by the
is
air before it
can
fall
as rain.
The
largest
amount
of this
water comes from the ocean, but plants furnish more

generally realized.
its
than
In hot weather, grass loses by
evaporation, each day,
own weight
of water, or
tons per acre.
Trees also contribute
much
about 6^ water vapor to
the
air.
Boiling explained.
If
the temperature of a liquid
is
contin-
uously raised,
we
at last reach a temperature at
which the
WEED CHEMISTRY
84
liquid boils.

Bubbles of gas are then formed
all
through the
mass mass
of the liquid,
and these gas bubbles
in escaping set the
of the liquid into violent agitation.
The temperature
all
then remains unchanged until the liquid has
boiled away.
The
explanation of boiling
is
is,
that, as the temperature of
the liquid
raised, its molecules are set into
more and more
violent motion.
This motion increases until those molecules
that are on the surface of the liquid, are thrown so far into the air that they escape from the attraction of the liquid.
We say that water boils

From
liquid
at 212 F.
This
is
not always true.
the explanation of boiling given above, you will see
that the rapid escape of the molecules from the surface of a
the pressure
must depend upon the pressure on that surface. If is diminished, the number of molecules present above the liquid is lessened, and it is then easier for new molecules
to escape, or, in other words, the
boiling point
is
lowered.
If
the
pressure
is
increased, the reverse
change takes place, or the boiling

point
is
raised.
This
may
be
shown by half filling a roundbottomed flask with water, and

boiling the water until the steam
Fig. 27r
Boiling water at reduced pressure.
formed has driven
all
of the air
from the
steam
flask.
removed, and the flask corked.
If cold
is
The flame is then water is now poured

(Fig. 27).
on the
flask,
some
of the
condensed
This
lowers the pressure, and the water inside the flask boils
furiously.
is
This
may be continued until

is
the water in the flask

flask,
so cool that
you may place your hand on the

boiling.
and yet
the water inside
HEAT
Advantage
of boiling
85
under diminished pressure.
Many
it is
liquids cannot be boiled at ordinary pressures
and tempera-
tures without a chemical change taking place.
When
them
necessary to evaporate such liquids,

closed vessel,
we
place
in a
and pump
off
the air and vapor from above

is
them..
In this
way
the pressure on the liquid
diminished,
the boiling point of the liquid lowered, and evaporation,
without decomposition, becomes possible.
This
is
always
done
in sugar refineries in evaporating sugar solutions.
Effect of altitude
on the boiling
point.
As we climb moun-
becomes less. At the top of MoUnt Blanc, the pressure is so low that water boils at 183 F. In Denver, at an altitude of something over 5000 feet, water
tains the air pressure
boils at 203 F.
This makes a serious difference to a cook.

of boiling
is
The temperature
than
it is
water in Denver
is
so
much lower
This dimin-
with
us, that it
necessary to boil meat and vege-
tables there
much
longer than in
New
is
York.
ished pressure does not of course affect the time required to

roast meat, as, in roasting, the
meat
exposed to the direct
heat of the
fire.
Effect of dissolved substances on the boiling point.

boiling point also depends
The
upon the purity

solid is to raise
of the liquid.
The
until
effect of
any dissolved
the boiling point.

boil
Thus, water saturated with calcium chloride does not

a
temperature of 354 F.
has been reached.
The
F.,
presence of dissolved solids also lowers the freezing point of

liquids.
Sea water, for example, does not freeze at 32
but at a lower temperature.

Transferring heat by conduction.
in
There are three ways

case of the transfer
convection,
which heat is and radiation.
conveyed from place to place, conduction,
A common
of heat
by conduction
is
in the use of a flatiron.
The
cold
86

on the stove
is first
iron wlieu placed
heated on the bottom.
The heating
in motion,
is
sets the
bottom
particles of the iron into rapid
vibration, they strike against their neighbors, setting these
and
this continues until every particle of the iron

or,
rapidly moving,
until the entire
mass
of iron
is
hot.
Fig. 2$.
Circulation of
it
air in
a refrigerator.
Iron
is
said to be a
good conductor
in this
is
of heat,
because heat
easily traêls
through
way.
a poor conductor of heat. a lighted match, because
Wood, on the other hand,

There
is
no difhculty
in holding
heat travels so slowly through the mass of the wood, that,
although one end of the match

cold.
is
burning, the other end

It
is
is
Cloth
is
also a
poor conductor of heat.
for this
reason that you use a cloth pad in handling a hot flatiron,
HEAT
as heat does not pass readily through the cloth.
87
Metals,
on the other hand, are good conductors of heat, silver being the best. You may have noticed how quickly a silver spoon,
placed in hot coffee, becomes hot. Air
is
one of the poorest conductors of heat.
Woolen
fibers
dress
goods are
large
warm
for this reason.
The wool
it is
entangle
air
amounts
of air
among them, and

so linen
is
this
entrapped
that makes a woolen sweater warm.
Linen, on the other hand,
does not do
this,
and
cool.
You may sometime when
going skating have wrapped a

It
is is
newspaper around your body to keep you warm.

the air confined between the layers of paper that
really
the non-
conductor, and so prevents the heat of the body from escaping.
give
Do you think that a thick piece you better protection?

refrigerator
is
of cardboard
would
of
necessity\ built
of
non-conducting
useless,
materials (Fig. 28).

as heat
An
iron refrigerator
would be
it
would be
so quickly conducted through
that
ice
in the interior of it
would not keep
for
any length
of time.
In practice refrigerators
,
are
built
of
wood, with an inside

lining
of
porcelain
or metal.
The space
between these two walls is filled with
various non-conducting materials

(Fig. 29).
FiG. 29.
-Section through the waJl of a

refrigerator.
easily
Comparative conductivity of different materials. We can measure the comparative thermal conductivity of
substances.
different
Roughly,
if
we
represent the con-
88
by 10, the conductivity of copper is 8.5, and flannel 0.0004. These numbers are only approximations, but will serve to show the great differductivity of silver
iron 2,
wood
0.G03,
ences that exist in the conductivity of different materials.

It will be
an interesting home experiment

of
for
you to
select
two and
similarly shaped saucepans, one of
steel,
pour a glass
enamel and one of water in each, place them on the stove,

boils first.
see in
which case the water
You
will learn
will
something about the conducting power of enamel that

be of use to you.
Convection.
Heat
is
transmitted through air by a process

air
called convection.
The
over a hot surface
is
heated (Fig.
30), this air expands,
and, becoming of a
less
rises.
specific gravity,^
Its
place
is
taken by cooler
repeated.
air,
is
and the process
By
air
this
means the
warmed.
Circulation of air in by a radiator.
in
is
the schoolroom
room warmed
is
Since the
warm air
ris-
continuously
ing, the
temperature
is
highest in the upper part of the room.

this fact,
Mothers sometimes forget

1
and fancy,
that, because
the weight of a substance, compared same volume of some other substance that is used as a standard. For solids and liquids, ths standard is water, for gases the standard is hydrogen. The specific gravity of sulphuric acid is 1.84, that is, any given volume of sulphuric acid(as one quart) wiU weigh 1.84 times as much as the same volume (one quart)
to the weight of the of water.
By specific gravity we mean
HEAT
the air
is
89
be
warm where
they are
sitting, it will also
warm
enough for the baby playing on the floor. This is by no means always the case, and often the child suffers from cold, when the upper layers of the air in the room are warm enough. Heat is transmitted in gases almost exclusively by convection. The same is largely true in liquids. Water is an
extremely poor conductor of heat.
with water and, holding

flame,
you
will find
If you wijl fill a test tube by the bottom, place the top in a that you can boil the water in the upper
it
part of the tube, while the water in the bottom of the tube
is
not even warmed.
The explanation
the case of gases.
is
of convection in liquids
is
the same as in
The
liquid. in contact
with the hot surface

rises,
heated, expands, becomes of less specific gravity,

is
and
replaced by the cooler liquid.
Radiation is the third means of transfer of and requires a little more detailed explanation. There is no air or any other form of ordinary matter between the earth and sun. It is therefore impossible that the heat of the sun should reach the earth by the processes of conduction or convection. We must imagine a totally different method
Radiation.
heat,
of transmission.
We believe that all space is filled with an extremely rarefied

substance that
is
called the luminiferous ether,
or,
more
simply, the ether.
(This
is
not the liquid used by surgeons
to produce insensibility, but a totally different substance.)
This ether
is
not
like
ordinary matter, but has some very

It is impossible to
it
wonderful properties.
pump
sides,
it
out of
it
any
from
vessel.
For, supposing
were possible to draw
out
the top, it -would leak in
through the
between
the molecules of which the vessel was composed.

possible to
Nor
it
is it
pump more
ether into a bottle than
already
90
contains^ for an attempt to do so would simply force ether
out through the sides of the bottle.

ether can penetrate
So
far as
we know,
this
any body.
If we could magnify a drop of water sufficiently, it would somewhat resemble lemon jelly, filled, not too closely, with caraway seeds. The lemon jelly would represent the ether, and the caraway seeds the particles (molecules) of the water. Suppose now that you had a room filled with such a jelly, and should strike the jelly on one corner. A quiver would run through the entire mass of the jelly, just as it does in a mold of ordinary jelly on the table. This quiver may be called a wave. You know that when a wave moves through the water, the wave moves onward, but the water particles simply rise and fall as is shown by a piece of wood floating on the waves. So, in the case of the jelly, the wave moves through it, but the motion of any part of the jelly is only back and forth.
Imagine now the ether stretching from the sun to the earth. Some very hot particle at the surface of the sun, by reason of
its
high temperature,
is
in violent motion,
and therefore has
energy.
This moving particle strikes the ether a blow and

it
so causes in
a wave motion.
This wave runs throtigh the

it
mass
the
of the ether until finally
strikes the earth.
There,
wave
strikes
some
is
is,
material,
perhaps a stone.
The
in
energy of the wave
used up in setting the molecules of the

in heating
is
it.
stone in motion, that

this
That a wave can
way
transmit energy
shown by the destructive action
waves in wearing away the shore. You must understand that, while the wave is passing from the sun to the earth, it is not heat, but only a wave in the ether. It is not until this wave strikes some material object, that its
of water
energy
is
changed into heat.
HEAT
The
velocity of these ether waves
is
91
very great, about
186,000 miles per second.

energy, but light
They can transmit not only heat

energy as
well.
is
and
electrical
It
is
by the
use of ether waves that wireless telegraphy

difference
possible.
The
is,
between the ether waves that produce heat and

is
those that produce light
in their
wave
length, that
the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the next.
Heat waves are longer than
light waves.
You
can
now understand why a glass greenhouse is so much
warmer than the outside air, even though it is not heated Ether waves coming ,from the sun can pass These waves strike the plants freely through the glass. and soil and are converted into heat. Glass is a poor conductor of heat, and so the heat cannot pass through the glass by conduction. The air in the greenhouse is confined, so that heat cannot escape by convection. The air in the
artificially.
greenhouse
is
therefore heated.
is
The
process of heat transfer
by ether
waves
called radiation,
and
such
the energy of
ether waves
is
called
radiant energy.
Laws
energy.
erffV ^'^
''
of radiant
Radiant en^'"'- ^^-
obeVS the same
JWiV^ is the reflecting surface.
BOA
(inoidence)=/AOC
(reflection).
laws,
whether we are
dealing with light waves or heat waves.
These waves are
absorbed by
dull,
and
reflected
from polished, surfaces.

they are reflected from
They
travel in straight lines.
When
polished surfaces the angle of incidence equals the angle of

reflection, as
is shown in Fig. 31. These laws explain many facts that you are familiar with.
92

heat
A white dress is cooler than a black one because radiant

is
reflected better
from white than from black.
better in a polished can than in a dull
Milk keeps one for the same reason.
The bottom
of
your teakettle should not be polished, be-
cause you want the heat to be absorbed and not reflected.

It should not,
however^ be thickly covered with
soot, for
that
is
a poor conductor of heat.
screen placed in front

it reflects
of a fire protects
you from the
heat, because
the
ether waves.
Many
life will
similar examples of the application of
these laws to
occur to you,
if
you
will try to
think of
them.
Fireless
cookers.
is
The
fireless
cooker
now
so
widely
advertised
a practical application of a
number
of hieat.
of principles
In boiling
it
meat, for example,

is
necessary to keep
the meat for some
time
at
about the
boil-
temperature of
ing water.
This can
be done by heating
it
on the stove to the

point,
boiling
Fig. 32.
and
Fireless cooker.
then placing the pot

in
some
vessel profireless
vided with a non-conducting outside layer, such as a

cooker (Fig. 32).
A simple but efficient fireless

Fill
cooker can be
made
at home.
or. saw-
a box with some non-conducting ipaterial as hay
dust.
Leave a hole
in the center in
which to place the pot,
with hay over
and provide a cover, which also has a layer of cloth stuffed Such a simple device will keep a liquid it.
-HEAT
hot for
93
many
hours.
It
may
also be used as a refrigerator,
for the non- conducting material will not only keep heat in,
but
will also
keep heat out.
Doubtless you can
now
it
tell
why
a woolen dress will keep you warm, and yet a piece of

ice will
woolen cloth wrapped around a piece of

melting.
keep
from
The manufacture
heat
is
of artificial ice.
When
a gas
is
liquefied
given
off,
and when the
liquid changes
back to a gas
Flo. 33.
Manufacture of
artificial ice
by the ammonia
process.
it
absorbs heat.
This principle
artificial ice.
it
is
extensively utilized in the
manufacture of
compressed until
cooled
Ammonia
gas
is
cooled and
changes to a liquid.
As a
result of this
it is
compression, the liquid would become very hot, but
by keeping it surrounded by cool running water. This liquid ammonia is then run into a coil of large pipe; where it boils, changing back into a gas. The boiling point
of liquid
it
ammonia
is
very low, but
it
takes heat to change
into a gas just the same.
This heat must come from the
94
coil of

pipe in which the
cold.
ammonia
is
placed, so the pipe beis
comes very
This
coil of
pipe in turn
surrounded by
a strong brine, and the cold pipe cools the brine.

learned that dissolving solids in water lowers
point, so, although the brine
is
You have
its
freezing
it
cooled to about 16 F.,
Cans containing pure water are suspended in the brine. This pure water is then cooled by the brine to 32 F., when it freezes. The ammonia gas that is formed is pumped out of the pipes, once more compressed to a liquid, and used over again.
does not freeze.
Ice prepared in this
way
is
purer than natural
ice,
and
preferable for domestic use.
work in cooling
difference,
One pound of it will do the same that a pound of natural ice will there is no
;
as
both have the

but
same temperature, 32
F.
Ammonia is not the only substance that can be

ing artificial
ice,
it
used in prepar-
has the advantages of cheapness
and
safety.
SUMMARY
Work Law
Heat
is
the overcoming of resistance through distance.

is
Energy
the capacity for doing work.
of Conservation of
Energy
Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed.
a form of energy. have a definite weight, a definite volume, and a definite shape." Liquids have a definite weight, a definite volume, and no definite
is
Solids
shape.
Gases have a
shape.
definite weight,
no
definite
volume, and no definite
calorie is the
amount of heat needed to warm one gram of water one degree Centigrade. A Calorie equals 1000 calories.
Centigrade scale water boils at 100 and freezes at 0. Fahrenheit scale water boils at 212 and freezes at 32.
of
On the On the
Conversion
one scale reading to the other. To convert F. to C.

.(F.
32)
-^
1.8
C.
HEAT
To
convert C. to F.
(C.
95
1.8)
32
F.
Conduction
Convection
is
the transfer of heat from particle to particle.
is the transfer of heat due to the mechanical motion of heated particles. Radiation is the transfer of heat by radiant energy, or waves in the
ether.
Exercises
1. 2.
Why
Draw
is
a fur coat so
ice
warm ?
Should
be placed in the top or bottom of a refrigerator?
Explain.
3.
a diagram of a refrigerator showing the air currents
inside.
4.
We use electric fans in summer to cool ourselves, yet in winter

will
an electric fan directed toward a radiator become warm quickly. Explain.

6. 6.
cause a cool
room to
What
is
the principle of a Thermos bottle?
Glue is prepared from bones by heating them in water to a temperature of more than 212 F. How is this possible?
7.
Water
In
boils at 214 F., at the level of the
Dead
Sea.
How
can this be ?
8.
warm
climates, water
is
jar (similar to a flower pot), ajid
cooled by placing it in a porous hanging the jar in the shade, but
where the wind will strike it. Explain. 9. The temperature of islands is more equable than that of continents. This is due to the water surrounding them. Explain. Why? 10. Dew seldom falls on a windy night. 11. Why do double windows keep a room warm? 12. Should hot-air radiators be placed at the top or bottom of a
room?
13. 14.
Why?
Draw a diagram showing how your house
is
heated.
Why
do not apples freeze when the temperature drops to

ice in
just 32 F.?
16.
Covering the
a refrigerator with a piece of carpet will
cause the ice to melt very slowly. Is it weU to do this ? Explain. 16. How can food be cooked in a fireless cooker ?
17.
Why
are water pipes buried deeply in the ground ?
CHAPTER IX
THE ATMOSPHERE
Air
is
matter.
That we
live at
is
the bottom of an ocean of
an
invisible gas, the air,
a fact that
is
we
quite generally
ignoEe.
It
is
only when this gas
set in violent motion, as
in hurricanes, tornadoes,
of
it,
for
and cyclones, that we take notice and yet our very existence depends upon its presence, without oxygen, one of the gases found in it, we could
live.
not
made by and so change it to water, we would find it hard to believe that it was i-eally composed of ordinary matter. Air, too, is such an invisible gas, and consists of ordinary matter. This is shown by the fact that it may be changed to. a liquid by cooling and comhave found that steam
If
is
We
an
invisible gas
boiling water.
we could not
cool steam
pression.
Since the boiling point of liquid air

ture that naturally exists
never exists in nature in

air is cooled to
is below any temperaupon the earth ( 312 F.), air the form of a liquid. When liquid it is
still
lower temperature,
ice.
changed to a
transparent solid similar to
That a so-called empty bottle is not really empty is easily shown (Fig. 34). If we tightly fit a cork, through which we have thrust a funnel, into the mouth of an empty bottle, and then pour water into the funnel, only a little water will
run through the funnel into the bottle.
96
The reason
for this
THE ATMOSPHERE
is
97
call
that the bottle
is filled
with this invisible gas that we
air,
and two bodies cannot occupy the same, space at the same time. At first, a little water runs into the bottle. The
air is
compressed, since the cork prevents
its
is
escape, but soon
the pressure of the water trying to get in
balanced by the
pressure of the air trying to get out, and so no
more water
can enter.
ait out, in
We
can, however,
let
by the
aid of a second tube

Wdter Pressure
passed through the cork,
the
which case the water
quickly runs in and fills the bottle.

Air, then, in spite of the fact
that
its
we do not
matter.
usually recognize
and air That has is real weight can be shown by weighing

existence, occupies space,
a glass bulb fitted with a stopcock,
and then pumping the
air
it
out of the bulb and weighing

again.
Air Pressure
The
difference in the
two
weights must represent the weight
volume of air in the bulb. volume is measured, the weight of a known volume of air
of the
If this
can be determined.
In this
way
the weight of a cubic yard of air
Fig. 34. The so-called " empty bottle " contains air.
has been found to be 2.18 pounds.

ing, 13 cubic feet of air
That
is,
roughly speak-
weigh a pound.
It
is
this weight of the air,
combined with
its
high velocity,
that makes high winds so destructive, and that makes air

offer
such a high resistance to rapidly moving objects. The barometer. The fact that air has weight can be shown
in another
way.
Fill
with mercury a long tube one square
98

it in
inch in cross section, and closed at one end, and invert
a dish of mercury (Fig. 35).

dips in the mercury
is
Since the end of the tube that
open, you might expect the mercury
in the tube to run out,
and
it
does do so until the height of

is
the mercury in the tube
about 30 inches.
Then
it
remains stationary.
Since the mercury stays in the tube, some-
thing must be holding

thing
is
it
there,
and
this
some-
the weight of the air pressing on the

dish.
If
mercury in the
we remove
this pressure
by placing the tube and dish undet the of an air pump and pumping out the
mercury
will sink in
receiver
air,
the
the tube.
The mercury
fore presses
held up in the tube
weighs about 15 pounds.
by the air The mercury thereis
down
in the tube with a force of 15 inch.
pounds per square

of air
is
Since the mercury
held up in the tube
on the mercury
by the downward pressure in the dish, which pressure
transmitted through the mercury in the dish
to the base of the mercury in the tube, this presFiG

35
^^ ^^ *^^ ^'^
Torricellian
square inch.
must amount to 15 pounds per That is, the air presses down upon
each square inch of the earth's surface with a

pressure of 15 pounds.
Or, in other words, the weight of
a column of air one square inch in cross section and reaching from the earth as high as the atmosphere extends
is
15
is
pounds.
This pressure of 15 pounds to the square inch
often spoken of as a pressure of one atmosphere.

is
This figure
only approximate, varying with the amount of water vapor

altitude of the place
in the air,
and with the measurement is made.
where the
THE ATMOSPHERE
This experiment with the tube was
first tried
99
by
Torricelli,
and the
Still
vacuum above the mercury
in the tube
is
therefore
often called a Torricellian vacuum.
another
way
to
show
this atmospheric pressure
is
to
place a hallow tube, as a straw, in a glass of soda water, and
then remove with the mouth the

the upper end
of the tube.
air
from
then
The
fluid is
forced up the tube
by the outside
pressure.
This
is
commonly
soda
is
called " suction," but in
reality the
pushed up the tube by the

filled
pressure of the air on the surface of the soda.
An
sure
inverted tube
with mercury
regis-
ters the pressure of the
air,
and
of
as this pres-
changes,
the height
the
mercury
changes.
(Fig. 36).
Such a /device is called a barometer By means of a barometer one can
readily determine the daily changes in atmos-
pheric pressure, due to temperature changes
and the presence

amounts.
of water
vapor in varying
Use
of
changes.
barometer in foretelling weather Water vapor is lighter than air.

air,
Since water vapor in the
by crowding out
air lighter^
the heavier gases,
maKes the
pressure
thereby makes
.falling in
its
less,
and the mercury
the barometer tube (called a falling
barometer) indicates an increasing amount of
water vapor in the

ability of rain.
air,
and hence a prob-
Fig. 36.
Thus changes of air pressure are frequently accoinpanied by the changes of weather with which we are familiar.
Generally, in an area where the air pressure
is
barometer.
much
lower
100

is
than the average for that region, the weather

cloudy
;
warm and
while In areas where the pressure

is
is
higher than the.
average, the weather
apt to be cold and
clear.
What we
ordinarily call a storm
is
simply an area of low pressure and
rainy or snowy weather.

It
has been found by experienced observers in the United
States that these related weather conditions of pressure.
Fig. 37.
Path
of
a storm across the United States.
temperature, and cloudiness do not long remain in one place,
but move across the country in a general direction from west

to east.
By
a careful study of the usual paths and velocity

it
of these areas, of a storm.
has become possible to
foretell
the approach
day a map of the country with these conditions marked on it, and by its use it is possible to trace the path of a storm, day by
The government
publishes each
THE ATMOSPHERE
day, and to estimate
us (Fig. 37).
101
expected to reach
when
it
may be
Absolute and relative humidity.
Air
always contains
water vapor resulting from evaporation.
The weight
of
water vapor actually present in a given volume of

called its absolute humidity.
air is
This
is
usually expressed in
grains per cubic foot.
The
ability of air to dissolve
water increases with the
rise
it
of its temperature.
When
air contains all

it is
the water vapor
can hold at a given temperature,
said to be saturated.
The
ratio of the absolute
humidity to the amount necessary

is
to saturate the air at a given temperature
called the relative
humidity.
It
is
measured
in per cent.
Suppose we find by actual experiment that there are 3.99

grains of water present in one cubic foot of the air in the
laboratory.
This would be the absolute humidity.
We
(see
find the temperature to be 70 F.
Now
from a table
air.
Laboratory Manual) we find that, at 70
F., 7.98 grains of

If
water per cubic foot are required to saturate the

7.98 grains of water are required to saturate the
air,
-r-
and we
have but 3.99 grains present, the

saturated.
air
is
3.99
7.98.
midity
is
The 50%.
air is
50%
saturated, or, the relative hu-
Dew
point,
dew, and
its relative
frost.
If
the temperature of the

is
air is lowered, its
capacity for holding water vapor
lessened,
and therefore
is
humidity
is
raised.
If
the cooling
(satur
sufficient,
the relative humidity will reach

will result in
100%
rated),
and further cooling

In this
condensation of a
are formed.
part of the vapor.
way dew and frost
The
temperature when condensation of water vapor from
the air begins is called the dew point. This is the cause of the " sweating " of ice-water pitchers, and the condensation
102
of

Shopkeepers
water on the window panes in the winter.
are often annoyed

of their
of air
clear.
by
this condensation of
water on the glass
show windows, and to prevent it, they direct blasts from an electric fan against the glass. This keeps it
Why ?
on our comfort.
Effect of humidity
is
good complexion
English
girls
is
one
of the things that
we
all
admire, and a good complexion

air.
depends largely upon the humidity of the
are famous for the beauty of their skin,
and England
and humidity. The connection is this. If the relative humidity sinks too low, water is taken from the skin by the air, and the result is a dry parched skin. If you travel in those parts of our country where the air is
famous too
for its fogs
noted for
its
dryness,
you will find that the skin of the natives

is
presents a dry, leathery appearance.
When
the humidity
low, not only the skin, but the
mucous membranes
in consequence.
up water to the air, and we suffer In winter, you know how often you go
give
home and
Often this
after being in the
house a
little
while, begin to
complain of a dry throat and a general feeling of discomfort.

is
laid to
steam heat.
Steam heat
is
no
different
from any other kind

relative
of heat, the difficulty being that the
humidity
is
50%
out of doors, and that
it is
a cold
day.
This cold
air is
is
warmed
in the house to 70 F. but no
additional water
of course
added to
less,
it.
The
relative
humidity
will re-
become
although the absolute humidity
mains the same.

effects.
In consequence, the dry
air takes moisfeel
ture from our nostrils and throats, and
we soon
air.
the
The remedy
naturally
is
to
add water to the
If
you
use steam heat, hang a wet towel on the radiator, and notice
how
quickly the room feels more comfortable.
Furnaces
THE ATMOSPHERE
103
commonly have a water pan provided, so that the warm air its way to warm the rooms. This is right in principle, but the pans are usually made so small that they do not help much. Not only ourselves, but even
passes over water on
the furniture feels the effect of this excessive dryness of the

air.
The
it
glue that holds our chairs becomes so dried out
that
cracks,
and soon the chair
falls
to pieces.
An example may make this matter clearer. Suppose that, when the temperature outside is 20 F., the absolute humidity
is
1.235 grains of water per cubic foot, or the relative
is 100%. If now we warm this air to 70 F., the amount of water vapor remains unchanged, but since at 70 F.
humidity
a cubic foot of
relative
air
can dissolve 7.980 grains of water, the

fallen to
humidity has
13%, an amount
and
health.
is
so low that
we
suffer.
The
to
relative
hmnidity in our houses should be

the comfort that
from
50%
65%
for comfort
of a
One advantage
dry climate
is
experienced on a hot day.
You have no doubt on some sum-
mer days felt hot and sticky, even though the temperature was not abnormally high. This is due to the fact that if
the relative humidity
readily evaporate.
is
very high, the perspiration does not

liquids
That heat is required to evaporate
rapidly
is
a matter of
is
common
knowledge.
If
the relative
humidity
low, the perspiration quickly evaporates.
This
requires heat,
and
this heat
comes from our bodies, and thus
we
are cooled.
In Arizona, with the thermometer at 100 F.
you will be more comfortable than in New York at 90 F., owing to the dryness of the air in Arizona. Preparing nitrogen from the air. If we float a piece of
phosphorus, placed on a crucible cover supported on a cork,
in a dish of water, set fire to the phosphorus,
and then invert
a bottle over
it,
the phosphorus burns for a while and then
104
goes out (Fig. 38).

results,
white
solid,
an oxide of phosphorus,
and
this solid being soluble in water, dissolves,

rises inside
and
water then
the bottle.
of gas remaining,
,
When we
measure the amount
that about one fifth of the air has disappeared.

constituents of the air has been burned out.
we find One of the From your
experiment on oxygen you

is
will infer
that the gas removed
oxygen.
The gas remaining behaves in an entirely different manner from air. It is inert, will not support burning, we
cannot live in
rust in
it. it,
nor will metals
When we
in
bxu"n
phosphorus
easily
the
air,
we cannot
If,
regain the oxygen from the com*

-
.air.
'^
Fig. 38.
Removal of oxygen
rom
it
pound formed. wc heat mercury
however.
it
in the air,
Combines with the oxygen and

If this rust is
changes to a red rust.

temperature,
giving us a
heated to a higher
breaks up into mercury and oxygen, thus

of separating air into its
means
two main con-
stituent gases,
oxygen and nitrogen.

air.
Composition of the
portant, because
class of foods.
The
is
inert gas remaining after
the oxygen has been removed

it is
called nitrogen.
It
is
im-
one of the constituents of an important

of the air
is
The composition
fifths nitrogen.
about one
fifth
oxygen and four
The
air also contains
about
of
four parts per 10,000 of carbon dioxide, a varying
amount
water vapor, and small amounts of ammonia and certain rare

gases, as
argon and neon.

is
Proofs that air
not a com'pound, but a mixture.
The
oxygen and nitrogen in air are not chemically combined.
THE ATMOSPHERE
,1
105
ways, some of
That the
air is
a mixture
is
shown
if
in
many
which are given below.
When
air dissolves in water,

air,
it
were a compound,
Instead,
it
would dissolve as
that
is,
the proportion of oxygen in

air.
the dissolved gas would be the same as in
we
find that dissolved air contains twice as great a percentage

of
oxygen as the original
air.
This
is
because the oxygen and
nitrogen dissolve in the water as separate gases, and not

as a
compound.
pure water
boils,
When
the resulting steam,
if
condensed,
If air
has the same composition as the original water.
were
air,
a compound,
the oxygen.
it
would do the same, but when we liquefy

it
and then allow
to boil, the nitrogen boils
away first,
leaving
The composition of air position of any compound

Air essential to man.
food. of
varies somewhat, while the

is
comas
always the same.

is
Air
just as essential to
man
He
absorbs daily, through his lungs, about 26 ounces

air,
oxygen from the
and exhales about 31.5 ounces
of
carbon dioxide during the same time.
The
inhaled oxygen
dissolves in the red coloring matter of the blood (hsemoglobin), entering into a loose chemical cotnbination
with
it,
and
is
so carried to the cells of the body,
where
it is
used in
the oxidation of foods and protoplasm, thus making possible the development of heat and other forms of energy.
Thus
every
movement
of the body, the
maintenance of the tem-
perature of the body, and even our power to think depend
on the oxygen we obtain from the air. The carbon dioxide which results from
cell is
this oxidation in the
carried
back to the lungs by the blood and exhaled,

is
consequently the air that leaves the lungs
of a different of
composition from that inhaled.
The amount
oxygen has
106
been decreased from
21%
to about
16% by
volume, the
percentage of carbon dioxide has increased from 4 to about
430 parts per 10,000 in volume, and a large amount of water
vapor has been added, as well as small amounts of various

organic waste materials.
Ventilation.
fore lighter
Exhaled
air is generally
air,
than inhaled
warmer and thereand therefore rises. In order
to ventilate our houses properly,

air is
we should
see that fresh
admitted to the bottom of

air is
the
room, and that the impure
hot upper
therefore better,
drawn off. It is when we wish to

open both the
one thou-
ventilate a room, to
top and the bottom of the window

(Fig. 39).
A capacity of
air
sand cubic feet of
per person in
an ordinary room, with the usual ventilation through doors, chimneys,
and cracks around the winair
dows, will ordinarily keep the

in
good condition.
The carbon
is
dioxide in pure air
about 4 parts in 10,000.
In a
room such
FiG. 39.
as a school recitation
rise to
Ventilation by a device arranged to prevent a direct draft.
room,
this
is
it
may
20 parts, but
air is unfit
evidence of serious organic
contamination and the

to breathe.
The New York Board
of
Education allows,
in
designing school buildings, 30 cubic feet of air per minute
per pupil.
The
jurious
notion that
is
many
people have that night air
is
in-
unfounded.
Circumstances
may make some
par-
THE ATMOSPHERE
ticular night air impure,
107
air at night is just
is
but in general the
the same as during the day, and ventilation at night

as important as ventilation during the day.
just
To
sleep in a
strong draft
witho.ut
may
not be advisable, but to sleep in a room

is
good ventilation
to
wake the next moriling

Black Hole
feeling
dull, depressed,
and out
of sorts with the world.

of Calcutta
What
is
is
known
in history as the "
"
an illustration of what the lack of ventilation may cause. During the mutiny in India, 146 English prisoners were
confined in a
room 20
feet square,
with only two small win-
dows, which were obstructed by a veranda.

next morning only 23 were
suffocated
in a less
alive.
by the lack of oxygen. degree when we live and

It
is
As a result the The others had been The same thing happens
sleep in improperly venti-
lated rooms.
a
Oxygen
of
slow but sure method

of
Oxygen
is
poisoning,
since
thedln nimals
the air
given out
pure
for
air is essential
our well-being.
air cycle.
only anire-
The
Since not
mals but plants
quire oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide,
and
well
since every fire uses
up the oxygen
is
of the air,
we may
wonder why
it
has not long since become exhausted
(Fig. 40).
The
explanation
found
in the
way
that plants
grow.
Almost every compound found

air.
in
the vegetable
world contains carbon, and this carbon comes largely from

the carbon dioxide of the
dioxide exhaled
tion,
Plants take in the carbon
by animals, and that produced by combusand use the carbon in forming wood and other com-
108
pounds.

The oxygen
air.
is
set free in this process passes off

this
once
in
more
into the
In
way
the
amount
of
oxygen
the air
maintained almost constant.
SUMMARY
Air can be cooled
and compressed to a
colorless liquid.
A pressure of one atmosphere is a pressure of 15 pounds to the square

inch.
The weight of 13 cubic feet of air is about one pound. The barometer at sea level usually stands at about 30
inches.
barometer indicates the approach of a storm. rising barometer indicates clearing weather. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the
falling
A A
air.
It is usually expressed in grains per cubic foot.
Relative humidity
is
the ratio between the amount of water vapor
actually present in the air to the
amount required
to saturate
the air at that temperature.
The composition
Ventilation
is
of the air is
about 5 oxygen and 5 nitrogen.
Air is a mixture, not a
compound.
essential to health.
Exercises
1.
in the air of
2.
Carbon dioxide is harmless. Why then is a large percentage rooms Regarded as objectionable? Show by a diagram how you would ventilate your sleeping
it
room.
3.
Would
be an advantage to us to have the
air
pure oxygen?
Explain.
4. There is httle vegetation in a large city, and the city uses large amounts of oxygen from the air. Why do the citizens not die as a result of the exhaustion of the oxygen of the air ? 5. Could plants Uve, if there were no animals? 6. Could animals live, if there were no plants ? Of the 7. Name two sources of the carbon dioxide in the air.
moisture in the
8.
air.
How
is
the composition of the air kept constant?
CHAPTER X
FORMULAS, EQUATIONS, AND VALENCE
Every atom of an element is atom of the same element (p. 53). Every atom of hydrogen weighs, just the same as every other atom of hydrogen. The symbol H then means not only one atom of hydrogen, but also a definite weight of hydroAtomic weight defined.
gen.
just like every other
Chemists are able to determine the

weighs 16 times as
corhparative
weights of atoms of different elements.

for example,
The oxygen atom,
much
as the hydrogen atom.
The atom
atom.
of carbon is 12 times as heavy as the hydrogen These comparative weights we call atomic weights.
(See table, p. 378.)
As the hydrogen atom is the lightest one known, its weight may be called one, and the weight of the other atoms expressed
in
terms of
it.
To
say that the atomic weight of chlorine
is
means that one atom of chlorine weighs 35.5 times as much as one atom of hydrogen. Atomic weight may be
35.5
defined as the weight of one atom of any element compared

the weight of one
to
atom
of
hydrogen}
The formula of water, H2O, made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. If we know the atomic weight of hydrogen to be one, and that of oxygen to be sixteen, we can
Molecular weight defined.
is
shows that water
1 Since in determining these comparative atomic weights chemists usually work with oxygen, oxygen (16) is often taken as the practical standard.
109
110

much
calculate that a molecule of water weighs 18 times as
as an
ber,
atom
of
hydrogen, the weight of which, you
will
rememthe
is
our standard.
This number, 18,
is
called the molecular
weight of water.
weight of one
Molecular weight
may
be defined as
molecyiile of
a compound as compared with the

It can always
weight of one atom of hydrogen.
be found by
adding together the weights of the atoms that compose a

molecule.
of carbon
22,
Sugar has the formula C12H22O11.
weigh 12
12
144, the 22
The 12 atoms atoms of hydrogen,
and the 11 atoms
of oxygen, 11
16
176,
making a
total of 342 for the molecular weight of cane sugar.
Naming compounds.
of inorganic chemical
difficult task,
To learn how to name the thousands

compounds would
at first
seem
like a
yet by the aid of a few simple rules the difficulty
vanishes.
First,
we must remember that

of the
in chemical for-
more metallic element is usually written first. When, then, we examine such a formula as KCl, we may not know what element the symbol K stands for, but we may be reasonably sure that it is the symbol of the more metallic element.
mulas the symbol
Naming binary compounds. The simplest compounds are of course those made up of only two elements, such as
copper chloride, CuClj, potassium chloride, KCl,
compounds
do
it is
as these are easily
named.
All that
first,
to
name
the more metallic element
etc. Such you have to and then follow
by the name
in -ide.
of the less metallic element, so modified as to
end
In the formula CuCl2 we know that the symbol
Cu means
copper,
and
since this
is
given
first it is
the metallic
part of the compound.
CI means chlorine, and this

-icZe.
change so as to end in
is
The name
Similarly,
of the
name we compound
is
therefore
copper chloride.
NaCl
sodium
chloride.

I
111
name of a compound ends in -ide tells you that it must be made up of two elements, and two elements only. Sodium oxide, for example, must be made up of sodium and oxygen; potassium iodide, of potassium and iodine. It often happens that elements combine in more than one proportion. Thus, hydrogen and oxygen combine to form the compounds H2O and H2O2. Both of these compounds
fact that the
The
may
is
be called oxide
prefix per-,
of
hydrogen.
To
distinguish between
state of oxidation,
them the
meaning the higher

prefixes, mono-,
used in naming the H2O2.
Sometimes the Greek
one
di-,
two
tri-,
three, etc., are used to distinguish
between different com-
pounds
of the
same elements,
as
CO, carbon monoxide, and
CO2, carbon dioxide.

inorganic
Naming chemical compounds. We can name most other compounds if we know the name of the acid from
which they are prepared. All acids contain hydrogen, and the symbol of the hydrogen is always given first in writing
their formulas.
Nitric acid
is
HNO3 and
by a metal.
sulphuric acid,
H2SO4.
a
In
many
chemical changes involving acids, the

is
hydrogen of the acid
replaced
is
In this
way
new compound
called a salt
formed.
When
acid
is
sodium and
nitric acid interact, the
hydrogen
of the
replaced
obtained.
by sodium, and a new compound, NaNOs, is Since this compound was made from nitric acid,
called sodium
nitrate, the
name should suggest both of name being obtained It is these. by naming the metal and following it by a modified name of the acid. The name of Na2S04, since it is prepared from
and
also contains sodium, its
sulphuric acid, would be sodium sulphate.
In the same
oxalic acid.
way phosphoric
acid produces phosphates,
and
112
oxalates.
The question then comes, why do we not call the compound made by replacing the hydrogen of hydrochloric
acid with sodium, sodium hydrochlorate, instead of sodium
chloride?
This seeming exception to the rule arises because

falls
under two rules. We may either call the compound sodium hydrochlorate, in accordance with the rule just given, or, since it is a compound composed of two elethe
name
ments, sodium chloride, in accordance with our
first rule.
The
commonly used. In the above cases of compounds derived from acids, you will notice that all the names of the acids end in -ic. Some acids have names ending in -ous, and compounds formed from them have names ending in -ite. Thus, when the hydrogen in nitrous, acid, HNO2, is replaced by sodium, we have the compound NaN02. This is called sodium nitrite.
simpler
is
name
Radicals explained.
replaced
arate,
When
the hydrogen of an acid
is
by
a metal, the other atoms do not as a rule sep-
but tend to stick together and act as a single atom.

if
Thus,
we take
the hydrogen
by means
of sodium,' the sulphur
away from sulphuric acid and oxygen of the acid do
not separate, but act as a single atom, forming the com-
pound Na2S04. Such groups
of
atoms we
call
radicals.
They
are not
capable of existing free and uncombined, but always exist in
combination with some other element.
A few of them are so

One
of
important that they have been given names.
them,
OH,
is
called hydroxyl.
It can combine with elements to
form compounds called hydroxides.
Thus
NaOH
is
named
-ide,
sodium hydroxide.
although
the
it
This compound has the ending

it,
has three elements in
instead of only two, as
name would indicate. One very important metallic
radical
is
called
ammoniiun.
113
NH4. Like other radicals, it cannot exist alone, but its compounds are common. In many ways it acts like the metal sodium, and so we call it a metallic radical. Chemists call the compound NH4OH ammonium hydroxide, but you know it under the name of ammonia water.
Important acid formulas.
In order to name chemical
compounds we must be able to recognize and name the symbols of the elements and to know the radicals of the common acids. The formulas of a few acids and salts are given below and should be memorized.
Acids
114
side.

You will
notice, though, that
we do not use an equality two members, but an arrow. This is because we wish to indicate in which direction the reaction occurs. Thus, the above equation does not mean that- water becomes hydrogen and oxygen, but that hydrogen and oxygen
sign between the
become water. In some cases the chemical change may take plade in either direction, in which case we use a double arrow, as in the following example. Calcium carbonate (marble), when heated,
will give off
carbon dioxide, forming calcium oxide (quickcarbon dioxide

it,
lime).
If the
is
not allowed to escape, the

into calcium
calcium oxide will absorb

carbonate.
and be converted
in the equation
The double arrow
shows that
the reaction goes on in both directions.
CaCOs
:*;:
CaO + CO2
You must not imagine that every chemical change that you can represent by an equation will take place. You must know that the chemical change involved is possible before you attempt to write the equation.
In writing equations
is,
it is
necessary to balance them, that
to see that there are the
same niunber
of
atoms
of each
element on each side of the equation.
Suppose you have
prepared hydrogen by the action of hydrochloric acid upon

zinc,
and wish
to write the equation representing the action

all
You start by putting down pounds used, and the compounds formed, thus
between them.
the com-
Zn
Evidently this
is
+ HCl - ZnCl2 +
H2
not complete, as we have two atoms of

left.
chlorine on the right-hand side, and but one on the
You
must use two molecules
of hydrochloric acid to obtain these

two atoms
of chlorine,
115
and
will
then have two atoms of hydrois
gen (one molecule)
left.
The complete equation
Zn
It will be
2 HCl -^ ZnCla
H2
good practice for you to balance the incomplete
equations given below
NaOH + H2SO1 -> NaaSOi + NaOH + H2SO4 -^ NaHSO* + CaCOa + HCl ^ CaCU + CO2 + AI2O3 + H2SO4 -* Al2(SO03 + CaO + HCl -^ CaCl2 +
Valence explained.
ginners in chemistry
element to include
One of the puzzling things to beto know how many atoms of each when writing the formula of a compound.
is is
For example, you have learned that copper oxide
a com-
pound
CU2O,
of
copper with oxygen.
This, of
itself, is
not enough
you to write the formula, as it might be CuO, Cu02, You must know how many atoms of oxygen and how many of copper are present. A knowledge of what chemists call valence will often enable you to write the correct
to enable
etc.
formula.
The formulas
;
of hydrochloric
acid,
HCl
water,
H2O
ammonia, H3N and marsh gas, H^C,^ have been determined by actual analysis in the laboratory. An examination of these formulas shows that chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon differ in their ability to combine with hydrogen atoms and form compounds with it. An atom of chlorine is able to hold, or combine with, only one atom of hydrogen. An atom of oxygen can hold two, an atom of nitrogen three,
1
The formula
it is
of
marsh gas
is
discussion
written
is
H<C
to
make
generally written CH4. In this it agree with HCl and H2O.

It is
The same
thing
true of
ammonia.
commonly written NHj.
WBED
CHEMIffTBY
116
7

of
an atom
carbon four, hydrogen atoms.
This power of the
atom of an element to combine more hydrogen atoms is called

Let us
standard,
call
with, or replace, one, two, or

its valence.
it
the valence of hydrogen one, taking
as the
it
Chlorine will also have a valence of one, as
can
combine with but one hydrogen atom.

valence of two, as
it will
Oxygen must have a
combine with two hydrogen atoms.
The
valence of nitrogen must be three, and the valence of
carbon, four, for similar reasons.
simple
way
of thinking of valence
is
to think of
wooden
blocks having one, two, or more hooks placed in them.
Imagine that you have two

kinds of wooden blocks,
one red and the other blue

(Fig. 41),
each block hav-
ing one hook.
Should you
attempt to hook red blocks
Fig. 41.
Diagram to
valence.
illustrate
and blue blocks together. it WOuld be easy to hook

Q^g
jg^j
block and one blue

stop.
block together.
There you would have to
You
it.
could not hook a second red block upon the blue one, for
there would be no
hook vacant on which to hang
If,
though, you had a third kind of block, a yellow one having
two hooks, you could hang a red block on to each hook

yellow block, thus forming a set of three blocks.
will call
If
of the
now you
the blue blocks chlorine atoms, the red ones hydrogen
atoms, and the yellow ones oxygen atoms, you will see
how the
molecules of hydrochloric acid and of water are put together;

It
seems to be true that every hook of an element must be
Carbon has four hooks. We cannot have such a compound as H3C, as that would leave a hook unused.
used.

You must be
imaginary.
117
sure to understand that these hooks are only
We
do not think
for
an instant that
real
atoms
have real hooks coming from them.

the question of valence
is
To the beginner, though,

Chemists
puzding, and to think of actual
blocks and hooks helps to
make
the matter clear.
speak not of hooks but of bonds. In the future, then, we must

not say that carbon has four hooks, but that carbon has
four bonds, or, that
its
valence
is
four.
We may
also say
is triva-
that
lent;
it is tetravalent.
An
element with three bonds
one with two bonds, bivalent; and with one bond,
univalent.
Variable valence.
The
subject of valence
is
not quite so
simple as you might think from the above.
Elements some-
Thus the valence of iron may be two or three, and we have in consequence two iron chloThe valences of elements are given rides, FeCla and FeCls.
times change their valence.
in the table
on page 378.
salts.
Having learned the formulas and the valence of some of the common metals, you can write the formulas of their compounds without trouble. Let us suppose you wish to write the formula of sodium sulphate. You know that it must contain sodium atoms, combined with the SO4 radical. The question now is, how much of each must be taken. The lormula of sulphuric acid is H2SO4. Since the SO4 radical is able to hold two atoms of hydrogen, its valence must be two. The valence of sodium being one, the SO4 radical must be able to 'combine with two atoms of sodium instead of two atoms of hydrogen. The formiJa, then, must be Na^SO*. How to find the valence of an element. You can of course work this same process backward in order to find out the valence of an element, provided you know the formula of
Writing formulas of
of
some
of the
common
acids,
118

of its
is
some one
phosphate
three,
compounds.
K3PO4.
The formula of potassium Knowing that the valence of PO4 is
and that three atoms of potassium will combine with it, you know that the total valence of the three atoms of potassium must be three, or that the valence of one atom must be one. Potassium must then have a valence of one
or
is
univalent.
of
aluminium oxide is AI2O3. Since the valence of oxygen is two, three atoms of it must have six The two atoms of aluminium must therefore have bonds. six bonds, or each atom must have three bonds, that is, the valence of aluminium is three.
Empirical and rational formulas.
ing carbon often have a large
The formula
Compounds number of atoms

is
containin them.
The formula
molecule,
is
of cane sugar (sucrose), for example,
C12H22O11.
in a
Such a formula
as this, giving only the
number
of
atoms
Such a formula does not give us all of the information that we need for if you again think of your wooden blocks with hooks, you will
called
;
an empirical formula.
see that
it
blocks together in
used.
It
is
woiJd be possible to link such a large number of many wstys, and still have all of the hooks
not until a chemist knows, not only the number of

in the molecule,
atoms
but how these atoms are arranged,
that he really
knows much about the compound.

will
When we
have found out the actual arrangement of the atoms, we can

then draw a diagram that
the arrangement of the atoms.
show not only the number, but Such a diagram (formula)

empirical formula of acetic
we
in
call
is
a graphic formula.
The
acid
it,
C2H4O2.
Since acetic acid has four hydrogen atoms

its
you would expect
radical to be C2O2, that this radical
would have a valence of
four,
and that the formula
of
sodium
H
acetate would be Na4C202.
is
119
Instead of
this,
the acid radical
C2H3O2,
its
valence one, and the formula of sodium acetate
NaC2H302.
explain
An
examination of the graphic formula
will
why
this is so.
HC
H
CO
Graphic PoRMtJLA op Acetic Acid.
You
will notice that three of
the four atoms of hydrogen are

is
united to a carbon atom, while the fourth
united to an
oxygen atom.
oxygen
is
The hydrogen atom

same thing true
contain
that
is
united to the
easily replaced, while the others are not. in the case of other organic
We
acid^.
find the
They
all
many hydrogen
atoms, some com-
bined with carbon, and some united to oxygen.

part of the group
are replaceable
We find that
only those united to the oxygen, or rather those that form
C-O-O-H
(called the carboxyl group)
by metals to form salts. An ordinary empirical formula would not show this, hence the importance of the graphic formula. To show this difference in the hydrogen atoms, the formula of acetic acid
is
better
written
HC2H3O2, instead
of C2H4O2.
How
graphic fonnulas are found.

is
Tp
determine these
It
graphic formulas
often be done
often a matter of great difficulty.
can
simpler ones,
these,
by breaking up a complex compound into studying the arrangement of the atoms in
and then studying the way in which these simple compounds unite to form the original substance. In many cases how the atoms are arranged is not known,
120 and

it is
in these cases
almost impossible to reproduce the
compound
tory and
built.
in the laboratory.
When
cases,
the graphic formula
is
known, the chemist,
in
many
can go into the laborait is
make the compound, because he knows how

of
The manufacture
the natural indigo.
it
synthetic indigo was
made
possible
only after chemists h^d determined the graphic formula of

After
it
it
could be
made
in the laboratory,
was years before
could be
made
is
cheaply.
To-day most
of the blue cloth of
commerce
made not by nature
in the indigo plant,
dyed with synthetic indigo,, but by man. It is
not an imitation, but real indigo.
similar thing
is
is
being done in the case of rubber, but

It
is
the work
not yet so far advanced.
possible
now
to
make rubber in the laboratory, but the artificial product It is probable, though, costs much more than the natural.
that in time chemists will be able to cheapen the process,
and that synthetic rubber

merce.
will
become an
article of
com-
These synthetic products must not be confused with imitations.
To
determine that the flavor of vanilla
is
due to a
to
sell
substance called vanillin, to

to
sell it
make
is
that synthetically, and

legitimate.
call it
for flavoring purposes,
But
vanillin, colored
with caramel, and
" genuine vanilla
extract "
is
a fraud.
Chemical problems.
ular weights
is
knowledge
of
atomic and molec-
indispensable to the manufacturing chemist.
simple problem taken from your laboratory work will
illustrate this.
You have prepared hydrogen by

on
zinc.
the action
of hydrochloric acid
Suppose you wish to know

to dissolve 40
how much
zinc.
acid will be required

first
grams
of
By
writing the equation and then calculating
Factors
122

Exercises
1.
2. 3. 4.
Find the molecular weight of NaOH, K2O, NaHCOs, HCl. Name NaOH, KOH, NaCl, CuO, HgO, CuS, PH3, NH3. Name CO, CO^, PÔa, F,0 FeCU, FeCU.
The
is
valence of iron, Fe,
is 3.
The valence of oxygen,

is
0,
is 2.
What
5.
the formula of iron oxide?

of
The formula
is
potassium chloride
KCl.
The formula
of
tartaric acid
HiCiHjOe.
What
is
the formula of potassium
tartrate ?
6.
acid
is
The formula of silver nitrate is AgNOs. The formula of nitric HNO3. What is the valence of silver?
Balance the following equations
:
7.
+ NaOH -^ NaCl + ? H2SO4 + NaÔ -> NaHSOi + ? HNO3 + K2CO3 -> KNO3 + CO2 +
HCl
8.
hydrogen can be obtained by decomgrams of oxygen ? 9. How many grams of chlorine and hydrogen will be required to combine and form 80 grams of hydrochloric acid ? 10. What is the percentage composition of water ? (This is the same thing as asking how many grams of oxygen and hydrogen will be required to form 100 grams of water.)
of
How many grams
posing 9 grams of water
How many
CHAPTER XI
CHLORINE
How
electrolysis is
vealed to us
many
of her secrets, of these

is
used by chemists. Nature has rebut there are many still to

the cause of the changes that
be discovered.
One
take place in the appearance and properties of elements when
they unite to form compounds.

is
notable example of this
the
compound that we
is
it,
all
know
so well,
common
salt.
If
table salt
melted in a suitable vessel, and an electric current

the salt
is
then passed through
decomposed into two
elements, sodium and chlorine.
Neither of the two elements, sodium and chlorine, obtained
from
salt
is
by
electrolysis, resembles salt in the slightest.

soft, light
Sois
dium
a silvery white,
metal, while chlorine
bad-smelling, poisonous gas.
You will remember

The
that water
can be decomposed in this same way.

is
electric current
of great use to chemists in pulling
many
other
compounds
to pieces.
Many
metals, as aluminium and calcium, are
obtained by passing an electric current through one of their

fused compounds.
The
salt.
preparation of chlorine.
There are
easier
ways
of
obtaining chlorine in the laboratory than
One
of the
common
acids that
its
hydrochloric acid, or, to use
by decomposing you have used is called old name, muriatic acid.

is,
This acid has the formula HCl, that

chlorine
it is
composed
of
and hydrogen.
You know
123
that oxygen has a great
124

If,
liking for hydrogen.
then,
we add
to hydrochloric acid
oxidiz-
some substance that

the chlorine free.
will easily give
up oxygen (an
ing agent), the oxygen will unite with the hydrogen, leaving
Any good
oxidizing agent can be used.
Potassium chlorate, hydrogen peroxide, or potassium per-
manganate
laboratory.
will serve
the purpose, as
you
will find in the

is
We
usually use manganese dioxide, which
Fig. 42.
Preparation
of chlorine.
inexpensive.
It
is
also insoluble,
and so the action
is
slow,
which
is
an advantage.
chlorine, place
To make
the flask.
If
manganese dioxide
in a flask,
and
add hydrochloric acid
(Fig. 42).
To
hasten the action heat
A greenish yellpw gas is given off, which is chlorine.

this gas
we bubble
through water, the water becomes

it.
col-
ored, showing that the gas dissolves in
Chlorine
is
there-
fore not collected like oxygen, for the chlorine in the water.
would dissolve
of air.
Chlorine
is
collected
by displacement
Simply place the end of the delivery tube from which chlorine
is
flowing, close to the
bottom
of a bottle,
and the chlorine
CHLORINE
will
fill
125
I
the bottle, driving out the lighter

tell
air.
The
color of
it.
the gas enables us to
when the
is
bottle
is filled
with
An
illustration of completing
a chemical equation.
The
formula of manganese dioxide

cule contains one
atoms
of
atom of oxygen. Only one

is,
That is, one molethe metal manganese and two
MnOa.
of th^
oxygen atoms
is
easily
given up, that

purposes.
as to
only one of
them can be used
for oxidizing
Let us write the formula, then, as MnO(O), so

difference
show the
between the oxygen atoms.
Now
we are ready to work out the equation that shows us just how much Mn02 and HCl we must use. The one atom of
oxidizing oxygen can combine with
two atoms
of
hydrogen,
and to furnish these two hydrogen atoms we must use -two

molecules of hydrochloric acid, or
Mnp(O) +
The two atoms
one molecule, so
2 CI.
it
HCl -> MnO
+ HjO +
2 CI
of chlorine will at once
combine to form
hydrochloric acid,
would
be better to write CI2 rather than

second equation
The MnO that is and as we have plenty

takes place
left is soluble in
of this present, a
MnO + 2
HCl
^ MnCk + H2O
These two changes take place simultaneously, so that we would ordinarily write only the complete equation obtained
by adding these two

2 HCl - MnO + CI2 + H2O MnO + 2 HCl -^ MnCl2 + H2O Mn02 + MnO + 4 HCl -^ MnO + MnCl2 + CI2 + 2 H2O As the MnO occurs on both sides of the equation, we may
MnO(O) +
cancel
it,
which leaves as the
final
equation
MnOj +
HCl -> MnCla
+ 2 H2O +
CI2
126
If

we had used potassium
KCIO3
chlorate, a similar
change would
have taken place
HCl -^ KCl
H2O
,+ 3 CI2
Preparation and use of bleaching powder.
One
other
method
of obtaining chlorine is
worth remembering.
You
have doubtless used at home bleaching powder, called also chloride of lime. This is a white powder, obtained by passing chlorine over lime, when the lime combines with large quantities of
the chlorine.
CaO +
If
is
CI2
-> CaOCla
an easy way
obtaining
an acid
is
added to the bleaching powder, the chlorine
again set
free,
chlorine gas in the
and this home.

2
is
of
CaOCla
HCl
^ CaCl2 + H2O +
Chlorine
is
CI2
Properties of chlorine.
a heavy gas of a
greenish yellow color, and of an exceedingly disagreeable

odor.
It affects the ipiucous
membranes, as the
lining of
the throat and nose, producing the sensations of a bad cold.

It
is
poisonous, and care should be taken not to inhale

suffer
it.
Should you
from
its effects
at
any time, inhaling the

It
is
vapor
of alcohol will bring
some relief.
soluble in water,
one volume of water dissolving two volumes of the gas, at

ordinary temperature.
Chlorine
easily
combines readily with metals.
This can be
shown by heating a copper wire and plunging it into a jar of the gas. Dense yellow fumes of copper chloride will appear, and the energy of the chemical change is so great
that the copper
is
heated to a glowing red heat.

its
Gold
is
sometimes obtained from
ores
by grinding the
this
ore to a very fine powder,
and then shaking
powder
CHLORINE
with chlorine water.
127
The
gold combines with the chlorine,
forming gold chloride, AuCls.

is
This dissolves in the water,

it.
drawn
off,
and the gold obtained from

is
When
hue.
a lighted candle
placed in a bottle of chlorine,

of a peculiar reddish
the flame becomes very
smoky and
If
The
chlorine disappears,
and a black deposit forms
you will recall that candle wax is a compound of hydrogen and carbon, you can explain what has happened. Hydrogen easily combines with chlorine, while carbon does not. Tests show that the gas left in the jar is an acid and that the black deposit will burn. The
on the
sides of the jar.
result of the chemical
change in the bottle
is
that hydrofree.
chloric acid is
compounds
of
formed and that carbon is set carbon and hydrogen behave

in chlorine.
Other
in the
same
often
way when burned
Chlorine can easily be condensed to a liquid, and
is
sold in this form, the liquid being contained in steel cylinders
that can withstand great pressure.
It
combines readily
with hydrogen, formihg hydrochloric acid.

of time, as the
For
this reason,
the water solution of chlorine cannot be kept for any length
hydrogen
of the
water combines with the
chlorine, forming hydrochloric acid
and liberating oxygen.
H2O
2 CI2
-s-
HCl
+ O2
Uses of chlorine. Chlorine has two great uses, both of which are interesting to us. It is used as a bleaching agent and as a disinfectant. Its bleaching power is shown only
when the
oxygen.
article to
be bleached
is
wet.
This
is
because the
chlorine combines with the hydrogen of the water, leaving
This oxygen
is
very energetic.
This
is
often true
of elements at the instant that they are set free, and, to ex-
press this condition,
we say that the element
is
in the nascent
128
state.

This energetic oxygen oxidizes the color that we
wish to destroy.
tains carbon,
Not
all colors will
be bleached, but only
those that can be easily oxidized.
Thus, printer's ink connot easily oxidized at low
and since carbon

is
is
temperatures printer's ink

illustrated in Figure 43.
not bleached by chlorine.

cotton
Bleached cotton has been through a process at the mills as
The unbleached
is
on a
roll
WW
(BB) which contain
Following each bleaching
Fig. 43.-
Process of bleaching cloth.
(A).
It passes through bleaching vats
a thin paste of bleaching powder.

sulphite (C) neutralizes
bath the cloth passes into a weak acid (SS).
Sodium
After dried and
{F).
is
any chlorine
in the cloth.
is
thorough washing in water (fVW), the cloth

ironed
{li)
and the bleached cloth

facts.
rolled
on a drum
The second
matter.
little of
use of chlorine, that of a disinfectant,

It
de-
pendent upon the same
oxidizes
is
the ofFensiVe
suitable.
For
this
use
bleaching
powder
the powder, scattered in a place where offensive odors
are being generated, slowly deconiposes and oxidizes the
objectionable matter, thus destroying the odor.
Use
of Javelle
water in the laundry.
Possibly you have
never had the experience of sending a shirt or a shirtwaist

to the laundry,,
and having
it
come back dazzlingly
white.
CHLORINE
only to find on wearing
destroyed.
129
it that the cloth has had its strength " This tendering " of the cloth is due to the
incorrect use of chlorine as a bleach.
If chloride of lime is
mixed with washing soda, a

dries,
clear solution of
sodium hypo-
chlorite (Javelle water) results.
This
is
often used
it
by laun-
and
in the
home, as a bleach, as
it is
gives off chlorine
readily.
Properly used,
it is
not objectionable.
of clothes,
quantity of
poured on a tubful
But if a some of the

of
clothes receive
more than
their share,
and the strength
the cloth
silk
is
consequently destroyed.
Some
materials, as
and wool, cannot be bleached with
chlorine, as the fiber
would be turned yellow and destroyed.

Ink eradicators.
One
of the
common
This
is
ink eradicators
is
made
weak
free,
of
sodium hypochlorite.
is
rubbed on the ink

off. is
spot that
to be removed, and the excess blotted

is
A
set
acid solution
then put on the ink.
Chlorine
and
this bleaches the ink.
Many
stains will yield to
the same treatment.
Care must be used not to have the
solution so strong that the fiber of the cloth will be weakened.
SUMMARY
Chlorine is prepared by the electrolysis of and by the oxidation of hydrochloric acid. Properties of chlorine Chlorine is a heavy gas, greenish yellow in color, soluble in water, and active chemically. Uses of chlorine: Chlorine is used for bleaching and disinfecting.
Preparation of chlorine
sodium
chloride,
JaveUe water (sodium hypochlorite)
is
a good bleaching agent.
Exercises
1. 2.
3. 4.
does not chlorine bleach printer's ink? Is Javelle water suitable to remove a stain from colored calico ? Will chlorine bleach all writing inlis ? Explain.
Is
Why
JaveUe water a suitable bleach
for a
woolen sweater ?
CHAPTER
ACroS, BASES,
XII
AND SALTS
Many
of
study of hydrochloric acid as a typical acid.
the substances used in the household have a decidedly sour

taste.
This taste
is
generally due to the presence of some

^
one of a class of bodies known as acids.

acetit; acid,
Vinegar contains
trouble to small
lemon
juice contains citric acid, while the small
green apples that occasionally cause
much
boys contain malic acid.

differ in
Acids
many
is
of their physical
acid,
properties.
for instance,
is
Hydrochloric
a gas
;
acetic acid
is
a liquid; and oxalic acid
solid.
They
all,
however, have
properties
in
certain
chemical
common.
typical
We
shall
now study
acid,
if
hydrochloric acid,
tins study
and
find
see
we can from
what are the chemical
char-
acteristics of acids.
Preparation.
Fig. 44.
mixture
of
Preparation of hy-
equal volumes of hydrogen and

chlorine,
drochloric acid.
when exposed
to
sun-
light,
combines with explosive violence, forming a
colorless
gas which
we name hydrochloric
acid. of
This
acid.
is
an expensive and undesirable way

better laboratory method
130
is
forming the
Â much
to place in a
'
ACIDS, BASES,
flask,
AND SALTS
warm
ofl'
131
salt
provided with a delivery tube, a quantity of
(Fig. 44).
Then add some

and
sulphuric acid and

is
gently.
in large
A
of
colorless gas, called hydrochloric acid,
given
quantities,
air.
may
be collected in bottles by displacement
It
its
cannot be collected by displacement of water

very great solubility in water.^
owing to
NaCl
H2SO4 -^ NaHSO*
+ HCl f
This
is
The
ratory
hydrochloric acid that

is
we
ordinarily use in the labo-
a solution of this gas in water.
a colorless
liquid having a specific gravity of 1.13,
33
% of real hydrochloric acid.

Properties.
It
and contains about often goes under the name

is
of muriatic acid.
Hydrochloric acid
corrosive in its action,
dissolving the oxides of
most
of the metals, with the forma-
tion of chlorides, as the following equation shows
ZnO +
It
is
HCl -H^ ZnCla + H2O

however, that
resist
too powerful an acid to be suitable for most household
uses.
Old iron
stains,
almost every
cloth
other form of treatment,
may be removed from

well.
by soak-
ing the stain in a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, and
then washing the fabric

Hydrochloric acid, in
common
with
all
other acids, causes

it
most dyes to change

your
dress, a red spot
color.
Should you get any of
upon
color
rins-
may
usually can be restored

ing with clean water.
be the result. The original by adding ammonia, and then
Typical properties of acids.
We
have used hydrochloric
acid in the laboratory to prepare hydrogen

'
by
its
action on
e.c.
At the room temperature
1 c.c. of
gas weighing 0.8 gram. of concentrated hydrochloric acid solution.

of hydrochloric acid
WKI-Tn nTTUIMISTRV
water will dissolve 450 This gives 1.5
c.c.
132
zinc.
also used sulphuric acid and magnesium, and found that they set hydrogen free. Since similar results are obtained from using some other acids and some
We
have
other metals,
we may conclude
that the action of acids on

free.
metals
is,
in general, to set
hydrogen
HCl + Zn
H2SO4
ZnCIa + H2 + Mg -* MgSOi + H2
all
Another property common to

certain colors.
acids
is
their action
on
From one
If
of the lichens
is
a blue dye called"

this blue litmus,
litmiis is obtained.
an acid
If,
added to
the blue changes to red.
then,
we wish
to
know whether
litmus
acid
is
any
to
liquid contains
If
an
acid,
it.
the litmus changes to red,
we may add a little blue we know that an
present.
Since litmus indicates the presence of an acid,

call it
chemists
an
indicator.
Let us sum up the properties of

having a sour
taste.
acids.
They
are bodies
They
all
contain hydrogen, and this
hydrogen
is
usually united to nonmetallic elements.

it free.
Metals
turn blue
can replace this hydrogen, setting

litmus red.
They
all
They
are generally soluble in water.
Typical properties of bases.
Another
class of bodies
has
this
properties which are opposite to those of acids.

class bases.
We call
.
They have a
bitter or alkaline taste,
they turn
red litmus blue, and feel soapy to the touch.
Chemically
they are hydroxides of metals.

bases
is is
One
of the
most important
-sodium hydroxide.
said to
solution that turns red litmus
blue
bases, like
have an alkaline reaction. Strong soluble sodium hydroxide, are often called alkalies.
Sodium hydroxide.
Soda
power
lye,
or
sodium
hydroxide,
NaOH,
keepers.
is
one of the sodium compounds familiar to houseIt has the of
combining with almost
all
ACIDS, fiASES,
AND SALTS
is
133
forms of grease to form soap, and so

the washing soda so
of use in cleaning out

its
greasy sinks and pipes, being more powerful in
action than
It
commonly
It
is
used for this purpose.

its
must, however, be handled with some care, as

the skin
It
is
action on
corrosive.
a white, deliquescent substance.
may
be prepared by the action of sodiima on water.

2
Na +
H2O
NaOH + H2
Sodium hydroxide is prepared on a commercial scale from quicklime which is mixed with water until a milklike fluid
is
obtained.
To
this a solution of
washing soda
is
added.
is
The two
The
chemicals react, and the calcium carbonate that
formed, being insoluble, settles to the bottom of the tank.

soditun hydroxide solution
is
then drawn
off
and evapo-
rated, leaving a white, deliquescent solid.
CaO + H2O
Ca(0H)2
^ Ca(0H)2
+ 2 NaOH
NaaCOa -^ CaCOs
Much sodium
of
is manufactured by the electrolysis and at the same time chlorine is produced. Large quantities of sodium hydroxide are used in the prepa-
hydroxide
common
salt
ration of soap.
Neutralization and the formation of salts.
When
an acid
and a base are mixed in solution, chemical action takes place. The hydrogen of the acid combines with the OH (hydroxyl) The metal of the base pf the base, and water is formed. form a body known combine and radical then and the acid mixed hydroxide, with hydroThus, sodium as a salt. chloric acid, forms water and sodium chloride.
NaOH + HCl -> H2O + NaCl

You must
sodium
carefully distinguish
between
sali,
which
is
chloride,
and a
salt,
which
is
one of a class of bodies.
134

an acid and a base combine, the characteristic
When
properties of both are destroyed.
The new substances

is
are
usually neutral to the litmus test, and their taste

acid nor alkaline.
ization.
neither
This chemical change
is
called neutral-
Not only
soda,
is
the hydroxides, but also the carbonates of metals

If
will neutralize acids.
sodium carbonate,
If
called washing
mixed with an
is
acid,
left.
carbon dioxide and water are

hydrochloric acid
is
formed, and a salt
used,
sodium chloride will be formed.
Na^COa
+ 2 HCl
^
To
NaCl
+ H2O +
but
it
CO2
Exact neutralization.
neutralize an acid exactly by

care,
means
of a base requires
some
can readily be
done with the aid of litmus. If to hydrochloric acid in a flask a few drops of litmus solution are added, the liquid
becomes red
ide
is
in color.
If
now
a solution of sodium hydrox-
added, shaking well after each addition so as to mix the
liquids thoroughly, the acid
and base
will
combine, forming
water and sodium
chloride.
When
just
enough sodium
acid,
hydroxide has been added to exactly neutralize the

acid nor base
the litmus will change to a violet color, showing that neither

is
present in the solution.

until the solution
is
If
the water
is
now evaporated
is
saturated and the dish

will crystallize.
is
then set aside, the sodiiun chloride
That sodium
crystals of
salt
chloride
is
really obtained
is
shown,
first,
by
of
the shape of the crystals, which
cubical, the
same as that
store.
salt.
purchased in the grocery
Second,
they have the well-known salty taste of
common
Composition of baking powders.
The baking powders

is
so
commonly used will The common cream
also serve to illustrate neutralization. of tartar
baking powder
composed
of
ACIDS, BASES,
AND SALTS
135
potassium hydrogen tartrate (cream of tartar), which has

certain acid characteristics,
and sodium bicarbonate.

salt,
When
is
these two are mixed, the acid part of the cream of tartar
neutralized and a
new
is
substance, a
is
tartrate (Rochelle salts),

gas,
formed.
off,
sodium potassium At the same time, a

this gas that
carbon dioxide,
given
and
it is
makes
the cake light.
KHC4H4O6 + NaHCOa -^ KNaCiHÔe + H2O + COaf

Chemically, there
is
no reason
why any
acid should not be
substituted for the cream of tartar.
baking powder made of hydrochloric acid and sodium

it
bicarbonate would be satisfactory, except that

difficult for
would be
the cook to mix the two in such proportions that
she could be sure that neither would be present in excess.
Hydrochloric acid and washing soda, in the same way, could
be used, but would be open to the same objection.
Soda biscuits.
Those
of
you who have eaten old-fashioned

that sometimes the biscuits
soda biscuits, leavened by the use of sour milk and sodium

bicarbonate (saleratus),
are sour.
know
You
can now readily see why.
The
sourness of
milk
is
a variable quantity,
and no
receipt can give the
amount of bicarbonate necessary to neutralize these varying amoimts of acid. Sometimes the biscuits show yellow This is due to an streaks and have a somewhat soapy taste. excess of saleratus, caused by a deficient acidity in the milk. Replacement of one element by another. In the same
way
that a metal will replace the hydrogen of an acid,
other metals
may
be used to replace the
first.
Thus a piece
of zinc placed in a solution of lead nitrate will replace the

lead,
forming lead and zinc nitrate.
Similarly copper will
replace the silver in silver nitrate.
The more
metallic ele-
136

will replace the less metallic.
ment
the
Arranging a few of
common metals in. the order of their metallic properties will tell us how they will replace one another. Magnesium,
and gold form such a series. Each metal will replace all that come after it. Those that follow are less metallic than those which precede.
aluminium, zinc, lead, copper,
silver,
SUMMARY
Hydrochloric acid
chloride.
on sodium commercial use. An acid is a substance containing hydrogen. As a rule the hydrogen is easily replaced by a metal. Acids are sour, and turn blue
of sulphuric acid
is
is made by the action The water solution of it
in
litmus red.
A base
is
the hydroxide of a metal.
Bases are caustic, and turn red

'
litmus blue.
salt is
the product of the action of an acid on a base.
A salt may
be regarded as an acid in which the hydrogen has been replaced by a metal, or, as a base in which the hydroxyl has been replaced by an acid radical.
is the combining of an acid and a base, -forming water and a salt. Sodium hydroxide is made by the reaction of sodium carbonate and calcium hydroxide. It is also made by the electrolysis of com-
Neutralization
mon salt.
Exercises
1.
2. 3.
Nams two bases used in the home. Name three acids used in the home.
4.
5.
Why will a washing compound often chtange the color of cloth ? Why is ammonia added to the water used in washing windows ? Why is it necessary to keep baking powder in air-tight cans?
Given a
colorless liquid,
6.
how
could you
tell
whether
it
con-
tained an acid or a base?
CHAPTER
SODIUM AND
Properties of
XIII
ITS
COMPOUNDS
sodium.
composing fused common table

ish
green gas called
remember that, by deby electrolysis, a yellowchlorine and the metal sodium are
will salt
You
obtained.
You
doubtless think of
a metal as being a heavy, hard
substance.
This metal sodium, however, has a character
entirely different
from that
it
of
an ordinary metal.
its specific
It
is
not
hard, but so soft that
can be molded in
tl\e fingers like

is
putty
that
nor
is it
heavy, in fact
gravity
so small
it will
float
upon water.
Then,
too,
we
ordinarily think
easily
of metals as being exceedingly
permanent bodies, not
corroded or destroyed.
possible to keep
air
This metal sodium, however, coris
rodes, or rather, oxidizes, so rapidly in the air that it

it
only
in the metallic state

it.
by preventing the
from coming
in contact witji
Evidently, then, a chemist has an entirely different idea

of a
is
metal from that ordinarily held.

it
To
a chemist, sodium
a typical metal, because
combines so energetically with

its
oxygen, reacts so strongly with acids, and because

ide
is
hydroxa
so strongly alkaline.
will
We
soft
sum
up, then, the properties of sodium.

color,
It
is
metal of a silvery
very
light,
having a
specific
gravity of .935, a melting point of 207.7 F., an atomic
weight of 23,
is
easily oxidized,
and conducts heat and
elec-
137
138
tricity

very
well.
It
is
kept under kerosene or some other
liquid that contains
no oxygen.
If
Action of sodium on water.
water
invert
is
very interesting.
in
The action of sodium upon we fill a test tube with water,

of water,
it
an evaporating dish
and then quickly
thrust a piece of sodium the size of a
small pea under the

tube,
mouth
of the test
we
see that
the sodium melts

actively, while the
(Fig.
and spins around

45).
If,
water in the test tube disappears

the
it
now, we place a finger over

of the test tube,
mouth
and bring
is
to a light,
we
find that the tube
filled
with an inflammable gas which
we
i.
recognize as our old acquaintance,

If
hydrogen.
^-Action of dium upon water.
45.
so-
we wet our
feel
fingers in
the water in the evaporating dish and
rub them together, they

slippery.
soapy or
On
evaporating a
little
of this water, a white
solid is obtained,
very different from the sodium with which
we
started.
free has
Evidently the sodium in setting the hydrogen combined with part of the water.
2
Na +
H2O -> 2 NaOH
H2
of
Sodium
chloride or table salt.
Compounds
sodium are
soils
found widely distributed in nature,

containing them.
pure,
many
rocks and
occiu'
Several natural
compounds
almost
and are
of considerable
is
economic importance.
The
table
most useful
salt.
of these
sodium chloride, or
common
This occurs in very
many
localities in
it is
the world in
large quantities.
In the United States,
found in enorYork.
mous
quantities in Michigan, Utah,
and
New
SODIUM AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
139
140
Salt
is

commonly
extracted from the ground
by
sinking
two
wells a short distance apart.
Down
one of these wells

This
water
the
brine
well,
is
pumped.
then
This water dissolves

the second
salt,
is
forming a strong brine.
pumped up
The
is
and some
of the water evaposalt crystallizes,

off,
rated (Fig. 46).
the mother liquor
drained
and the
Thus our common salt is obtained. The size of the salt crystals is determined by the decrystals of salt dried.
gree of concentration of the brine and

Fig.
the rapidity of the crystallization. The 47.- Hopper shaped mo^g slowly the crystals are formed, the
crystals of salt.
,
larger they are.
,,
t^
It will be interest-
mi
_l
ing for
is,
you to determine what the crystalline form of salt by examining a little under a common magnifying glass
salt
(Fig. 47).
Rock salt is
as
is
that
is
actually
coal or iron ore.
Its usual reddish
the presence, as an impurity, of
mined from the ground, just brown color is due to a small amount of iron oxide.
Rock
salt
sometimes occurs in perfectly transparent masses
which are used by scientists to make lenses and prisms. Rock salt has been formed by the slow evaporation of large bodies of salt water and the subsequent covering up
of the deposit.
This same process
country in the Great Salt Lake.

saturated solution of
up,
salt.
is now going on in The water of this lake
our
is
The lake itself is gradually drying
being deposited upon its shores as a glistensome inches in thickness. If this process continues, we shall have a bed of rock salt similar to those that exist in Siberia and Austria.
and the
salt is
ing white layer
SODIUM AND
The ocean
is
ITS
COMPOUNDS
141
It
is
our great reservoir of sodium chloride.
calculated that 36,000,000,000,000,000 tons of salt exist in
the ocean, and
much
salt is
obtained from
is
it.
At Turks'
Island, for example, the ocean water
run into shallow pans,
and the water evaporated by the heat

Prepared table
housewife
is
of the sun.
The resultof the
ing large, coarse crystals are largely used in freezing ice cream.
salt.
One
It
of the
minor bothers
the tendency of salt to absorb water, and to

is
stick in the salt cellars.
commonly
said that salt

air.
is is
hygroscopic, that
is,
gathers water from the
This
not true.
It
is
the presence of magnesium chloride, MgClj,
a deliquescent substance, and one of the

of salt,
common
impurities
It can,
salt,
that causes this moistening of the
salt.
therefore, be
overcome by carefully purifying the
but,
as this
to.
is
expensive, another
method
is
commonly
resorted
A
is
small quantity of starch,
or, better,
precipitated
care-
chalk,
mixed with the
salt
which has previously been

little
fully dried.
This starch coats over the
particles of
the
salt,
and prevents
their sticking together.
Uses
of salt.
The
use of salt as a seasoning in food, and as

is
a preservative for meats,
so well
known
that no details need
be given.
It has another use in our diet.
The
gastric juice
contains a small
rine for this
amount
of hydrochloric acid,
salt
comes from the
quantities of salt are also used in
and the chlothat we consume. Large the preparation of sodium
carbonate, or washing soda.
Preparation of washing soda.

or washing soda,
is
Sodium carbonate, Na^COs,
prepared by the action of

as the Solvay process.
ammohium
hydroxide and carbon dioxide upon a solution of sodium

chloride.
This
is
known
NHs + NaCl + CO2
-I-
H2O -> NaHCOs + NH4CI
142

bicarbonate, being insoluble in
The sodium
operation
out,
is
the liquid,
is
deposited as a crust on the large cylindrical tanks in which the

carried out.
The sodium bicarbonate

This drives
off
is filtered
and then heated.

is
the carbon dioxide
which
used in the preparation of more of the bicarbonate.
NaHCOs +
mass
is
heat -> Na^COs
+ H2O +
and
CO2 \
The
resulting
is
dissolved in water
recrystallized.
it
Sodium carbonate
water
is
noteworthy because, when
crystallizes,
of
each molecule combines chemically with ten molecules

;
that
is,
the formula of crystallized sodium carbonate
not Na^COs, but NaaCOa 10 H2O. The clean, glassy crystals of washing soda, then, that you buy from the grocer, are more than half water by weight,
or, to
be exact, 286 pounds of this crystallized washing soda
contains 180 pounds of water.

crystals lose
On
standing, these glassy
most
of their
water of crystallization, and are
converted into a dull white powder.
When, then, you buy washing soda, do not too carefully insist upon receiving the glassy 'crystals, but rather choose the white powder that forms in the bottom of the barrel, as you will thus receive twice as much for your money, a thing much to be desired in this day of high prices. The great use for this washing soda in the household is in softening hard water and as a cleaning agent. Practically all washing compounds contain it and you are doubtless
familiar with its use in cleaning greasy frying pans.
Sodium bicarbonate, or baking soda.

bicarbonate
sold
is
Not all of the sodium
converted into washing soda;

of
much
of
it is
and consumed under the name
baking soda.
This
substance goes under
many
other names, a few of which are
saleratus, cooking soda,
sodium hydrogen carbonate, and
SODIUM AND
sodium acid carbonate. and is used extensively
ders.
ITS
COMPOUNDS
is
143
alkali,
The white powder

in the
a mild
manufacture
of
baking pow-
It
is
one of the
common
household remedies for sour
stomach.
Borax.
Borax, Na2B4O7-10 H2O, sodium tetraborate,
is
white crystalline substance that contains ten molecules of
water of crystallization.
It
is
It
is
used in soaps as a mild
alkali.
some washing compounds. Water glass, or sodium silicate. Sodium silicate, or water glass, Na^SiOa, is another sodium compound that is used in the home. It is a clear, hard solid, that dissolves slowly, in water, making a thick sirup, the form in which it is usually This forms an excellent cement, as, when it has once sold. solidified, it is very strong and difficult to dissolve.
also used in
A
eggs.
thin solution of water glass

It
fills
is
often used to preserve
up the tiny pores
in the shell of the egg,
and
thus prevents the water in the egg from evaporating and

also prevents
any germs that may be
in the air
is
from gaining
filler
access to the contents of the shell.

in
It
also used as a
laundry soap.
Other sodium compounds.

sodium
are
of
Several other
industrial
is
importance.
compounds of Sodium nitrate,
NaNOa,
and
is is
or Chili saltpeter,
a white crystal found in Chili,
used in large quantities as a
thiosulphate, Na2S203, the familiar
a solvent for silver
fertilizer. Sodium hypo of the photographer, bromide, and is used in fixing photo-
graphic plates and papers.
General properties of the sodium

are practically
all
soluble in water,
salts. The sodium salts and form white crystalline
substances.
They
are usually stable.
Owing
to their wide
distribution, their cheapness,
and
their solubility, they are

in the industries.
widely used both in the
home and
144

its
Potassium and
very
compounds.
The metal potassium
is
Whatever sodium will do chemically potassium will also do, but do it more energetically. Thus, sodium decomposes water. So does potassium, but more violently. Sodium oxidizes in the air. So does potassium, but more easily. Many potassium salts are of importance.
much hke sodium.
We
cannot, however, spare the time to study them.

if
It will
you remember that, generally speaking, potassium forms the same classes of salts as sodium, and that they have much the same properties. The main difference between sodium and potassium salts is that the potassium .compounds are usually more soluble.
be enough
SUMMARY
Sodium is prepared by the electrolysis Washing soda is sodium carbonate.
of fused
sodium hydroxide.
Baking soda is sodium hydrogen carbonate. Table salt is sodium chloride. Potassium is much like sodium, and forms similar
Exercises
salts.
1.
2. 3.
4.
5.
6.
light and soft, why do we call it a metal? names can you give to NaHCOa? Of what is baking powder composed ? Name three sodium compounds that you use in large amounts Name one potassium compound that is used in the home. Could you obtain salt from sea water at home?
If
sodium
is
How many
CHAPTER XIV
AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS
Preparation
of
ammonia.
This
Whenever organic material

is
containing nitrogen compounds decays, a gas called am-
monia, NH3,
is
set free.
not a suitable method to use
for obtaining it in the labora-
tory.
better
method
is
to
place in a test tube a

t)f
mixture
ammonium chloride and some

sodium hydroxide
is
base, as
(Fig.
48)
On
warming, the gas amgiven

off
monia
in
large
quantities,
and can be
of
collected
by displacement
base can be used.
air.
Any
ammonium compound and any

NH4CI +
'
+ H2O
NaOH -> NH3 + NaCl

The
:Fig. 48. -Preparation of
Properties of ammonia.
gas thus obtained
is
colorless,
ammonia.
and has a very pungent^ characteristic odor. Since ammonia contains hydrogen, you might expect it to burn. If we try the experiment of directing a stream of the gas coming
will notice that
from the delivery tube against a Bunsen burner flame, you the ammonia gas burns as long as it is in the
145
146
Bunsen burner flame, but that when removed, it goes out. That is, ammonia will burn only so long as we supply it with heat. It will not burn under ordinary conditions. It is very soluble in water. At 50 F., one quart of water
will dissolve
670 quarts of ^ the gas.
This solution
is
is
not
merely physical, but a new cordpound

hydroxide.
formed,
ammonium
NH3 + H2O -> NH4OH

The
of
colorless solution
It
has a sharp, burning taste, and smells
ammonia.
has
many names
ammonium
hydroxide,
ammonia
It is
water, aqua ammonia, and spirits of hartshorn.

easily breaking
it
an unstable compound, heat
up
into
ammonia and water. This suggests a quick method of obtaining ammonia in the laboratbry, when we wish a little
of the gas.
NH4OH +
poses
is
heat
-> NH3 1
+ H2O
for cleaning pur-
The " household ammonia

a weak, impure,
" that
you buy
ammonium
your money
hydroxide, obtained as a
waste product in certain manufacturing operations.

will get
You
you
of
you the concentrated aqua ammonia, and

for
if
it.
much more
will
buy a bottle
it
dilute
as
need
Commercial
production
of
ammonia.
Commercially,
ammonia
coal.
is
made by the
is
destructive distillation of soft
Since soft coal

in
a product of the partial decay of
wood
the earth,
it
contains hydrogen and nitrogen.

air,
When
gas,
is
it is
heated out of contact with the
illuminating
The ammonia coal tar, and ammonia are formed. absorbed in water, and from this " gas liquor " the amof trade is obtained.
it
monia
Ammonia
gas
in
is
cooled and
it is
compressed until
changes to a liquid,
which form
AMMONIA AND AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

sold in iron cylinders.
of artificial ice (p. 93).
147
It
is
used largely in the manufacture
If you compare the formulas radical ammonium. sodium and ammonium hydroxides, NaOH and NH4OH, you will notice that the group of atoms NH4 takes the place
The
of
of the
sodium atom.
it
This
NH4
group we
call
a radical, be-
cause in reactions
tends to stick together and act like
one atom.
metallic
its
Since
it
takes the place of a metal,

it
we
call it
radical.
Since
forms the compound
NH4OH,
is
valence must be one.
Notice that the ending -ium
given to metals only, as sodium, potassium, and aluminium.

Since
NH4 plays the part of a metal, it is called ammonium. Be careful not to confuse the gas ammonia with the radical ammonium. Radicals never occur free, but exist only in
compounds.
Ammonium salts. Ammonium forms many salts, as ammonium sulphate, ammonium chloride, and ammonium nitrate. Two ammonium salts are much used in the home. Ammonium chloride, formed by neutralizing ammonium
hydroxide with hydrochloric acid,
body, often called
sal
is
a white,
crystalline
ammoniac.
NH4OH + HCl -J- NH4CI + H2O

It
is
the material used in the
common wet
bell
battery used to
ring bells.
The next time your door

fill
does not ring, go
to the cellar
and examine the battery.

it
has evaporated, in which case

it
up,
Perhaps the water and in a few hours
will
be in order again.
If this is
not the cause of the trou-
ble, disconnect the battery, and wash out the old solution. Buy five cents' worth of sal ammoniac, dissolve it in a little water, and place the solution in the jar. Fill it up with water, again connect the wirqp, and probably the bell will
WEED CHEMISTRY -
148

Ammonium
cell,
ring again as before.
chloride
is
is
one of the
also used in
substances used in the dry

ing the wet battery.
soldering.
which
now
largely replacis
Ammonium
chloride
-Ammonium
ride.
carbonate,
or sal volatile,
is
prepared by
heating a mixture of calcium carbonate and

It
is
ammonium chlomakes it
addition
a white, fibrous mass, that slowly decompose? in

It
is
the
air,
giving off ammonia.
this property that
useful to you.
A lump placed
in a bottle,
with
tlê
of a little lavender water,
forms the smelling
salts
that are
so refreshing.
Ammonium
salts
resemble those of sodium.
easily identified because they all give off
treated with a base, and they
all
They are ammonia when sublime when heated.
SUMMARY
Preparation of ammonia.
Ammonia
is
prepared by the action of a
base on an
Properties of
ammonium salt, or by heating ammonimn hydroxide. ammonia. Ammonia is a colorless gas, very soluble
when
supplied with addi-
in water forming a base, burns only tional heat,
and has a
characteristic odor.
Ammonium is a metallic radical and forms salts like those of sodium. Ammonium chloride is used in bell batteries and in soldering. Ammonium carbonate is used in smelling salts.
Exercises
1.
Is
it
economical to buy " household ammonia "?
2. 3. 4.
Can you prepare smelling salts at home? Name NHiNOa, (NH)2 SO4. Some soaps are said to contain ammonia.
of
.
Imow
5. 6.
From what you ammonia, do you think they can contain enough to be of
Explain.
any use ?
Why How
do decaying leaves smell of ammonia ? can you tell which of two samples of ammonia water
.
is
the stronger?
CHAPTER XV
METALS
Metals and nonmetals distinguished.
to define the
When we
attempt
word metal, we encomiter

say that a metal
is
certain difficulties.
You would perhaps

having a metallic
a hard, heavy body,

is
luster.
But sodium, which chemically

soft, lighter
an exceedingly good metal, is as usually seen, has no luster.

one of the sulphides of
than water, and,
Iron pyrites, or fool's gold,
iron, is hard,
heavy, and has a strongly
marked metallic luster, but it is not a metal. You might add to your list of metallic properties,. that metals conduct heat and electricity well. This is true, but some nonmetals conduct heat and electricity as well as some metals. These
physical properties are not a satisfactory basis for an exact
definition of the
word metal.
When oxygen was studied, you learned that sodium oxide, when dissolved in water, formed sodium hydroxide, and gave a solution that turned red litmus paper blue. Sodium hydroxide is a base. Magnesiumy potassium, calcium, and other metals act in the same way, that is, their hydroxides are bases. We also know that all of these metals form salts. We may, then, from a chemical standpoint, easily give a satisfactory A metal is a substance whose hydroxide is a definition. base, and which forms the positive part of a salt. We may
Chemically, metals are easier to define.
add to
this certain physical properties.
Metals are soUds,
149
150

They can
all
with the exception of mercury.

in
be obtained
well,
a crystalline form,
conduct heat and electricity
and are generally malleable.

It
is
not always possible to draw a sharp line between
metals and nonmetals. metals and nonmetals.
Some
If
is
elements, as arsenic, have
properties intermediate in their nature between those of

^
we
are thinking of arsenic as
compared to
sodium,
it is
chlorine, it
a metal.
But, compared to
a nonmetal.
Thus we
of
have, arsenic chloride,
AsCla, but sodium arsenate, Na3As04.
The general methods
obtaming metals.
With the
metals
exception of a few metals, as copper, gold, and
silver,
do not occur in nature in the metallic form.

oxides,
of
The most
is
important of their naturally occurring compounds are the

carbonates,
and
silicates.
Metallurgy
the art
ores.
its
extracting the metal from these
compounds or
electrolysis.
There are two main methods: reducing the metal from
compounds by the use

years,
of carbon,
and by
As
the electric current has been available only within recent
you may be sure that any metal known to the

is
ancients,
as iron,
either
found
free in nature, or is obtained
by
re-
duction with carbon; while such metals as aluminium and
sodium, that have only recently come into use, cannot be

obtained by reduction with carbon, but are obtained by
electrolysis or
by some
difficult
chemical process.
The metallurgy of iron illustrates the method of obtaining metals by reduction with carbon. Iron compounds occur everywhere in soil. The red color
Metallurgy of iron.
of ordinary brick of iron oxide,
is due to the presence of small amounts and common red roofing paint is largely natural In the Lake Superior region of the United States,
~
iron oxide.
large deposits of iron oxide occur as the mineral hematite,
METALS
Fe203.
151
This ore
it is
is
mined and
carried to a blast furnace,
where
iron.
heated with carbon, and so reduced to metaUic
coke, produced
If
The carbon necessary is usually used in the form of by heating soft coal without access of air.
all
the iron ore contains nothing but iron oxide, and the coke
that
is
nothing but carbon,

together.
oxide,
necessary
is
to heat the
two
The coke combines with the oxygen

is
of the iron
and pure iron
obtained.
2Fe203
+3C^4Fe + 3 CO2
However, both ore and coke contain certain impurities, and so it is necessary to add something that will combine with these impurities and produce a fusible mass called a slag. This
Ore
FesOs
152
The blast furnace. To obtain iron from the ore, we must have a blast furnace in which to heat it. This consists of
a huge brickwork,
feet feet
one himdred or more

in height,
and twenty
its
it is
through at
widest part.
In shape,
like
something
Donnconer
Coke.
two cones put together base to base. Near the bottom there are two small
openings at different
levels,
through which the iron and
# Iron Ore.
o
i
I
Limestone.
Drops of
/Jetted /ron.
be drawn off. While the furnace is in

the slag
operation, these are kept
closed
may
Dro/a of HeltedShg.
on Conve/or.
by plugs
are
of fire clay.
4. flaterial
There
also
openings
B. Upper
ffopper.
through which
of the furnace
air is
blown
C.Upperde//.
into the furnace.

is
The top
closed in
D. Lower ttopper
.LouerdelL
such a
way
that materials
may be
what
fU/fecfMf
Conduit.
introduced through
really a trapdoor.
arid flux are
is
The ore, fuel,

put
in at the top,
and
sink
slowly through the furnace.
Fig. 50.
A blast furnace.
this acts
iron.
At the bottom, hot air is blown in. As the coke burns, it forms carbon mon-
oxide,
and
forming metallic
flux
upon the iron oxide, reducing it, and At the same time the imptu*ities and
fusible glass or slag.
combine to form the
The molten
METALS
iron
153
and the
slag
drop to the bottom of the furnace, where

iron.
they separate, the slag floating on the top of the

closing the openings are
iron flow out.
When
fire
a sufficient quantity has accumulated, the plugs of
clay
knocked
is
out,
and then the
slag
and
The
iron
made
Here
to flow into shallow troughs,

it
made
is
in a bed of sand.
solidifies in
the form of
bars called " pigs," hence the
name, pig
iron.
The
slag
rail-
sometimes used in making cement, or as ballast for a
road track.
The
silicon,
pig iron or cast iron produced in this
way
is
very
impure, containing
perhaps 3
%
it.
of
carbon and 3
cast iron
it
is
of
as well as small
amounts
of
of sulphur, phosphorus,
of
and manganese.
It gets its
is
name
from an
extensive use that
made
Since
both cheap
and
fusible,
it
is
used extensively in the form of cast-
ings for iron fences, radiators, posts,
appliances in everyday use.
It
be used where a bending strain

resisted.
and numerous other and so cannot or a sudden blow has to be

is
brittle,
It
is,
however, strong in resisting compression.
It
is
made
in very large
amounts, as
will
be seen from the
table below.
Production of Pig Iron op World for 1912 Long Tons Long Tons
United States
. . .
29,726,937
17,586,521
France
Other Countries
Total
is
. .
4,870,913
11,542,599
Germany
....
. . .
Great Britain
8,839,124
72,566,094
Making wrought
iron.
Cast iron
the starting point

steel.
for the manufacture of both wrought iron and
To
make
wrought iron, the cast iron
is
placed in a reverberatory
furnace.
This consists of a horizontal bed, with a low roof
curved so that the heat and flames are deflected down upon whatever material is placed on the bed. The bed of the re-
154

it is
verberatory, or puddling furnace as
called, is first lined

it,
with iron oxide, the cast iron

started,
is
then placed on
the
fire
and the melting begins.
The melted
iron
is stirred,
and carbon, silicon, and, other impurities are slowly burned out. Almost pure iron results. Pure iron is much less fusible than the impure
that,
cast
iron,
so
as the end of
the
operation apthe
proaches,
mass
This
then
becomes pasty.
pasty mass
is
squeezed
Fig, 51.
between
Reverberatory furnace.
rolls
so as to press
slag.
it
is
out the
To make
heating,
the wrought iron uniform in composition,
rolled into bars, these are piled
one on another, and, after
again rolled into bars.

is
The wrought
iron parts
iron thus
produced
It is
a tough, fibrous material, which can be welded.^

it is
used where
necessary to
is
make
by forging.^
Its
freedom from carbon
believed to be the reason
why
It would wrought iron resists corrosion so successfully. be used more extensively, were it not for its comparatively
high
cost.
Its cost
is
high because
it
is
made
is
in
small
batches of perhaps 600 pounds, hand labor

the time required to
'
required,
and
make each batch
is
considerable.
If two pieces of wrought iron are heated red hot, placed one over the other, and then hammered, they stick together, and form one piece. The operation is called welding. It is in this way that the blacksmith makes a wagon tire. ^ If a piece of wrought, iron is heated red hot, it becomes soft, and can be hammered into any shape that the blacksmith wishes to make. This is called forging.
METALS
Making
crucible steel.
is
155
wrought
iron the best
iron,
PVom
this
grade of steel
made.
Small pieces
of
wrought
about
90 pounds, are placed in a crucible together with carbon in

the form of charcoal.
When
this crucible
is
heated in a furis
nace, the iron absorbs the carbon, melts,

crucible steel (Fig. 52).
and
changed into
This
is
the material from which
high-grade knives, springs, and things that must be both
nt
,H!
Cuuru
^y of
'nicihU Stctl Conipaity of America.
Fig.
Crucible steel furnace.
hard and springy are made.

but
it is
It
is
made
in small quantities
the best grade of
steel.
Bessemer and open-hearth

pig iron.
Tliis
steel.
is
An
easier
way
to burn
out the impurities from cast iron
to blow air through molten
product
is
called
Bessemer
steel.
Ten
to
twenty
called
tons of molten cast iron are placed in a large vessel,

a con\erter, lined with an infusible
of this converter has
fire
clay.
The
is
bottom
many
holes,
each of which
156
about the
holes air
ties are
is

size of
a lead pencil (Fig. 53).
Through these
blown, and in about twelve minutes the impiu-iAfter the carbon has been burned out,
definite
burned out.
an alloy of iron containing a
amount of carbon and manganese is added.

This produces a
of carbon.
steel
with a known amount
In
still
another
the
method,
pig
iron
called
open-hearth process,
is
melted,
scrap
together with
iron, in
large, low,
square room, heated
by burning gas
54).
(Fig.
The
is
furnace
hearth
or
lined with
compounds
Fig. 53.
of silica
Bessemer converter.
with
dolomite,
depending upon the

kind of iron used.
out.
Here the impurities are slowly burned

steel results.
When
is
the carbon has been reduced sufficiently, the
process
stopped and open-hearth
How steel is hardened. When steel is heated and then suddenly cooled by plunging
it
into water,
it
becomes very hard.
This
is
the process used to harden needles and knife blades.

steel so brittle, that
is
This hardening process leaves the

it
breaks like glass.
If,
however,
it
slightly reheated,
and less brittle. By regulating the temperature to which we reheat the steel, we can give it any desired hardness. The higher the temperature to which
it
becomes
softer
METALS
it is
157
This
is
heated, the softer the steel becomes.
called
"drawing the temper." Iron and steel contrasted. Wrought iron is the purest form of iron, and cast or pig iron the most impure. Steel
is
intermediate in composition.
The
size of
iron and steel industry is a good example of the large some of our modern industries. Furnaces in many cases
A, B, Air and gas heated by passing Open-hearth furnace. Fig. 54. D, Hearth lining. C, Steel iii process of making. over hot bricks. E, F, Bricks heated by gaseous products. These are later made inlets to warm the entering air and gas.
have a production of six hundred tons of pig iron a day. To produce a ton of pig iron requires about two tons of ore, one half a ton of flux, one ton of carbon, and four tons of blast. About one half ton of slag and six tons of waste gases are
formed.
How
iron is protected from rust.
Pure iron
is
soft,
ductUe, white metal.
It readily dissolves in acids.

is
The
purest form of iron that you are familiar with
probably
168

In
the thin wire that florists use in wiring flowers.

iron rusts easily,
damp
air,
often protected
zinc, or tin,
and for that reason iron kitchen utensils are by coating the iron with some metal, as nickel,
Iron buildings
that does not readily oxidize.
and bridges are protected from corrosion by painting them.

Galvanized iron.
zinc to prevent
it
Galvanized iron
is
iron
coated with
a galvanizedit,
from
rusting.
is
To make
is
iron pail, a sheet-iron pail
dipped into acid to clean

It
and
is
then washed and dried.

the pail
then dipped into melted

durable.
zinc.
This forms a coating over the iron, and, since zinc does
air,
is
not corrode in the
made much more
In using galvanized
articles, care
should be taken not to
bend them, as
iron
is
this
may
crack the coating of zinc.

air, rusts,
The
then exposed to the

it.
and soon the
pail has
a hole in
Tin ware.
in the
Tin
is
another of the metals used extensively
home.
The
tin
pans that you use are really not

tin.
tin,
however, but sheet iron coated with

is
The
sheet iron
first
carefully cleaned,
tin.
molten
The
plates are then passed
and then dipped into a bath of between steel rollers,
set close together, so as to squeeze off as
much
of the tin as
iron.
possible.
This leaves a thin coat of tin covering the

not corrode in the
air, it
As
tin does
serves to protect the
iron underneath, while the iron gives strength
and
stiffness
to the utensil.
Tin and lead alloy

foil
readily, as
is
is
seen in solder.
The
tin
that
lead.
is
usually used
really
made from an
alloy of tin
and
Nickel plate.
protect
doors.
it.
Other metals are used to cover iron and

is
Nickel
is
often used, as in the handles of stove
It
plated upon the iron
by using a bath
of nickel
ammonium
sulphate,
making the object
to be plated the
METALS
cathode/ and using a plate of nickel for the anode.
159
On
passing an electric current through the solution, the nickel

is
taken from the anode and deposited on the iron as a thin
protective coat.
Manufacture of aluminium. The production of aluminium is typical of, the methods used for obtaining metals by electrolysis. The starting point is the mineral bauxite, which is the hydroxide of aluminium. This, when heated, As the electric current will not is changed into the oxide.
flow through the solid oxide,
it is
necessary to dissolve
it.
Aluminium oxide
is
insoluble in water, but readily dissolves
in the mineral cryolite.^
A box
lined with carbon serves as the cathode,
and large
carbon rods as the anode (Fig. 55).

cryolite, containing the
In this box the fused

is
aluminium oxide,
placed.
The
current in passing
through the solution
decomposes
it,
and Oxy-
aluminium
gen
is
set free
at the cathode.
is
set free at the

Fig. 55.
anode, combines with

the carbon, and es-
Manufacture
of
aluminium.
capes as carbon dioxide.
The temperature
of the
bath
is
so
high that the aluminium melts and drops to the bottom of

the box, whence
it is
drawn from time
to time.
Properties
of
aluminium.
Metallic
aluminium has a
the anode and the one
'
The
plate
by
whioli the current enters
is
by which it leaves is the cathode. 2 Cryohte is a white mineral found in Greenland.

able because a sphnter of
is
It is. remarkmelt in the flame of a candle. It sodium aluminium fluoride, NajAlFe.

it will
"
160

is
bluish white color,

2.6,
light,
having a
specific gravity of only
and
is
quite soft.
It
is
ductile, malleable,
and tenacious.
saucepans,
required.
It oxidizes
is
It
is
used as a conductor of
electricity, for cups,
etc.,
and wherever strength and

bright
lightness
are
The metal keeps
when exposed
to the
air.
quite easily, but the thin film of oxide that forms
trans^
parent and so does not show.
This film protects the metal
from any further action

Aluminium.
It
is
of the air.
satisfactory for cooking utensils.

is
It
is
readily kept clean, and, as heat
easily transmitted
it.
through
It has
the thin metal, liquids are quickly heated in
a decided advantage over enamel or agate ware in that

it
does not chip, wears
much
as a heat insulator as does agate ware.
with a neutral substance, as

it
and does not act must be cleaned strong acids and alkalies turn
longer, It It
is
black.
It
is
not suitable for frying or pastry, as the metal

ideal
heats so quickly that things stick and burn.

for teakettles
and double
is
boilers.
Aluminium
used in
many
alloys, as in
aluminium bronze,
an alloy of copper knd aluminium having the color of gold
and the strength
of steel.
it is
Alimiinium oxidizes so easily ^hat
used in
flashlights.
The powdered metal

it
is
mixed with an oxidizing agent, when

light.^
burns with an exceedingly bright and actinic

are
really
As
these flashlights
a variety of explosive, they
should be handled with care.
The powdered metal

is
is
also used as a paint.
Celluloid
soluble in
amyl
acetate,
and
this solution,
when mixed
is
much more than red light. It use red lamps in a photographic dark room. We say that these blue rays of hght are very actinic. An actinic hght is one rich in the blue and violet rays that cause chemiBlue Kght aids chemical action
for this reason that
we
cal action.
METALS
161
with aluminium powder, makes a good metallic paint for
steam pipes and radiators.
Lead and
lead.
is
its
uses.
Water pipes
an
are sometimes
made
it
of
This
soft,
white metal melts at a low temperature,

is
easily bent,
and
ideal material for pipes, as

air.
does
not readily corrode in the
All
natural
waters act
somewhat on lead pipes, and, in some cases, the corrosion is so marked that it is not safe to use them. Lead hydroxide is formed, and the carbon dioxide present converts this into a carbonate. Lead salts are poisonous, and their action is cumulative. That is, lead is not eliminated from the body, and slowly accumulates until enough is present
to produce illness.
as
Painters often suffer from lead poisoning,
common paint
Gold and
its
contains white lead or basic lead carbonate.
uses.
Gold
is
is
a yellow metal.
all
It
is
about
as soft as lead,
and
the most malleable of

it is
the metals.
By
first rolling
gold until
thin,
and then placing the

it
thin sheets between gold beaters' skin and hammering,
can be beaten out so thin that 250,000 sheets would be only one inch thick.
an imitation of gold leaf.

for
is
Dutch metal leaf, which is thin brass, is The two can easily be distinguished, the gold transmits a green light, while the Dutch metal
in air.
opaque.
Gold does not tarnish

cause of
its
For
this reason,
and beis
high
cost, its beautiful color,
and
luster, it
used in jewelry.
as
it
The pure metal would be
too soft to use,
with some harder metal.

metals vary
would wear out very quickly. It is therefore alloyed Silver Silver and copper are used.
the color, arsenic, for instance,
is
gives the gold a pale color, while copper
makes it red. Other making it green.

Pure gold
is
is
The
purity of gold
fine.
expressed in carats.
24 carats
suitable fineness for general use
14
162
carat, that
is, f
CHEMISTEY IN THE HOME

ourteen-pounds of gold to ten pounds of copper.
is
This alloy
is
hard, of a good color, and
not too expensive.
Gold coins contain nine parts

Articles should not
of gold to
one part of copper.
be marked "
solid gold."
Suppose
it
a pin
is
really eight carats fine.
This means that
will
contain two pounds of copper to one pound of gold, but,

since the specific gravity of gold
copper,
it
means
that,
sixth gold.
If this
is more than twice that of by volume, there will be only one pin is marked " solid gold," the puris
chaser imagines that he

it is
getting pure gold, while in reality
far
from pure.
It
is
much
is
better to
is
mark
the exacl
carat,
then the buyer knows what he
piu"chasing.
Silver
and
its
uses.
air
Silver
much
it,
harder than gold.
The oxygen
the air of
of
pure
does not affect
but
air, especially
cities,
contains hydrogen sulphide.
This changes
it.
the silver to silver sulphide, and

" oxidized silver " of the jeweler
thus blackens
is
The
really
silver
silver
covered
with black
sulphide.
To
keep
silver bright, it
must be kept
from
this gas.
is
Sterling silver
tains,
silver that con-
in
each 1000 pounds, 925
pounds
of silver.
is
The remaining
Coin
silver
75 pounds
it,
metal used to alloy
usually copper.
contains 90
copper.
silver
and 10
Large
Fig. 56.
silver teapots
and other
Silver plating.
vessels are
made by
plating silver
an alloy
coating
of lead
is
upon a white metal base. This is and tin called pewter. The thickness of the denoted by the name, as " triple plate." This does
METALS
not
163
three times the standard
mean that the vessel has been plated three times, but that amount of silver has been deposited upon it. Silver is plated in the same way as nickel, using a
plate of silver for the anode,
and the
is
article to
be plated as
the cathode (Fig. 56).
The bath
is is is
usually silver cyanide,
dissolved in potassiiun cyanide.
Copper.
tile,
Pure copper
It
a rather
soft,
malleable, duc-
reddish metal, thai

electricity.
a very good conductor of both
heat and
tric
used in large quantities in
elec-
hght and telephone wires, and
in other electrical work.

it
Its high
thermal conductivity also makes

It corrodes easily,
suitable for
as copper
kitchen pots and pans.

salts
and
are poisonous, care

It
is
must be used
to keep kitchen
utensils bright.
easily cleaned, either with
an abrasive,
or
by oxalic acid or ammonia, which dissolves the tarnish. Use of alloys in sprinkler heads. Many of the metals when melted mix with each other to form solutions known as alloys. An alloy is usually more fusible than the metals that compose it. Thus Wood's metal is made up of tin and cadmium, each one part, lead two parts, and bismuth four parts. It melts at 165 F., which is
lower than the melting point
of
any
of its constituents.
This low melting point of

the alloy
sprinkler
is
made
use of in
57).
heads
(Fig.
Many
are
fire
factories
and
stores
now
by
protected against
Fig. 57.
covering the ceilings

WEED CHEMISTRY-11
A sprinkler head,
164
with a network of pipes having at short intervals openings

closed normally with a plug of
Wood's metal.
Should a
will
fire
occur
when the
building
is
unguarded, the heat
melt
the easily fusible metal.

pipes, and, falling
Water will then flow through the upon the fire, extinguish it. Thus the
is
damage
is
small.
The system
usually so arranged that
the melting of a plug not only turns' on the water, but rings
an alarm
watchman's room. Some household alloys. Some

in the
alloys are of
particular
interest in the household.

zinc.
Brass
is
an alloy of copper and
Solder an alloy of lead and
tin.
The
larger the per-
centage of lead, the more easily the solder melts, but also the weaker it is. The small strips of " soft solder " sold
to
so
mend tin much lead
kettles are of
small value, as they contain

little
that they have
strength.
Bronze
is
an
alloy of copper
and
tin.
It usually also contains
some
zinc.
Amalgams. The alloys obtained by dissolving metals mercury are given a special name, amalgamS. Teeth are often filled with an amalgam. Gold is sometimes extracted from its ores by grinding the powdered wet ore with mercury. The mercury dissolves the gold, forming gold amalgam. On heating this, the mercury volatilizes,
in
leaving the gold.
SUMMARY
A metal
Iron
is is
a substance whose hydroxide
is
a base.
obtained by heating iron oxide, coke, and a flux in a blast

\
furnace.
Galvanized iron
is
iron coated with zinc.
Tin plate
Nickel
is
is
iron coated with tin.
plated on iron, to protect the iron from rusting, as well as
to give a good appearance.
Aluminium
is
obtained by electrolyzing a solution of aluminium
oxide in fused cryolite.
METALS
Lead
Gold Coin
is is
165
poisonous, and care iiiust be taken in using lead pipes.
the most malleable metal.
Pure gold
is
24 carats
fine.
silver is
90%
is
silver.
Sterling silver
92.5
% silver.
Its salts are poisonous.
Copper
is
soft,
malleable metal, used for electrical conductors arid
kitchen utensils.
Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
5. 6.
How could you harden a knife blade that is too soft? Why is the soil in many localities red? Why does a spot of rust often form on a tin pan? Why are galvanized pails used instead of zinc pails ? Why is an aluminium teakettle better than an iron one ?
Would you
rather have a 22-carat, or a 14-carat gold ring?
Why?
7. Aluminium is worth more per pound than brass, but aluminium rod costs less per foot than brass rod of the same size. Why? 8. How can you distinguish imitation gold leaf from the genuine ? 9. In putting away your silver for the summer, how should you pack it, and why ? 10. Why let the water run before using any for coffee or cereal, if you are preparing breakfast for the family? 11. Why should painters be especially careful to wash their
hands before eating? 12. How can tin foil be sold for 30 cents a pound, while worth 50 cents a pound?
tin is
CHAPTER XVI
PHOTOGRAPHY
Effect of light
on substances.
We
see in our daily
life
many
will in
instances of the effects that light
and
air
have upon
various materials.
The newspaper that The
to->day is white,
the course of a few weeks turn to a yellow, and, in a

dull brown.
few years, to a
delicate colors of ribbons,
quickly fade in the hot sunlight of summer.

in the sunlight, so that
do^vii the
Carpets fade
some too
careful housewives pull
shades to exclude the sun, and so deprive them-
selves of necessary light.
It
is
a simple matter to use these facts to obtain a photoIf

is
graph.
a leaf
is
laid
upon a
piece of blue wrapping paper,
which
colored with a fugitive dye, and the paper then

light,
it
exposed to the
the leaf protects
the color will bleach except where

of the light,
from the action
and so we
shall obtain a picture of the leaf.
The
tained.
difficulty
comes
all of
in preserving the picture thus ob-
In time,
the blue dye will fade, and the pictoo,
ture disappear.
Then,
such pictures would be unsatisis
factory because too long a time
required to produce them,
and because the half tones are deficient. The ordinary photoEffect of light on silver compounds. graph depends upon the sensitiveness of silver salts to the
action of light.
nitrate
is
When
silver is dissolved in nitric acid, silver
obtained.
This,
when
166
crystallized,
is
a white,
PHOTOGRAPHY
heavy
solid,
167
it
AgNOs.
By
and
careful heating
can be melted
It
is
without decomposition, and cast into

called lunar caustic,
is
sticks.
then
used to burn away growths on
the body, as
it
destroys flesh
If yoil will
when brought in contact with it. examine the bottle in which the laboratory
is
solution of silver nitrate
kept,
you
will notice
that where
the solution of silver has trickled

bottle, it
has
left
black streaks.
it is
down the outside of the The deposit is really meit
tallic silver,
but because
so finely divided,
looks black,
and you do not recognize it as silver. Advantage is taken of this fact to make an indelible ink. If a solution of silver nitrate is mixed with a little gum, and then used as an ink to mark cloth, the marks will at first
be
colorless, but,
on exposure to
light,
they gradually turn
and an indelible mark is left. We might use silver nitrate in photography, but the silver halogen compounds (silver chloride, bromide, and iodide) are better, as they, are more sensitive to light, and are inblack,
soluble.
Principles of photography.
When
silver nitrate is
mixed
with a soluble chloride, as sodium chloride, a precipitate of

insoluble silver chloride
is
formed.
AgNOa + NaCl
This
silver
^ AgCl + NaNOs
compound that
chloride
is
a white insoluble
turns deep violet on exposure to light.
To make a better photograph of our leaf than we could make by bleaching our colored paper, we might first soak
a piece of
nitrate. in the
filter
paper in
salt,
and then
this
in a solution of silver
In this
way
it,
silver chloride is precipitated
right
paper
fibers.
If
now
paper
is
exposed to light
with the leaf over
the paper blackens except where pro-
1&8

by the
leaf,
tected from light

leaf is obtained.
and so a photograph
of the
This process
is
also unsatisfactory, because,
even though
eventually
final step in
we keep the photograph

all
in a
dark drawer,
it will
turn black, and the picture disappear.

is
the process
necessary to
is
make the
print permanent.
Silver chloride
soluble in
sodium thiosulphate, commonly

is
called sodium' hyposulphite, which, in turn,
shortened by
is
photographers to " hypo."
If
then the print

that
is,
soaked in
hypo, the silver chloride that has not been acted on by the
light will dissolve.
will
No compound
the paper, that
is
sensitive to light
then be
left in
the print will be per-
manent.
The
shade.
tive.
picture will, however, be reversed as regards light and

It will
form what the photographer
calls
a nega-
In order to secure a correct reproduction of the
original,
both light and shade must be again reversed.
This
may
be
done by exposing a fresh piece

the negative.
of silver chloride
paper under
Wherever the negative- is black (opaque), there the paper will be protected from the light, and so will
remain
will
colorless, while the translucent parts of

light,
the negative
transmit the
dark.
copy.
Thus what is That is, a positive,

be obtained.
and the paper under them will turn light in the negative will be dark in the
or correct, reproduction of the
leaf will
Developing the negative.
Silver
bromide and iodide

with a
solu-
may
be obtained by precipitating
silver nitrate
ble bromide or iodide.

I
AgNOs + KBr -> AgBr | + KNO3 AgNOs + NH4I -> Agl + NH4NO3
PHOTOGRAPHY
They
them
are bodies
169
but are even more
much
it
like silver chloride,

light.
sensitive to the action of
Light does not discolor
as rapidly as
does the chloride, but a brief exposure
to light causes a chemical change in

I,
them
is is
that, once started,
can be continued by the use of what
known
as a developer.
it
The exact chemistry

will
of the operation
very complex;
be
sufficient
if
When
that
is
light falls
you imderstand the following. upon silver bromide or silver iodide

it
in
the presence of organic matter, as gelatin,
causes a change
see no change,
not well understood.
The eye can
yet
silver
when a developer (reducing agent) is added the affected compound is reduced to metallic silver. The silver
bromide or iodide that has not been exposed to hght is not reduced by the developer. In this way the latent
image, as
it
is called, is
rendered visible during develop-
ment.
The photographic
adding
silver
plate that
you buy
is
made by
of
slowly
nitrate
to the
hot solution
bromide
and iodide in gelatin. This precipitates silver bromide and iodide as a fine powder. The character of the plate is determined by varying the proportion of the iodide to the The melted emulsion is then spread on glass bromide. The gelatin cools, sets, and the plate is then dried. plates. If a film is to be made, the same process is carried out, except that the emulsion is coated on a transparent film of celluloid. As the plates are sensitive to ordinary light, all of these operations must be carried on in a dim red light.
The photographic
the camera.
plate thus prepared

light falls
is
it,
then exposed in
the silver complate
is
Wherever
upon
pound
is
altered in such a
way
is
that
when the
put
into ,the developer,
which
veloper converts the altered
some reducing agent, the desilver compound to metallic
170
silver.

Since the chemical action of light
is
proportional
to the
amount
of light that falls
upon the plate,
we
obtain,
on developing, a plate which gives a reproduction of the

light light
and shade
of the original,
but a reproduction
is,
in
which
and shade are reversed, that
a negative (Fig. 58).
PHOTOGRAPHY
will
171
be reduced.
The image
of the black dress will there-
fore be almost transparent in the negative.
Fixing the negative.

it is
To
render the negative permanent,
then soaked in a solution of sodium thiosulphate, or This dissolves the This

silver salts that
hypo.
have not been
acted upon by the developer, leaving nothing in the film but

metallic silver.
silver is in
such a fine state of division
that, instead of looking bright, as
you might expect,
it
is
black.
plate,
On washing
the hypo out of the film and drying the
As this consists of silver no reason to suppose that it will not last forever, if it is kept dry and is not broken. Photographing colors. The amount of chemical action on silver salts produced by light depends on not only the amount of light, but also its color. The silver compounds
particles
is
we have the finished negative. embedded in gelatin, there
are only slightly sensitive to red light, while they are very
sensitive to blue light.
This makes trouble in photographing.

it
white dress having both pale blue and pink dots on
will illustrate this.
To the
eye both pink and blue
may seem
much
to be equally bright.
Since, however, silver salts are
more sensitive to blue than to pink, on photographing the

dress the pink dots will reproduce almost black, while the
pale blue will reproduce almost white.
This causes the
photograph of the dress to look unnatural.

culty occurs in photographing flowers
;
The same
diffi-
some
colors reproduce
too light, others, too dark.
The
difficulty
may
be overcome by adding certain dyes

plate.
to the coating
sitive to all
on the
These dyes make the plate senplates are called panchromatic.

all
the colors.
Such
They can be made

but are
difficult to
to reproduce
colors satisfactorily,
handle, as they are sensitive even to the
red light of the dark room.
'
172

An
easy
Photographic prints.
way
to obtain
is
a print
showing
light
and shade
is
as in the original
to expose under
the negative a piece of paper having on
its
surface the
same
kind of coating that

as to
on the ordinary
plate,
but so modified
wherever
collar,
be less sensitive to light.

is
On exposure to light,
the negative
opaque, as the image of a white
little light will

little
pass througk the njegative to the paper and
chemical action will take place.

is
Wherever the negawill
tive
transparent, as under the image of the black dress,

light will pass through,
of chemical action
much
and there
be a large
amount
in
ing, in the
on the silver salt. On developsame way that the negative is developed, an image metallic silver is obtained, but this time the light and
This second
shade are the reverse of those in the negative.

white collar will be white and
reversal will bring objects to their natural shading.
The
the black dress black.
The
print
must now be placed

be permanent.
to dissolve the unaltered silver compounds,
and drying
Blue
will
hypo to fix it, that is, and on washing " Velox" and " Cyko " are
in
papers of this description.

prints. Another common way of making positives by the use of blue-print paper. The use of this paper depends upon two facts. First, ferric compounds, on exis
posure to
light, especially in
the presence of organic matter, Second, potasferric
are easily reduced to ferrous compounds.
aimn ferricyanide gives no
precipitate
with
com-
pounds, but gives a bright blue precipitate with ferrous
compounds.
solution
containing
is
ferric
ammonium
If it is
citrate
and
potassium ferricyanide
face of white paper.
prepared and coated on the suris
This
dried.
placed in water,
the coating will dissolve, and leave nothing but a sheet of
PHOTOGRAPHY
white paper.
l73
But
let
us place a sheet of this prepared paper
under the negative that we have made.

white collar being opaque
will
The image
condition.
of the
not allow light to pass, and

its original
is
there the coating will remain in
Under
the image of the black dress, which

will act If
transparent, the light

ferric iron to ferrous.
on the coating and reduce the
now we put
the paper into water, the ferrous iron and the
ferricyanide will react, forming a blue precipitate, which

will color
the paper blue.

in blue.
We
shall
is
then have a picture
(positive)
Such paper
and
cheap, and easily pre-
pared at home.
long exposure to
It has the disadvantage of requiring a

light,
of giving a print that
is
some-
what lacking
for
in half tones.
The
color, too, is
not suitable
many
is
subjects.
paper
Still another kind of photographic the so-called " printing-out paper " (P. O. P.), It consists of paper of which " Solio " is an example.
Printing-out papers.
coated with gelatin containing silver chloride.

lar to blue-print
It
is
simi-
paper in requiring a strong light for exposure,
and
in allowing the progress of the process of printing to
be followed by inspecting the print from time to time.
The image
is
formed directly by the action
of the sunlight,
it
no developer being required, therefore, to niake

as in the case of gaslight papers.
visible,
The paper
lowed by a
is
fixed
by means
of the usual
final
washing in water.
hypo bath, folBut the image thus

customary
produced has a disagreeable brick-red
color, so it is
to give the image a more pleasing tone. This coloring or toning process, as it is called, is accomplished by placing
the print after removal from the printing frame in a solution

of chloride of gold.
Here the
silver, particles
are gold plated
to
any desired
degree, the brick-red color changing first to
174

When
the desired
a rich brown, and then to a purple tone. tone

is
reached, the print
is
fixed in hypo,
then thoroughly
washed, and dried.
SUMMARY
A photographic
silver salts
plate consists of a coating of
gelatin
containing
on a transparent glass or celluloid support. On exposure to light and developing, the silver salt is reduced to
metallic silver.
On
fixing in
hypo, we obtain a negative.
positive print
can be made by exposing a piece of paper coated with a silver salt in gelatin under the negative, developing,
and
fixing.
Exercises
1.
2. 3. 4.
Why is it necessary to fix the negative? Why do silver prints sometimes fade? Why do you wash the negative after fixing?
Apples are sometimes sold that have the
name
of the grower
is
in green letters
red.
5.
on the
skin, while the rest of the slcin of the apple
Can you
explain
how
these could be
made ?
is it
Could you make a photograph using nothing but newspaper?

In photographing a landscape,
6.
why
that faint clouds
often do not
7.
Why
show on the negative? does the " proof " sent by the photographer fade?
CHAPTER XVII
CARBON AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
of the facts that every
is
Organic chemistry defined.
One
cook learns early in her experience
that
all
foods char
when they are heated too hot. This is because all of these compounds contain carbon. Since all of these compounds that are made by living things come from organisms, we call them organic, and their chemistry, organic chemistry. We have learned to make many of these compounds in the
laboratory.
There
is
no
made
in the sugar cane
real difference between the sugar and the sugar made in the labora-
tory, so
we must
call
them both
organic.
Instead, then, of
defining organic chemistry as the study of the chemistry

of living organisms,
istry is the
it is
preferable to say that organic
chem-
chemistry of carbon compounds.
The element carbon is found widely number of forms, as the diamoiid, these very dissimilar substances That graphite, and coal. are all really carbon is proved by the fact that, when they
Forms
of carbon.
distributed in nature in a
burn, nothing but carbon dioxide

case of coal, which gives
is
formed except in the

of
will recall
some other products because
certain impurities in the coal.
You
the fact that
phosphorus occurs as both red and white phosphorus, two

different forms
having quite different properties, yet both
forms can be shown to contain nothing but phosphorus atoms, and each can be readily converted into the other.
175
176
Chemists explain this by the fact that although both red
and white phosjihorus molecules contain nothing but phosphorus atoms, the number
two moleOxygen also exists in two forms, ordinary oxygen and ozone,
of
atoms
is
in the
cules
different.
having quite different physical
and chemical properties.

fact explains this.
is
The same
ozone
is
Ordinary oxygen
O3.
O2, while different
Such
forms of the same element

are called allotropic modifications.
Carbon
elements
is
one
of
the
in
that
of
exist
number
these allotropic
It occurs in
modifications.
two main typical

crystalline
forms
includ-
carbon,
ing the
ite,
diamond and graph-
and noncrystalline, or
amorphous carbon, including lampblack and coal.

Formation
of coal.
of
Ages
land
ago the distribution
and water on the earth was

very different from what
is
it
to-day.
^
_
Nor was the
air
hiG.
.59.
;
^r
Coal
^,
.
series,
;
a.,
peat
o, lig-
of its present composition, ^
nite
c,
bituminous
d,
anthracite.
as
it
Contained more carbon
CARBON AND
dioxide
ITS
COMPOUNDS
177
and water vapor.

contained
in
By
studying the rocks, and
the
fossils
them, geologists have given us
a good idea of the conditions prevailing at that far-distant

time.
For instance, what
is
sylvania was then a low,
now the central part of Pennswampy country. Its climate
was much warmer than now, and, as the air contained large quantities of carbon dioxide and water, both of which are so important to growing plants, vegetation grew with
almost tropical luxuriance.
thirty feet high
Ferns, for instance, were often

in diameter, as
and ten inches
shown by
There
it
their fossil remains.
As
this dense vegetation

it
growing on
In-
low,
swampy
land died,
fell
into the water.
could not easily decay because of the lack of oxygen.

stead, as
more and more accumulated,
it
turned into a solid
This accumubecame buried deep beneath the surface of the earth, where pressure and heat made This formed what we now call it still more compact.
mass
similar to the peat of the present day.
lation of organic matter finally
brown
world.
coal,
and
large deposits of this exist

is
all
over the
Brown
coal
also called lignite.
volatile
As the heat and pressure were increased, still more of the matter was driven from the brown coal, and soft,
In a few places the process
soft coal
or bituminous, coal resulted.
has been carried one step further, and hard, or anthracite,

coal formed.
of leaves
In much of the
we
find the imprint

its
and the remains
of tree trunks,
is
showing
vege-
table origin.
is
When
soft coal
cut into very thin
slices, it
it
even possible to see the
cells of
the
wood from which
was made.
Wood
to coal.
Wood
contains
much
volatile matter,
and the progressive change of the wood (yegetable matter) into hard coal was essentially the driving off of this volatile
178

Hard
or anthracite coal
is,
matter, leaving only carbon.

then, essentially carbon.
It contains in addition the mineral

is left
matter of the original vegetation, and this
as an ash
when the
coal
is
is
burned.
These
facts will explain to
wty there
very
little
so
much brown
coal, less
bituminous
it
coal,
you and
anthracite coal.
In a number of places brown coal was changed

in a
brown coal. the conditions were favorable, and the

Originally
was
all
into bituminous coal, while only
few
localities
did the change continue, resulting in the
formation of anthracite.
This gradual change, resulting

of
is
in
an increase
in the
amount
carbon and a decrease in the

well
amount
table
^
:
of volatile matter,
shown
in the following
Fuel
CARBON AND
ITS
is
COMPOUNDS
179
Commercially, this operation

retorts.
carried out in long slender
of
The gases produced are led into water, where most the ammonia and much of the coal tar dissolves. The
gases are then led into large pipes called condensers, where
the remaining coal tar and liquid hydrocarbons condense.
To remove
the last traces of
ammonia and
filled
coal tar, the
gases are then passed through towers
with coke, kept
wet with water.

coal tar
is
Here the remainder

It
is
of the
ammonia and
removed.
next passed over iron oxide, to
Fig. 60.
Coal gas manufactare.

the old-fashioned process (Fig. 60).
it,
remove any sulphur compounds present and illuminating

gas remains.
This
is
Some
gas
is still
produced by
will
but more
is
produced by
another method, which

(p. 192).
be explained in the next chapter
The water
solution of the
ammonia
is
used commercially
as a source of ammonia, while the coal tar contains many valuable carbon compounds, as benzol, used in the manufacture of aniline dyes, and naphthalene, used for moth balls.
In Pennsylvania, soft coal
is
destructively distilled in large
180

of the coke,
ovens for the sake
which
is
used largely in the
production of pig iron in blast furnaces.
Petroleum.
In
many
and
sections of our country, as in Penn-
sylvania, Texas,
California, far
below the surface
of
the earth, large deposits of

a
thick,
oily
liquid
exist.
This
liquid, called
is
crude pedrill-
troleum,
obtained by
ing wells (Fig. 61).
Crude
petroleum
of
is
not
made up
one chemical compound,
but contains a large number

of
compounds, and these are
separated and prepared for

use
by The
of
distillation.
thick, oily
liquid
is
placed in large
ble
stills,
capa-
holding 500 barrels

of the oil (Fig. 62).
or
more
is
Heat
the
then applied, and

volatile
more
liquids
boil off first.
The
distillation
products are called naphtha,

benzine, or gasoline.
Fig. G1.
After
off,
A spouting
distills
oils
oil
well
these have been driven
the temperature
rises
and
kerosene
Then come
and
finally
light,
followed
by heavy,
in
lubricating
nothing but pitch remains

a mixture of various
oil
the
still.
Each
of
these products
is
carbon
solids
compounds.
vaseline and
From
the
lubricating
paraffin are produced.
waxy The amount

the
of pe-
CARBON AND
troleum produced
table below
is
ITS
COMPOUNDS
will
181
very large, as
be seen from the
World's Pkoduction of Petbolbom

Country
in 1912
182
gas,

and
for years, instead of using artificial illuminating gas,
the city used this natural gas.
Burned
light,
in ordinary gas
is
burners
it
does not give a bright
but
well suited for
use with Welsbach burners, and in gas stoves.
Charcoal and bone black.

matters are driven
When wood
is
heated out
of
contact with the air (destructively

off.
distilled),
the volatile
as
Many products are thus obtained,
wood
and combustible gases, while charcoal is left in the retort. Not only wood, but any organic matter can be destructively distilled, and a charcoal produced.
alcohol, acetic acid,
If
bones are thus treated, bone charcoal,

is
called
bone
black,
obtained.
its
This
has the power

of gas.
If this
of
absorbing
many
is
times
own volume
air, it
bone charcoal
It
also
exposed to the
absorbs
much
oxygen, and because

is
of this it
can be used to oxidize noxious odors.
used in the manufacture of sugar to remove the brown color
an interesting experiment to shake together bone charcoal (bone black) and a solution of hydroof the sugar sirup.
It
is
gen sulphide,
ing best
the-
substance that gives
rotten
eggs their
characteristic odor.
The odor
is
quickly destroyed, show-
how energetic the action of the bone black is. The way to prepare piuê carbon is to char sugar, thus
Lampblack
in such a
is
obtaining sugar charcoal.
Lampblack.
instance,
made by the incomplete

Natural gas,
for
combustion of materials rich in carbon.

is
burned
way
that the flame strikes an
iron surface kept cool
these conditions, the

pose,
by water flowing over it. Under compounds present in the gas decomforming carbon and hydrogen. The hydrogen burns,
is
forming water, but the carbon that forms in the flame

cooled below
its
kindling point before

it
it
can burn, by the
cold iron against which
strikes,
and
is
deposited on the iron.
CARBON AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
it
183
forms
scraper removes the carbon from the iron, and

It
is
the lampblack of trade.
largely carbon, but contains
some
in
tarry
matters.
uses, as
It finds
many
ink,
black
paints,
in
in
printer's
and
darkening the color of
cement sidewalks.
Graphite.
Our "lead
pencils "
are
made
from another allotropic
form
of carbon, called
graphite, plumbago, or
black lead.
We
how
formed
are
it
not has
siu-e just
Fia. 63.
Commercial production
lampblack.
it
of
been
in
nature, but
some chemists think that

is
has been formed by
carrying the heating and pressure of coal a step beyond the
point where anthracite
produced.
is
Graphite occurs as grains in rock, and

ing six-sided plates.
crystalline,
form-
It is a black, greasy-feeling substance,
having a metallic
lubricant,
luster.
It is used in
making
its
crucibles, as a
and
in lead pencils.
In spite of
seeming
softis
ness, the individual particles of graphite are
very hard, as
it
shown by the way the

Because of
its
iron tools used in cutting

it
wear out.
greasy nature,
clings readily to metals,
and
is
therefore used as a protective coating.

for instance,
is
Common stove polish,
largely graphite.
The various grades of hardness of lead pencils are obtained by using various-sized particles of graphite, and binding them together with clay. Large particles and little clay
gives a very soft pencil.
184

it
Chemists have found

are
possible,
by the help
of the electric
furnace, to prepare graphite artificially,
and large quantities

is
now made
at Niagara Falls, where electric power

is
cheap.
This synthetic graphite

electric furnaces.
used in making the electrodes for

occurs in Brazil, India, and South
its rarity, its
Diamond.
Africa.
The diamond
is
It
valuable as a jewel because of
hardness
(it is
the hardest substance
known),
light.
its luster,
and
its effect
on
You have
all
looked through
a glass prism and seen that rays of

light are bent,
on passing through it, and that the edges of objects seen

through
it
are fringed with colored
The diamond will bend and disperse white light much more than
light.
glass will,
and
it is
this high refrac-
tion that gives the fire
and
color to
the cut stone.

in the
piece of glass, cut
same form as a diamond, may

will
be equally transparent, but the play

of
color
be lacking, and the

is
beauty of the diamond

in the imitation.
not found
^"-
nttuTa^m-ndr
They have
'
When
first
found, diamonds are
often shaped like an octahedron (Fig.

64).
little
beauty, and must be cut in a regular
form
is
in order to bring
out their hidden splendor.
The
stone
so hard that
It
abrasives.
it cannot be ground with any of the usual must be cut and polished by the use of dia-
mond dust. The diamond
that
is
to be cut
is first
set into
a lump of
CARBON AND
solder, fastened to the
ITS
COMPOUNDS
The
185
part of
end
of a short stick.
off is
the diamond
plate that
tliat is to
be ground
then laid on an iron
can be rotated, and

oil.
the plate
smeared with
diamonfl dust mixed with

the
diamond
is
very slowlv
The iron plate is rotated and worn away by rubbing on the
Fig. 65.
Sorting diamonds.
Underwood
tfc
Uuderuvoil.
diamond
jnit
dust.
When
is
one face of the stone has been thus

heated, the
polished, the solder
diamond taken
is
out,
and
back so as to expose another face that

is
to be polished.
In this way, face after face

finished form.
polished, until the stone has its
This takes a long time, requires skilled labor,

to the cost.
and
so adds
much
Diamond dust
for,
is
made by
is
crushing small imperfect stones,
although the diamond
186
so hard,
it is also very brittle. It is not an unusual thing diamond to break if dropped on a stone floor. The value of a diamond depends on its freedom from flaws, the perfection of the cut, the color, and its fire. Diamonds of many colors are found, pink, blue, brown, and yellow, as well as white. A stone that has a decided color is often more
for a
valuable than a white stone, but a faint tinge of yellow

the
fire of
kills
the stone, and decreases
its
value greatly.
The
largest
ting, the size of a
diamond that has been found was, before cutman's fist, and weighed 621 grams, or more
Fig. 66.
Kohiaoor diamond.
Weight of first cut, 1S6.5 carats; recut, 125 carats.
than one pound.
The famous Kohinoor, one
of the
crown
jewels of England, weighs 22 grams (Fig. 66).
In Brazil,
black diamonds are found.

but,
These are of no value as jewels, owing to their great hardness, they are used to point
hard rock.
drills for drilling
The weight of a diamond is always given in carats. new international carat weighs 200 milligrams. The
of a
The
value
If
diamond
increases
a'
more rapidly than

carat
is
its
weight.
first-class
cut stone of
will
worth 100
27.5 dollars,
dollars, a
stone
of
weighing one carat
be worth
and one
two
carats' weight will be
worth 650
dollars.
The
cost of a one-
CARBON AND
carat
ITS
COMPOUNDS
187
diamond may be anywhere between one hundred and

fire of
three hundred dollars, depending on the color, perfection of

cut,
and
the stone.
Small diamonds have been made synthetically, but they

are only chemical curiosities, as they are costly,
small.
and very
SUMMARY
Carbon has three allotropic forms diamond, graphite, lampblack. Coal was formed by the partial oxidation of vegetable matter out of
:
contact with the
air.
Bone black is an important form ing impure solutions.
of carbon,
much used
in decoloriz-
Sugar charcoal is a pure form of carbon easily prepared. Crude petroleum yields gasoline, benzine, naphtha,
lubricating
oils,
kerosene,
vaseline,
and
paraffin.
Graphite
is
used in lead
is
pencils, stove polish, crucibles,
and
elec-
trodes for electric furnaces.
The diamond
the hardest substance known.
Exercises
1.
2.
How Why
can you prove that graphite

does a soft-coal
fire
is
carbon?
brighter light than a
give a
much
hard-coal fire?
3. 4. 6.
Why is charcoal sometimes placed in a refrigerator? Why does bone black lose its efficacy after long use?
Is coal being
made
at the present time?
CHAPTER
XVIII
THE OXIDES OF CARBON

Preparation and properties of carbon dioxide.
Whenever a
air,
carbon compound biu'ns with a free supply of

CO2,
a colorless
gas, carbon dioxide,

is
formed.
is
The
pure gas
prepared
by the action of an acid on a carbonate.

Place
marble
chips
(calcium
in
carbonate)
a generator, similar
to
the
one used
in
preparing
Fig. 67.
hydrogen
Carbon dioxide generator.

thistle tube.
(Fig. 67). Add hyacid drochloric
through the
place,
violent evolution of gas takes
and
this gas
can be collected by water displacement.
CaCOs
+ 2 HCl ^ CaCla + H2O +
CO2 f
Any
carbonate
may
be used instead of marble, and any acid
that will dissolve the carbonate, as
NaaCOs
H2SO4 -^ NaS04
+ H2O +
CO2 \
tested with
Examination of the carbon dioxide thus prepared shows that

it is
a colorless gas, without taste or odor.

it
When
it
a lighted match,
does not burn or support combustion.

little
On
shaking
it
up with a
water,
dissolves,
giving
188
THE OXIDES OP CARBON
189
a very slightly sour solution that turns blue litmus red.

Since the solution of carbon dioxide in water gives an acid
reaction with litmus,
it
must
in solution
-s-
form an
acid.
H2O
CO2
H2CO3
salts
We name this
carbonates.
acid carbonic acid,
and the
made from
it
One thing that

colorless gases
is
distinguishes carbon dioxide from

specific gravity.
air.
other
its
It
is
about one and
half
times
as
heavy as
This can be shown in
a striking
it,
way by
placing a candle in a glass, lighting

it
and then pouring carbon dioxide down on
from a
bottle.
like
Carbon dioxide
;
is
so
heavy that
it
can be poured
water
it
therefore
fills
the glass and extinguishes the
candle.
Carbon dioxide gas
is
often incorrectly called carbonic acid.

all
Of course
hydrogen.
it
cannot be an acid, as
is
acids
must contain
It
only
when
in
it
is
dissolved
it
water that
beIt
comes
called
an
acid.
may properly
carbonic
be
ac!cl
anhydride.
Uses of carbon
oxide.
diFig. 68. Carbonated spring waters often deposit dissolved solids, making a raised cone from which the water flows.
The
great
uses of carbon dioxide
are in beverages and

as a leavening agent.
Every drink that

its
effervesces, soda,
vichy, root beer, etc., owes

of dissolved
effervescence to the presence
carbon dioxide.
When you
drink plain soda,

carbonic acid.
you are
really drinking a
weak
solution of
190

be treated in the following
spring waters naturally
this
Its use as a leavening agent will
chapter
(p.
196).
In
many
parts
of the
earth, of
contain
considerable
amounts
gas.
The
springs
at Saratoga are illustrations of this, as are
the Vichy, Seltzer, and ApoUinaris springs.

Fire extinguisher.
will neither
is
As carbon
dioxide
it
burn nor support burning,

fire
used in
extinguishers.
In
many
you have seen copper cylinders with a short hose coming from the top. Examine one and you will find the directions " To start, turn upside down, and
buildings
:
play on the
simple.
fire."
Their construction
is
is
The
cylinder
filled
with a
solution of sodium bicarbonate.
At the
sul-
top
is
suspended a bottle containing

This bottle
is
phuric acid.
loosely closed
with a lead stopper.

cylinder upside down,
On
turning the
falls
the stopper
out and the acid runs out.

FiG. 69. Section of a fire extinguisher.
When
Some
the
acid mixes with the sodium bicarbonate,
carbon dioxide
is
generated.
of
this dissolves in the water,
and the
fire.
rest,
accumulating in the cylinder, generates a pressure that forces

the water and gas through the hose upon the
are efiicient
if
They
used before the
fire
has too great a start.

2
NaHCOs + H2SO4 -^ Na^jSOi +

It
is
H2O +
2 CO2 f
Test for carbon dioxide.

of
easy to test for the presence
carbon dioxide by the use of a solution of calcium hydroxide,

If
called limewater.
little
limewater
is
shaken with car-

bon
dioxide, calcium carbonate
is
191
formed, and the solution
turns milky.
Ca(0H)2
+ CO2 ^ CaCOs | + H2O

by
plants.
Utilization of carbon dioxide
Every
fire
it
pro-
duces large amounts of carbon dioxide, animals breathe

it is
out
one of the products of the decay of
all
organic material.
air.
In this
way
utilize it
amounts get into the as a food. Under the influence

large
it.
Plants then
of the energy of
sunlight, chlorophyll, the green coloring matter of plants,
makes starch from

once more into the
in the air
is
Much
of the
oxygen of the carbon
dioxide is not needed in this process, and the plant passes this
air.
In this way, the amount of oxygen
kept constant.
Carbon monoxide.
of carbon,
tasteless,
When
carbon
is
burned
in
an amount
a colorless,
water.
It
of air too small for its complete combustion, a second oxide
carbon monoxide, CO,
is
formed.
It
is
odorless gas, very slightly soluble in
burns with a peculiar pale blue flame, forming carbon dioxide.
CO +
O2
-5-
2 CO2
is all
Carbon monoxide
warning of
ing gas
its
is
a poisonous gas, and

its
dangerous because, owing to

presence.
lack of odor,
gas,
the more we have no
Water
which
is
the illuminat-
commonly
in use, contains
the presence of this

so dangerous.
% of it, and it is monoxide carbon that makes gas leaks

about 40
is
The oxygen
necessary to oxidize our tissues
carried to
the remotest parts of our body by the red coloring matter of

the blood, called haemoglobin.
This combines in the lungs

a loose chemical compound.
with oxygen, forming with
it
The blood
then carries the haemoglobin, combined with

it is
oxygen, wherever
needed.
When
this
oxygen
is
given
192

in
up to oxidize materials
our body, carbon dioxide
is
pro-
duced as a waste product.

dioxide to the lungs, where
The blood
it is
carries this carbon
exhaled, and where the
haemoglobin combines with more oxygen.

oxide forms a stable
Carbon mon-
compound with haemoglobin. This makes the combination of the haemoglobin with oxygen impossible, the body cannot obtain oxygen, and we suffocate.
Fio. 70.
Manufacture
its
of
water gas.
The taking up
its
of
oxygen by the haemoglobin gives the blood

combination with carbon dioxide
bright red color, while
gives the blood a purple color.
Water
gas.
is
gas.
first,
There are two ways
of
making illuminating
The
by heating
soft coal (p. 178).
The second
upon red-hot carbon. Coke is placed in large iron cylinders and air blown through it until the coke is white hot. The air blast is then shut off, and steam blown through the coke. The white-hot coke reduces the steam, forming carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
by the
action of steam
HzO + C-^Hz
+C0

When
193
is
the steam has cooled the coke so that the reaction

is
slow, air
once more blown through the coke,

is
it is
again
heated white hot, and the process

a hot but colorless flame.
or a
repeated.
This mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide burns with

It is suitable for use in a gas stove
Welsbach burner, but not

it
for use in
it
an ordinary gas
oil
burner for lighting purposes.
To make
set
burn with a lumithat will

this,
nous flame,
must be mixed with the vapor of an

and
carbon
free.
it is
decompose
gas
is
in the flame
To do
the
passed into the carburetor, where

oil.
spray of crude
It
mixed with a then passes to a very hot chamber

is
called a superheater,
where the mixture
made complete and
the
oil
vapors are changed into permanent gases.
The water gas must then be purified by passing it into a wash box, where it is cooled by water, and some tarry products
that have been formed are condensed.
Then
it
it
goes to the
scrubber, a tower where the gas has to rise through zigzag
passages that are kept wet.
Finally,
passes to the con-
denser pipes, where

gas holder.
it is
cooled to 150 F., and finally to the
The
oil
candle power of the gas

is
is
controlled
is
by the amount
is
of
that
added to it.
The process
light.
cheap, and the product
burns well and gives a good
Its
disadvantage
the
poisonous character of the gas, due to the large percentage of
carbon monoxide that

inhaling water gas.
it
contains.
On
the average more
than one person a day dies in the city of

.
New York
is
through
Danger from furnace
gas.
Carbon monoxide
If the
sometimes
of coal
is
made
accidentally in ordinary furnaces.
bed
quite thick, and the
amount
of air
somewhat
limited, the
oxygen of the air will all be used up in the lower part of the fire in combining with the burning carbon and forming carbon
194
dioxide.

This carbon dioxide then passes through the upper
fire,
part of the
where the hot carbon reduces
it
to carbon
biu*ns
monoxide.
The carbon monoxide thus produced

fire
on
the top of the
and is the cause
of the flickering blue flame

fire.
sometimes seen playing over the top of an anthracite
SUMMARY
Carbon dioxide
:
How
produced.
Carbon dioxide
It
is
is
the action of an acid on a carbonate.

tation.
prepared by formed by the
decay of organic matter, the combustion of

Properties
less gas.
:
fuels,
and fermen-
Carbon dioxide is a heavy, colorless, tasteless, odorIt does not burn or support combustion. It disis
solves in water, forming carbonic acid.
Uses : Carbon dioxide

in fire extinguishers,
used in beverages, as a leavening agent,

for plants.
and ^s food
produced.
Limewater Carbon monoxide

Test :
:
is
a test for carbon dioxide.
How
Carbon monoxide
is
made by
heating carbon dioxide with carbon.

Properties:
gas.
Carbon monoxide
is
a colorless, tasteless, odorless
It is a poison.
Water gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and gase^ from crude oil. It burns with a luminous flame, and is very
poisonous.
Exercises
1. The city of New York burns enough coal to convert all of the oxygen of the air over the city into carbon dioxide. Why do the inhabitants not suffocate ? 2. When you open a bottle of vichy, the contents of the bottle become milky with gas bubbles. Why ? 3. Why can we not obtain pine carbon dioxide by burning char-
coal in the air ?
carbon dioxide used in fire extinguishers? water gas enriched with oil vapors ? 6. Under what conditions may a poisonous gas be given the kitchen range ?
4. 5.
is is
Why Why
off
from
CHAPTER XIX
BAKING POWDERS
Mechanical methods of leavening bread.
our palates, are usually
Bread,
our
we tempt them more palatable and digestible. Bread is usually leavened by the use of yeast (p. 287). At present we shall consider some other methods of gaining the same end.
great staple food, and cakes and pastries with which
made
light, to
render
Unleavened bread, as used in hard-tack, the cornmeal " pone " of the South, and the Scotch oatmeal cake, contains
few gas bubbles.
In consequence,
it is
hard, dry, and de-
mands long mastication. To render bread light, the dough must contain a multitude of small gas bubbles. When the dough is placed in the oven, these expand, the dough increases in volume, and the bread is made light. There are a number of mechanical means by which this can
be done.
the bread
By
vigorously beating the mixture of flour and
water, air bubbles can be entrapped, and these will
make
somewhat
light.
is
thin
dough must be
used, as
otherwise the beating
too
difficult.
The
addition of eggs
that have been beaten to a froth will add air bubbles.

is
This
cause
This,
the method used in making sponge cake.
The water used

This
will
in
mixing
may
is
be replaced by soda water.

of
lightness
by the presence
carbon dioxide bubbles.
however,
not a suitable method for the home, since the

vessels, else the gas
mixing must be carried out in air-tight

will escape.
WEED CHEMISTRY
13
195
196

V
Chemical methods
the
of
leavening bread.
All
of
these
mechanical methods, while they
may
be used, do not satisfy
home requirements
of a quick, easy
method
of leavening.
For the home we must resort to some chemical process.

call
Re-
the method of preparing carbon dioxide by mixing a carIf
two such compounds and which will not give any disagreeable by-products, our problem is solved. There are many such combinations possible. The oldfind
bonate and an acid.
we can
which can be mixed with the
flour,
fashioned "soda biscuit" will serve as an example.

biscuits are
acid,
These
made by mixing
sour milk, which contains lactic
with sodium bicarbonate (saleratus).

-1-
NaHCOa
there
HCaHjOCOa -> NaCaHsOCOa
+ H2O +
CO2
and
This leaves nothing but sodium lactate in the

is
biscuit,
no objection to
this.
There
are,
however, two
possible causes for failure, the addition of too

little
much
or too
baking soda.
The
acidity of the sour milk will vary

tell
within wide limits, and so no receipt can
just
is
how much
unusually
If
baking soda to use to neutralize

sour, acid will
it.
If
the milk
be
left
and the
biscuit will be sOur.

left over.
the
milk
will
is
not as acid as usual, saleratus will be
cohvert this into washing soda, and the biscuit
Heat will have
yellow streaks and taste soapy in places.
Commercial baking powders.

ing out the exact
This difficulty of nieasur-
amounts of acid and carbonate needed for neutralization applies to any home-made mixture, hence the wide use of commercial baking powders, where the necessary proportions have been determined by a chemist. There are three important varieties of baking powders, cream of tartar, phosphate, and alum powders.
Tartrate
baking powder.
The
acid taste of
grapes
is
BAKING POWDERS
partly due to the presence of an acid tartrate.
are pressed,
is
197
When
grapes
and the
juice allowed to stand, this acid tartrate

It
is
deposited as a dark pink crust on the sides of the vat.
called argols, and,

tion, yields
is
when purified by
and
solution
and
recrystalliza-
pure potassium acid tartrate, KHC4H4O6.

is
This
often called cream of tartar,

tartar powders.
the acid used in cream

is
of'
The carbonate used

baking soda.
sodiiun bicarbon-
ate,
NaHCOa,
called
These two, when mixed
in the proper proportions, give
an excellent baking powder.
KHC4H4O6 + NaHCOa -> KNaC4H406 + H2O + CO2 -> 84 210 188 + +18+44
If
the mixed powder

it is
is
placed in a can and kept for some

little
time,
difficult
air.
to avoid getting a
moisture in the
can from the

acid
The
this,
presence of this moisture causes the

other,
and the carbonate to act on each
and the powder
spoils.
To
avoid
20%
of starch is added.
The
starch
coats each particle of the acid

their
little
and carbonate and prevents acting on each other. At the same time it only adds a more flour to the dough when the powder is used, and
unscrupulous manufacturer may, however, use not
so
is
not' objectionable.
An
% or more and so make a very inferior powder, and still one that he can advertise as perfectly pure. The amount of starch can be readily determined by stirring a teaspoonful of the baking powder in a glass of water. All of the materials are soluble except the starch, which will sink A comparison of two powto the bottom of the tumbler. ders in this way will often show that a powder that is cheaper
20 %, but 50
by the pound
is
really
more expensive than a high-priced

of starch that it contains.
powder, owing to the large amount

Occasionally a small amount of
ammonium
carbonate
is
198
added.

This volatilizes in the heat of the oven, and the
is
ammonia
helps in
driven
off,
while the carbon dioxide produced
making the bread light. The by-product of cream of tartar baking powder, potassium sodium tartrate or Rochelle salts, is left in the bread. This is a laxative. It is the same product that is formed by seidlitz powders. If large quantities of baking powder are used to make a cake unusually light, and we eat an extra piece of the cake because it is so good, the amount of Rochelle salts that we take may be more than is desirable. As a rule,
the quantity
is
too slight to be objectionable.
Phosphate baking powder.

baking soda and
superphosphate)
CaH4(P04)2 234
The phosphate powders
use
calcium
hydrogen phosphate (calcium
+ 2 NaHCOs ^>- CaHPOi + Na^HPOi + 2 CO2 + 2 H2O 168 -> 136 + 142 + +88 + 36
filler,
They
require a
left
just as
do
all
baking powders.
The
substances
by the
reaction are not injurious.
soda aiid alum, usually

est.
Alum baking powder. The alum powders contain baking ammonium alum, as that is the cheapIt
is
is
a question whether the residue
left
from alum powit

is
ders
objectionable or not.
Many
it
is
doctors say that

harmless.
is
decidedly injurious, others that

there
is
So long as
it is
a question about
it,
and there
nothing to be gained
well to
by
their use, except a small saving in the cost,
avoid them.
(NH.)jAlj(S0)4
475
NaHCOa -> 2 Al(OH), + 3 NaiSOi + 504 -> 157 + 426 +
(NH4)jSOi + 6 CO2 132 + 264

of
Commercial baking powders are frequently mixtures

phosphate and alum powders.
Ratio of ingredients used in making baking powder.
The manufacturer
of
baking powder knows that,
if
he puts
BAKING POWDERS
cream
of tartar
199
baking powder.
and baking soda together, he will make The question is, how much of each to use, and for this information he must turn to the chemist. The chemist knows that one molecule of baking soda will combine
with one molecule of cream of tartar, and that, as a
Rochelle
salts,
result,
water, and carbon dioxide will be formed.
This fact he
may
express
by the following equation
NaHCOs + KHC4H4O6
baking soda
KNaCiHiOs
Rochelle
salts
+ H2O +
+
1
CO2
dioxide
cream
of
tartar
carbon +_!_ ^^t^'^
ular weights
Knowing the atomic weights, he can by the following operation
calculate the molec-
NaHCOs + KHC4H4O6
84
KNaC4H406
210
+ H2O +
CO2
188
+18+44
Sodium Bicarbonate
200
It
is apparent that, if the manufacturer mixes 84 pounds sodium bicarbonate with 188 pounds of potassium acid tartrate, he will have 272 pounds of baking powder that
of
when used
will leave
an excess
of neither ingredient.
By
possessing this exact information he not only prevents the
waste of soda or cream of tartar, but produces a better baking
He also knows that 84 pounds of baking soda (sodium acid carbonate, or sodium bicarbonate) will combine with 188 pounds of cream of tartar (potassium hydrogen tartrate, or potassium acid tartrate), to produce 210 pounds of Rochelle salts (potassium sodium tartrate), 18 pounds of water, and 44
powder.
pounds
the
of
carbon dioxide.
A simple proportion will then give
amount of each ingredient needed to produce any required amount of baking powder.^ Suppose we wish to manufacture 100 pounds of baking powder.
Since 84 pounds of bak-
ing soda will give 272 pounds of baking powder, x pounds of
baking soda
84
:
will give
::
a;
:
100 pounds of baking powdeK
Or
since
272
100.
30.8+ pounds;
and
188 pounds of cream of tartar are needed to produce 272
pounds
will
of
baking powder, then x pounds of cream of tartar
produce 100 pounds of baking powder.

:
Or
It will
188
272
a;
100.
69.1+ pounds.
therefore take 30.8 pounds of baking soda

of
and
69.1 pounds
cream of tartar to make 100 pounds
of
baking powder.
baking
A home-made
powder can
easily
baking
powder.
satisfactory
be made at home from the following
Cream
of tartar, dried
...
pound pound
as starch.
it
Cornstarch, dried
| pound
|
filler,
Baking soda
1
Baking powder usually contains some

is
for the sake of simplicity,
omitted in the problem, as
This, takes no
part in the ehemiqal change.
BAKING POWDERS
Divide the cornstarch into two equal parts.
soda.
201
Mix one
part
with the cream of tartar, and the other part with the baking
Then mix the- two together, place in cans and in a dry place. The important things to remember are that the
powders must be dry, and that they miist be well mixed. The cream of tartar and the cornstarch may be dried in a
warm
oven.
The baking
it it
soda, however,
purchased, as heating
will drive off
must be used as some carbon dioxide
and convert
into washing soda.
SUMMARY
All
baking powders liberate carbon dioxide when mixed with the dough. It is this gas that makes the bread light. Cream of tartar baking powders contain potassium hydrogen
tartrate, sodium bicarbonate, and starch. Phosphate baldng powders contain calcium superphosphate, sodium
bicarbonate, and starch.
Alum baking powders contain alum, sodium

starch.
Exercises
bicarbonate, and
1. Sour milk and baking soda will set carbon dioxide free. Why buy expensive baking powders to do the same thing? 2. A mixture of marble and hydrochloric acid will set carbon dioxide free. Why not use this mixture instead of baking powder?
3. Why is baking soda instead of washing soda used in baking powders ? 4. Could carbonated water be used to make bread light ? 5. Is a baking powder at 40 cents a pound always cheaper than one at 50 cents a pound? Explain.
CHAPTER XX
HYDROCARBONS AND DERIVED COMPOUNDS
Hydrocarbons.
One
thing that simplifies .the study of the'
compounds
of
carbon
series.
is
the fact that
many
of
them can be
in
grouped into
Thus, hydrogen and carbon unite
different proportions
and form several hundred compounds.
Many
of
of these occur in nature, while
many
are the products
They are all called hydrocarbons. A study of a few of them will show us how they may be arranged in a series, and how knowing the properties of a few of the members of this series will enable us easily to remember
the laboratory.
the properties of
all.
The
paraffin series.
pushed your oar into the
When rowing, you have doubtless mud on the bottom of some pond,
arose.
is is
and noticed that bubbles of gas CH4, is called marsh gas, and matter decays under water. It
natiu-al ga^.
This gas, methane, formed when vegetable
the main constituent of
In crude petroleiun we find three> other gases
ethane,
C2H6; propane, CsHg; and butane, C4H10.

cording to the
On
examining
these four formulas, you will see that, arranging
them
ac-
number
of
carbon atoms they contain, each
gas differs from the next by the group CH2.

express
If, all
We may
then
one general formula, CnH2+2. then, we wish to know the formula of a hydrocarbon conof these formulas in
taining 16 carbon atoms,
we can
202
find
it
by multiplying 16 by

2 and then adding
2.
203
The compound must then contain

its
34 hydrogen atoms, and
formula
is
C16H34.
These hydrocarbons are named, above the first four, by using as a prefix the Greek numeral that tells us the number
of
carbon atoms present, and following

is
it
by the ending
is
-ane.
if
Thus, C6H12
called pentane.
is
Reversing the process,

a
It
the
name
of the
hydrocarbon
ber of this series
we know that it because the name ends in -ane.

octane,
memmust
contain eight carbon atoms because of the prefix meaning

eight,
and
its
formula must be CgHig.

series,
This
series is
known
|,s
the paraffin
to C60H122.
and
all
its
members have been prepared up
The
culty
properties of
of the
vary in a regular manner.

it
members of the paraffin Methane is a gas. With

89.5
-|-
series
diffi-
can be changed into a liquid having a boiling point of
164 C.
Ethane
-|-
boils at
at
C, propane
boil at
at
37
C,
butane at
C, pentane
35 C.
it will
Without studying
about 70 C.
hexane we can then be sure that
Other properties vary

of a
in a similar
manner, so that the study
few members enables us to predict the properties of all. The ethylene and acetylene series. There are several such One starts with the gas ethylene, series of hydrocarbons.
C2H4.
This
is
the gas that
is
present in illuminating gas,
and makes the flame luminous.

this series is CH2.
The
general formula of
third series starts with acetylene, C2H2.
It
is
easily
made by
the action of water
on calcium carbide
-t-
H2O
-1-
CaC2-^C2H2
Ca(0H)2
As calcium carbide can be che'aply made in the electric furnace from carbon and lime, acetylene can be cheaply prepared.
CaO +
C -^ CO + CaCa
204
Acetylene
in lighting
is is

used largely in the lamps of automobiles, and
country homes where ordinary illuminating gas
not available.
is
Automatic generators are'used, so arranged
that the gas

require
made
little care,
They only as it is burned (Fig. 71). and give acetylene, which burns with an
tlfaierlnlef'
Generator
Fig. 71
Gasometer
holder.
Automatic acetylene generator and gas

white
light.
exceedingly bright
cubic foot of acetylene gives fifteen times as

as the
The combustion of one much light
For this reason a

flame (Fig. 72).
combustion of one cubic foot of illuminating gas. special burner is required which per-
mits only a very small jet of gas to escape to feed the
An oxygen acetylene flame

in
gives
an intense
heat and
is
used
welding metals.

Alcohols.
If
205
one of the hydrogen

is
atoms
of
methane
is
replaced with
a hydroxyl group,
Since this
its
we obtain CH3OH.
suggest that gas.
alcohol.
derived from methane,
name
is is
shoxild
It
called
methyl
An
alcohol
a hydroxide derived from
a hydrocarbon.
ides
There are hydrox-
derived
from other hydrocar-
bons, as ethyl alcohol,
butyl alcohol,
hols
C2H6OH, and C4H9OH. Some alcocontain more than one hydroxyl

If we gently oxidize we obtain an aldehyde.
group, as glycerin, .C3H6(OH)3.
Aldehydes.
an
alcohol,
Fig. 72.
Acetylene burner.
H2O
Its
is
CH3OH +
O2
W
is
HCHO +
This particular aldehyde

trade
called
methyl aldehyde.
It
name
is
formaldehyde, or formalin.
used largely
as a disinfectant
and as a preservative.
it
is
small
amount
is
is
sometimes added to milk to make

hibited
keep, but this
pro-
by
law, as formaldehyde
If
a poison.
is
Organic acids.
still
the oxidation of an alcohol
carried
further,
we
obtain an acid.
HCHO
-I-
O^^ 2 HCOOH
Th,e acid derived in this way from methyl alcohol is formic acid.
You are familiar with one
such change, the oxidation of ordi-
nary alcohol (ethyl alcohol), to produce acetic acid, or vinegar.
CaHsOH
Esters.
+02^ HC2H3O2 + H2O

is
In some ways the action of an alcohol on an acid
similar to the action of a metallic hydroxide on an acid.
206
That
is,

the organic hydroxide will form a salt with an acid,
just as a metallic hydroxide will.

called esters. acetic acid
is
If
sulphuric acid
is
These organic salts are mixed with sodium acetate,

is
set free
and sodium sulphate

is
formed.
If,
now,
ethyl hydroxide (ethyl alcohol)

liquid having
added, ethyl acetate, a

results.
an agreeable fruity odor,
H2SO4 + NaCzHaOa -^ NaHSO* + HC2H3Q2 HC2H3O2 + C2H5OH -^ CsHsCaHA^ + H2O
The odor and

wintergreen
is
taste of
many
flowers
and
fruits is
due
largely to the presence of these organic salts.
Thus,
oil of
almost entirely methyl salicylate, mixed with a
small per cent of ethyl salicylate.

bodies synthetically and mixing
tions,
By
preparing these two
them
in the correct propor-
an
oil is
obtained that can hardly be distinguished' from

wintergreen.
the natural
oil of
By
preparing such esters synthetically, and mixing them
in the proper proportions,
many
flavors
and perfumes can aroma is due

to the
be prepared in the laboratory.

presence of small quantities of
Usually, however, a natural

its
perfume is a very complex mixture, and

duce
perfectly
many compounds.
To reprofruits
it
is
therefore a difficult task.
Fatty acids.
are not
In certain parts of Africa, where sour
common, the natives regard large white ants

This
is
as a great
delicacy.
because the ants contain formic acid,
which gives an agreeable acid taste to their bodies.

formic acid,
This
HCHO2,
is
the
first
member
of the series of the
organic fatty acids, some of the important

are given in the table
members
of
which
on page 207.
These acids
group), which
is
all
contain the group
C-O-O-H
(carboxyl
characteristic of all organic acids.
The
first
members
of the
group are thin liquids
like water, in
which

Common Organic Acids
Formic
acid,
207
Name HCHO2,
:
Fkom
Found In:
Ants, stinging nettles. Vinegar.
Methane, CH4,
Ethane, C2H6,
Propane, C3H8,
Acetic acid, HC^HsOj,
Propionic acid, HC3H5O2,
Wood
distillate.
Butyric acid, HC4H7O2,

Valeric acid,
HC6H9O2,
Butane, C4Hio, Pentane, C6Hi2
Rancid butter.
Valerianroot; whale
oil.
Caproic acid, HCeHuGj,

Caprylic acid, HCgHisOj,
Hexane, CeH^,
Octane, CgHis,
Capric acid, HCioHi902,

'Palmitic acid, HC16H31O2,
Stearic acid, HC18H36O2,
Decane, C10H22,
Arachidic acid, HC20H39O2,
Medullic acid, HC21H41O2,

Cerotic acid, HC27H53O2,
Coconut oil. Butter and cheese. Limburger cheese. Butter and tallow. Tallow and lard. Peanut oil. Ox marrow; beef fat. Beeswax.
of the acid properties
they are freely soluble.
They show all
with which we are already familiar.

are
of
est
still
The higher members
liquids,
but become more and more oily as the number

solids,
carbon atoms in the molecule increases, while the high-
members
other
are tasteless
and show only a weak

do not belong
;
acidity.
Some
common
:
fatty acids, which
in this series, are
Oleic acid, HC18H33O2
Linoleic
acid,
HC18H31O2
occur not
esters.
and
oils.
Ricissoleic acid, HC18H33O3.
Fats and
In nature the higher fatty acids generally
free,
but combined with glycerin,

esters are our ordinary oils
in the
form
of
These
great bulk of
oils
oleic, palmitic,
and fats. The and fats is composed of the glycerides of and stearic acids. These are called olein,
Olein
is
palmitin,
tiu-es,
and and
stearin.
a liquid at ordinary temperaAll three are almost
palmitin and
stearin are solids.
tasteless
odorless.
Olive
oil,
as
an example
of
an
oil,
consists
mainly
of olein
208
and palmitin.
composition.

Lard, as an example of a
fat,
has the same

it
Lard, however,
is
solid
because
oil.
contains a
larger percentage of palmitin

is
than does olive
Beef tallow
mainly
stearin,
and
is
hard.
The
consistency of a fat
olein,
depends upon the proportions of the

palmitin that
it
stearin,
and
contains.
The
differences in the flavors of fats
and
oils
are due to
oils
small amounts of other
compounds
present.
Fats and
cannot be
distilled, as,
point, they>
when heated much above their melting decompose, giving off an acrid smoke. The
oils
various fats and
are insoluble in water, but are easily
dissolved in such organic solvents as gasoline, ether,

of turpentine.
and
oil
Carbon
of
tetrachloride, CCI4,
is
largely used
as a fat solvent under the trade
The formulas
C3Hb(Ci6H3i02)3;
(Cl8H3602)3-
the
name common
of
Carbona.
are
;
:
fats
Palmitin,
Olein,
C3Hb(Ci8H3302)3
Stearin,
CjHb
Hydrolysis.
When
a fat becomes rancid,
it is
due to the
separation of the glycerin and the fatty acid radical, setting

free the fatty acid itself.
Thus, the glyceryl butrate con-
tained
in
butter
is
easily
decomposed into glycerin and

strong.
butyric acid.
Butyric acid has a very disagreeable taste

called hydrolysis, because water
and odor, and we say that the butter has become

This change
is
is
taken up.
C3H5(C4H702)3
glyceryl
+ 3 H2O -^ C3H6(OH)3 + 3 HCHjOj

+
water
>
glycerin
butrate
butyric acid
distil-
Benzol.
lation.
Benzol, CeHe,
is
is
obtained from coal tar by
It
the starting point for thousands of synthetic

of
compounds, m^ny
a
is
which are used

It It is
in medicine.
Benzol
is
colorless, volatile liquid.
burns with a smoky flame, and
one of the illuminants in gas.
much used
as a solvent
HYDROCAHBONS AND DERIVED COMPOUNDS

for sulphur, phosphorus,
oils,
209
and rubber.
As
it
readily
dissolves grease,
it is
used to " dry clean " clothes.
Nitrobenzol.
Nitrobenzol,
C6HsN02,
It
is
is
made by
the
action of nitric acid
upon
benzol.
a heavy, oily liquid,
having the odor of bitter almonds.

soap, imder the
bitter aliSonds.
It is
used as a scent in
name
of oil of mirbane, or artificial oil of
Aniline.
Aniline,
C6H6NH2,
is
made from nitrobenzol by

Hydrogen, produced
Ani-
reducing
it
with nascent hydrogen.

very energetic.
It
by the
line is
action of zinc on hydrochloric acid, at the instant of

is
its liberation, is
said to be nascent.
a volatile, colorless liquid, which unites directly with
acids to form salts, as aniline hydrochlorate,
C6H6NH2HCI.
Toluidin,
C6H4CH3NH2, resembles
us,
aniline.
These two com-
pounds are interesting to
because their mixture,
when
oxidized, yields the various colors
known
as aniline dyes.
slight
change in the composition of these dyes changes

Phenol, carbolic acid,
the color very materially.

Carbolic acid.
cally not
CsHsOH,
is
chemi-
an acid at all. It has, however, a corrosive action on flesh, whence its popular name of acid. It is found in coal Pure phenol is a tar, and is separated from it by distillation.
colorless, crystalline solid, soluble in
20 parts of water at
a powerful antiseptic,
poisonous, and should
ordinary temperatures.
Its solution
is
and
is
used as a disinfectant.
care.
It
is
be used with
Some
times
important benzol derivatives.
Acetanilide, some-
named
antifebrine, used as a sedative
and
for fevers;
phenacetin,
used in headache powders; white crystal sold as " moth balls " and
;
naphthalene,
creosote,
the
used as a
wood
series
preservative and a medicine, are a few' of the benzol compounds that are of importance to us.
210

SUMMARY
A hydrocarbon is a compound containing hydrogen and carbon. An alcohol is an organic hydroxide. An aldehyde is the product of the partial oxidation of an alcohol,
and always contains the group C-O-H.
An
An
organic acid
is
the product of the oxidation of an alcohol, and

salt.
contains the carboxyl group C-O-O-H.

ester is
an organic
a glyceride of oleic, palmitic, or stearic acid. Benzol is a hydrocarbon obtained from coal tar. Nitrobenzol, aniUne, and thousands of other compounds are made from it.
fat or oil is
Exercises
1. 2.
How
would you remove a grease spot from a suit? Rancid butter, when washed with water, becomes
edible.'
Why?
3. 4.
How
could you
oleate
make
ethyl nitrate?
If sulphuric acid is
is
Sodium
is
soluble in water.-
added
is
to the solution, a white insoluble soUd
set free.
What
it?
Write the equation.

6.
How
could you convert an aldehyde into an acid?
CHAPTER XXI
OILS, FATS,
AND SOAP
no one
should
There are so many thousands of organic compounds that man knows all their properties and uses. A few of
are used so largely in our daily
of
life
them though
that
we
know something
their
preparation and
oils
uses.
fats,
Among
the most important of these are the
and
used so extensively as foods.
Methods
of extracting oils.
There are a number
of general
is
methods used to extract oils.
One that
is
largely used
pressis
ing, or expressing, as it is generally called.
The
material
placed in bags, and pressed, gently at

best
oil,
first,
which yields the

oil
and then more forcibly, which yields an somewhat lower grade. Olive oil is obtained by this
Volatile
oils,
of a
process.
as the
oil
of cloves, are often extracted

still,
by
live
placing the ground material in a
and then passing

it,
steam into
it
imder pressure.
The
volatile oil is carried
over with the steam, and, condensing with
sinks to the
bottom
rose
be extracted by this process.
Minute traces of essential oils may Thus it takes 4000 pounds of leaves to furnish one pound of the pure oil of rose by
of the receiver.
distillation.
oil
steam
The
is
obtained
by
distillation
from flowers does not

not
of
always have the exact odor of the flower, for the flower odor
a blend of the odor of
WEED CHEMISTRY
many substances,
211
all
which are
steam
volatilized with the steam.
Then, too, the heat
of the
14
212
CHEMISTRY
IN
THE HOME
To
avoid these
destroys some of the more delicate odors.

difficulties,
some
of the
more
delicate flower odors are ob-
tained
by the cnjlcurage
process.
neutral, odorless
fat
pPHit
OILS, FATS,
until the fat has
flower.
AND SpAP
213
of the
become saturated with the perfume

is
From
oils
this fat the odor
extracted with alcohol.
Some
tained
are ob-
by the use of solvents. The ground

material
is
placed in
closed vessels and'

treated
solvent,
with an
as
oil
benzine.
-. ,, Fig. 74.
The solution obtained

is
... ^m Trays used in extraction of volatile

,
.
then
distilled to re-
oils
by the enfleurage
larger
is
process.
cover the solvent.
The
yield
is
than that obtained

costly,
by
pressing, but the apparatus used
and
the. press
cake obtained cannot be used as a cattle food.

ess is therefore
The
procoils
used mainly to obtain the essential
from flowers, where the material to be handled is not large in bulk, and the product obtained is high in price.
Fats and
oils classified.
There
is
no chemical difference
between
fats
and
call
oils.
If
oils
they are liquid at ordinary tem;
peratures,
we
them
if
solid, fats.
oil is
Even
a
this rule
is
not of universal application, for palm
solid.
Waxes,
however, belong to a different class of compounds.

are as a rule fatty acid radicals united with an alcohol of
They
some
other than the glycerin

oils
series.
Chemically, the parafBn
are not
oils
at
all,
but hydrocarbons.
For our purpose,

ails,
fats
oil,
and
oils
may
be
classified as drying
air,
such as linseed
solid;
oils,
which, exposed to
oils,
oxidize
and
air,
become
semi-drying
which
partially
oxidize;
non-drying
which do not change on exposure to the

volatile oils,
as olive oil;
and
oils,
such as
oil
of
cloves, that
readily evaporate.
called fixed
The
first
three classes are sometimes
because they are non-volatile.
214
Linseed
oil.
CIIEINIISTRY IN
Linseed
oil is
THE HOME
obtained by pressure from the

It is light
ground seeds
Its
of the flax plant.
yellow in color.
drying properties
is
make
it
\-aluable in paints
and varnish.
linseed
oil.
Linoleum
made by mixing ground cork with

is,
The
the
oil
dries, that
oxidizes
and becomes a
solid,
thus bind-
ing the particles of cork together.

oil is
To
hasten this oxidation,

or lead.
heated with
are
salts
of
manganese
These
often a
compounds
oil,
known
as driers.
oils,
The
oxidation of linseed
is
and other drying
generates heat, and
cause of spontaneous combustion.
Cottonseed oU.
oils.
Cottonseed
oil is
one of the semi-drying

left
It
is
obtained by expression from the cotton seed
Fig.
7.5.
.\ filter
press.
from ginning cotton.

pressed out
black.
of
is
The
the
press cake left after the
oil
is
used as a cattle food.

it,
The
oil
at
first is
almost
To
and
purify
oil is
agitated with a small

solution.
amount
oil
dilute
sodium hydroxide
free fatty acids.
is
This removes the
color
On
standing, the pure yellow
separates,
drawn
oil
is
oft',
and washed with water.

of soap,
Cottonseed
used in the manufacture
and
OILS, FATS,
for edible purposes.
AND SOAP
215
The " salad oil "
of the grocer is likely to
be cottonseed
light yellow
oil.
On
cooling the
oil,
stearin separates as a
soHd of the consistency of butter.
This
is filtered
out and used largely in making lard and butter substitutes.
Sesame oil. Sesame oil is obtained from Sesamum oriengrown in India, China, and West Africa. It has a pleasant taste, and is used to some extent in cooking. It is cheaper than olive oil, and can be used instead of it for many purposes in the household. It deserves a more extale,
tended use.
Peanut
the
oil.
Peanut
is
oil is
obtained from the shelled nut of
common peanut by
pressure.
The
cold pressed
oil
has a
pleasant flavor and
used as a salad
is
oil.
second quality
is
obtained by hot pressing
darker in color, and

oil
is
used in the
manufacture of soap. 'Peanut

oil,
a typical non-drying
that
is, it
does not become thick because of oxidation, on

air.
oil,
exposure to the
Olive
is
oil.
Olive
used so extensively as an edible
oil,
obtained by crushing and pressing ripe olives.

is
The
ripe
olive
dark in
color, rich in oil,
and very
different
from the
you are familiar. The first gentle pressing yields the " virgin oil," which is the best grade of
bottled olives with which
table
again.
oil.
The pulp
is
then treated with water and pressed

oil,
This gives a slightly inferior
which
is
used in
cooking and for salads.
final
treatment with hot water
and pressure yields an oU' suitable only for soap making. It is from this oil that castile soap is made. Olive oil is a nondrying
oil.
Other vegetable
importance.
fats.
oil,
Several other vegetable fats are of
Palm
obtained from the fruit of palm trees,
and coconut oil obtained from the coconut, are largely used Cocoa butter is the fat pressed from in making soap.
216

is
chocolate in the manufacture of cocoa, and

preparations, ointments,
used in
toilet
and
in confectionery.
How
animal fats are extracted.
Animal
oils
and
fats are
" rendered."
into a kettle,
The
where
fat
is
cut into small pieces and thrown
it is
heated with live steam.

is
After the
fat has melted, the content of the kettle
filtered to
remove
the animal membranes, and the liquid allowed to stand.

oil rises
The
and
is
removed.
fat.
The watery remainder
is
used with
a second portion of
Beef tallow, mutton tallow, and

Butter substitutes, called
rendering beef fat at
lard are obtained in this way.
Butter and lard substitutes.

butterine or oleomargarine, are
made by
it
a low temperature.
This frees
from the aninial membranes.
The
clear fat
is
then cooled and kept for some days at a

separate.
temperature of about 80 F. in order that the stearin contained in

it
may
The
fat
is
then placed in bags,
and subjected to a heavy pressure to separate the stearin from the oleo oil. This oleo oil that runs out from the bags is a clear, tasteless, light yellow fluid, which solidifies, on cooling, White stearin is left in the bags, and is to a crumbly mass.
used to
make
candles.
This oleo
butter, as it
oil
would not be an acceptable substitute

flavor.
for
is
would lack the butter

it
This flavor
imparted to
by churning
oil
it
with milk, at a temperature
that will keep the oleo

of butter to the fat,
melted.
gives
it
This adds a small amount
and
an agreeable
flavor.
To
make
the flavor of the butterine more like that of butter,
small amounts of propionic, butyric, and capric acids are
sometimes added.
are also often added.
Cottonseed
oil
or
cottonseed stearin
To give
it
a grain similar to butter, the mass

it
is
then cooled
suddenly by running
into ice water.
It
is
then worked
OILS, FATS,
to free
it
AND SOAP
and colored
in the
217
same
from water
it is
salted
is.
way
that ordinary butter
As
in winter the product

soft fat, as cot-
would be too hard to resemble butter, some

tonseed
oil, is
added.
it is
Butterine has an advantage over butter in that

cheaper,
much
and keeps better, as it contains less of the easily decomposed glycerides. It is probably somewhat less digestible than pure butter, but not enough so as to render
its
use objectionable.
sell it
fraud, but to
stitute, is
To sell oleo as butter is of course a on its own merits, as a cheap butter suboil
not objectionable.
are largely used in
Mixtures of beef and cottonseed

this
cooking under such names as Cottolene.

is
The
beef fat in
expensive, and chemists have lately found a

oil,
way
to
add hydrogen to cottonseed

hard
solid.
thus converting
it
into a
This
is
tutes instead of the
used in Crisco and other more expensive beef fat.
lard substi-
Manufacture
oil
of oilcloth.
The drying
qualities of linseed
are taken advantage of in the manufacture of oilcloth
and
linoleum.
fill
To make
pores.
is
oilcloth, burlap is first sized, so as to
up the
It is then heated, to
dry
it.
This prerepeated
pared cloth
is
then thickly covered with red lead paint, which

lead.
linseed
oil
mixed with red
This painting
is
five times, the cloth being
heated after each painting to
hasten the drying of the
oil.
with pumice, to
make
it
even.
The The
surface
is
then rubbed
design
is
printed on the
surface, using a special

is
form
of printing press.
The
it
cloth
again heated, and then taken to the varnishing machine.

finish is given it
Here the glossy

varnish.
by flowing on
a coat of
final
heating to dry the varnish finishes the
operations.
If
a thin table or shelf oilcloth
is
to be made, the process
is
218

the same.
much
and
This
Cotton sheeting
is
used as the foundation,

oil
this is coated
with a mixture of linseed
and china
clay.
is
may
be colored to give any desired

It
tint.
The design
printed on the finished oilcloth in a cylinder press, similar

to those used in calico printing.
for
is
then varnished, heated
24 hours to dry
it,
and
is
then ready for use.
Manufacture
it
of linoleum.
Linoleum
is
made by
boiling
linseed oil in large kettles, with the addition of driers, until
becomes thick. Canvas sheets are then dipped in the oil, and hung up. The sheets are flooded with oil twice a day, and, being kept in a room the temperature of which is 165 F.,
the
oil
rapidly hardens.
In two or three weeks the mass of hardened oil has become so thick that the canvas sheet resembles a thin board. The " skins " are now cut down, and ground up into flakes. These flakes are mixed with powdered cork, and wood pulp, and any color desired is added. The mass is then passed between rollers, which press it into a sheet 18 inches wide by
I inch thick. These sheets have the consistency of soft putty. Dies now cut these differently colored sheets into
blocks.
These are
laid
on a burlap covered with red lead
paint, so as to
form any desired design.

is
A pressure
of 3000
pSunds to the square inch

press.
then applied, using a hydraulic

the linoleum
This consolidates the material into one solid mass.

oil, is
To
complete the drying of the
then heated
to 145 F. for from four to five weeks.
Varnishing completes
the process, and the linoleum
is
ready for market.
This
is
the best grade, called inlaid linoleum.
As the colors
off,
go through from front to back, they cannot wear
as they
do
in oilcloth.
cheaper grade of linoleum
is
made by
it.
printing the design on the surface, instead of inlaying
Cork carpet
is
linoleum
made
of
an extra thickness, and only
OILS, FATS,
AND SOAP
It
is
219
powdered cork
is
used as a
filler.
expensive, but lasts
almost indefinitely.
Saponificatioa explained.
or
oils,
When any
of the
common
fats
which are
all
glycerides of fatty acids, are treated
with a metallic hydroxide, a change called saponification takes

place.
The
fatty acid radical of the fat combines with the
metal, while the glyceryl radical combines with the hydroxyl,
producing glycerin.
C,H6(Ci7H36C02)3
glyceryl atearate
+ 3 NaOH
+
sodium
hydroxide
->-
>
CaHsCOH), + 3 NaCirHasCOj
glycerin
.
sodium
stearate
If
is
we
use sodium or potassium hydroxides, the resulting salt
and is called soap. By using lead or zinc we can form lead soaps or zinc soaps, but, since these are insoluble, they are of no value as soaps. Zinc
soluble in water
hydroxides,
oleate
is
used as the basis for zinc ointment.

of soap.
fats.
Manufacture
largely
Common
The
laundry soap
is
made
is
from animal
fat,
tallow or grease used comes
to the soap factory in large iron or
wood
casks.
Live steam
used to melt the

the mass heated
holding several tons.
which is then Here sodium hydroxide

coils.
placed in large iron vats

is
added, and
by steam
The
boiling
is
continued
until saponification occurs.
salt solution is
then added.
As soap
is
insoluble in
two layers, an upper layer of soap, and a lower layer of brine mixed with glycerin and some impurities. The lower layer is drawn off
brine, the contents of the vat separate into
and the glycerin recovered from

practically all of the glycerin of
it.
This
is
the source of
commerce.
is
The soap
re-
mains in the vat.
The change
a slow one, the whole
process taking about forty-eight hours.
Soda
lye
is
then again added, and live steam introduced
220
until the
is

mass
is
once more boiling.
In laundry soaps rosin

well,
now
introduced.
This makes the soap lather

soap no rosin
fat
and
half
cheapens the product.

In good grades
as as
of toilet
is
used.
About
is is
much
good
rosin
is
added as
was used.
but
its
Rosin soap
cost
not
less.
a detergent as a fat soap,
much
Sufficient
sodium hydroxide must be used to saponify the

complete the saponification of the
is
rosin, as well as to
fats.
When
the saponification
complete, brine
until
off.
it
is
again added,
and the soap allowed to stand
has again separated.
The lower
layer
is
then drawn
This requires about
twenty-four hours.
A third charge of strong sodium hydroxide is then added, and the mass heated with steam. This is to insure the saponification of all of the fat and rosin. This is called the " strength change," and recûires twenty-four hours. The
soap
is
now
finished,
but
it
still
contains some lye and
Fig. 76.
A crutcher.
a.
External view.
b.
Secti<
OILS, FATS,
impurities.
AND SOAP
221
until
These are removed by boiling with water

its'
the soap loses
granularity,
and becomes a smooth mass.
The
is
contents of the vat are
now
is
allowed to remain undis-
turbed for two days, when three layers form.

the pure soap.
The upper
The next
This
is
a dark layer of soap mixed
with impurities.
allowed to remain in the vat until

it
enough has accumulated to make

It
is is
worth while to bleach

layer
is lye,
it.
sold as a low grade soap.

off
The bottom
which
and used again. The soap is run into a mixing machine called a crutcher, where sodium silicate, borax, or sodium carbonate, is added
(Fig. 76).
is
drawn
Sodium
silicate
added to make the soap
hard,
and
prevent
its
wasting away too quickly. The soap is then run into large wooden frames,
where
it
solidifies.
It
is
cut into cakes, and after

these have dried a
little,
they are stamped with the

design of
turer,
the
manufacsold.
toilet
wrapped, and
of
Manufacture
soap.
In making
toilet
soap, the soap, after cool-
ing in the frames,

into chips, dried,
is
cut
and run
a
mill.
through a second mixing
machine
called
Here the color and perfume are added. To pro-
Fig. 77.
Soap stamping machine.
222

acid,
duce the medicinal soaps, antiseptics, creosote, carbolic
and other products are added

soap
is
'to
the soap in the
mill.
The
then pressed into cakes and stamped (Fig. 77).
Potassium soaps lather more freely than sodium soaps.
Shaving soaps are therefore potassium soaps.
little
potas-
sium bicarbonate
is
also often added.

is
In making soft soap,
potassium hydroxide
used instead of sodium hydroxide.
Soap
fats.
The
fats
used depend on the product desired.
The cheaper
by beating
Water in
to
sell
fats are used in
laundry soaps, while the more

Floating soaps are
it is soft.
expensive are used in toilet soaps.

air into
made
the soap while
They
are no
purer than other kinds.

soap.
It
is
to the advantage of the manufacturer
soap containing a large quantity of water.

oil
if it,
seem-
ingly dry coconut

will
soap
may
contain
60%
of water.
Soap
last
longer,
allowed to stand, unwrapped, in the

as this allows
is
air after
buying
evaporate.
The soap
some of the water to then harder and does not waste

laimdry soap
will lose
away
its
so quickly.
Common
25%
of
weight.
Soap powders.
If
Soap powders are made by grinding dry
soap to a powder, and adding sodium carbonate or borax.
you
will
weigh the contents of a box of any of the soap
its cost with the cost of an equal and sodium carbonate, you will find that they are very expensive. You can make an equivalent preparation
powders, and compare

of soap
amount
at
home
at
much
less cost.
Scouring soaps.
If
an abrasive
is
have a scouring soap, as the familiar Sapolio.
added to the soap, we These scouring

difficult to cut.
soaps are usually dried in molds, as they are
Ground
added.
quartz, feldspar, or pumice are
They
also
some of the abrasives often contain a little sodium carbonate.
'
OILS, FATS,
AND SOAP
223
Cold process soap.

ify
it.
It
is
not necessary to boil fat to sapon-
In the cold process of making soap, the fat and sodium

If
hydroxide are mixed together and allowed to stand.

alcohol
is
used instead of water a liquid soap
is
obtained.
in alcohol
Transparent soaps are made by dissolving soap
and
distilling off
jelly.
the alcohol.
This leaves the soap as a
transparent
Soaps to be avoided.
cheap,
color
soft,
In buying soap, do not buy a
highly
colored,
and scented
variety.
The
and scent were added
for the purpose of concealing
poor materials.
wise
it
toilet
soap should be neutral, as other-
damages the
skin.
Action of soap on hard water.
When
soap
is is
used with
lime soap,
hard water, a white precipitate forms.
This
and represents a considerable waste. To avoid this, the water should be softened before the soap is used. This may be done by boiling, in the case of temporary hard
waters
:
CaH2(COs)2
or,
+ heat -^ CaCOs | +
of
H2O
CO2
by the addition
washing soda to permanently hard
waters
CaSO*
-f-
NaaCOg -> CaCOa j
Na^SOi
SUMMARY
Fats and oils are obtained by expressing,
solving in
an
oil
solvent,
oil,
Drying
oils, as,
linseed
by enfleurkge, by disand by distillation with steam. oxidize on exposure to the air and become
do not change on exposure to the oil, thicken on exposure to the
air.
air.
solid.
Non-drying
Semi-drying
1
oils,
oils,
as olive
oil,
as cottonseed
Temporary hard water contains soluble calcium acid carbonate which is decomposed when the water is boiled. Permanent hard water contains calcium sulphate which is not affected by boiling.
224
Fixed
oils,

as corn
oil,
are non-volatile.
Volatile oils, as oil of cloves, readily evaporate.
Oleomargarine, or butterine,
tonseed
give
it
oil.
is
made from
beef fat mixed with cotis
small
amount
of real butter
mixed with
'
it
to
a butter flavor.
It is a cheap, desirable, butter sub-
stitute.
Linoleum and
oil
oilcloth are cloths
covered with a very thick layer of
or paint.
Soap
is
a sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid.

are sodium soaps.
is
Soft soaps are potassium soaps.
Hard soaps
Liquid soap
a solution of soap in
weak
alcohol.
Scouring soaps contain some abrasive, as powdered feldspar.
Exercises
1.
How would you tell to which

Would you be
class of oils
peanut
oil
belongs ?
Explain.
2.
3.
willing to use butterine at

oil of
4.
6.
6.
How How
could you prepare
cinnamon
at
home? home ?
could you clean a greasy waist ? Could linseed oil be used to adulterate
olive oil?
Explain.
7.
Why is oil of rose so expensive ? How could rancid butter be made

much
fit
for use?
Is this ren-
ovated butter worth as

8.
as fresh butter ?
How could you distinguish betweeen a soft and a hard water?
CHAPTER XXII
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates
defined.
Nature
is
the
great
master
chemist of the world, and one of her most marvelous doings

seen in the ease with which she builds up complex organic compounds from the simplest materials, as in the production of starch by green plants. The chlorophyll cells of
is
plants having green leaves are able, under the influence of

sunlight, to cause carbon dioxide
and water to combine,
forming an organic compound and setting free oxygen.

Just
how
the plant does this,
we do not yet know.
The
equation below represents only the end products; of the

intermediate steps
6
we
are not sure.
CO2
+ 5 H2O -> CeHioOe + 6 O2

that in the formula of the
You
will notice
compound
formed, called starch, hydrogen and oxygen occur in the

proportion in which they are present in water, and that
there are six atoms of carbon.
is
true are called carbohydrates.
Compounds of which this In them you will always

of 1
:
oxygen and hydrogen present in the proportion and carbon present as six atoms, or a multiple of six.
find
2^
These
carbohydrates are very important compounds for our study,

as they include the sugars, starch,
compounds are of especial interest in Cane sugar. Cane sugar, or sucrose, C12H22O11, is found in many plants, but in most of them it occurs in too small
225
and cellulose. the home.
These
226
quantities to

pay
for extracting.
All that
is
of
importance
commercially comes from sugar cane, sugar beet, and sugar

maple.
Sugar cane is a large, jointed grass, somewhat like corn, numerous varieties of which are grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the earth, as Cuba, Louisiana, and Texas (Fig. 78). The stalk of sugar cane contains from 12% to
^
.
A'^'
CARBOHYDRATES
are
227
not crystalhze
is
obtained.
The
is
liquid
that
does
molasses, which
ing are "
drained
off.
The sugar
crystals remainis
raw sugar."
made, but
Generally the raw sugar

is
not refined
where
it is
shipped to a large sugar refinery.
Refining sugar.
is
In the sugar refineries the raw sugar
dissolved in hot water, and filtered to remove any insoluble

It
material.
then forms a clear sirup, but
is
dark
in color.
Fig. 79.
View in
filled
ii
yugar cane mill.
To remove
this
brown
coloring matter, the sirup
is
passed
through large cylinders
with bone black.

filters,
it is
When
the sirup leaves the bone black

It
not
only clear, but colorless.

crystallize the sugar.
must now be evaporated to
Sugar sirup upon boiling undergoes

water and gives
Technically
a chemical change called hydrolysis, in which one molecule

of sucrose
combines with one molecule
of
one molecule of glucose and one
of fructose.
228
this

change
of
is
called inversion,
and the product
invert sugar.
Both
these substances are sugars, but
they are not

sucrose,
as sweet as
nor do they crystallize
as
well.
It
is
therefore necessary for
the
sugar
refiner
to
avoid their formation.
To do
avoid
this,
he must
.
heating
the
sugar to a high temperature.
He
must,
however, boil the sirup

in order to
evaporate
the water and crystallize
the sugar.
It
this
would seem as if were a case where

to find trouble,
the manufacturer was
bound
whichever
way
he
turned, but the solution

is
of
the problem
easy.
The
sirup
is
run into a large pan,

so
arranged
that
it
can be closed
air tight
and then the air is pumped out. We
know
at
Fig. 80.
-
that water boils

F. at
212
,
the
.
Diagram
of a sugar refining plant. (After Sad tiei.)
ordmary atmospheric
CARBOHYDRATES
pressure.
is
229
If
the air pressure
is
lowered, the boiling point
also lowered.
By removing
is
the air from over the sirup,

lowered, and the water can
the boiling point of the sirup
be evaporated without hydrolizing or inverting the sugar.

It
is
necessary to
pump
off
the steam as fast as
it
forms, so
as to keep the pressure low.
You must remember when
cooking fruits that sugar

is
inverted
by boiling, and
of the
thus
ness
much
is lost.
sweet-
When most
crystallizes,
of the
water
has evaporated, the sugar
and these
must
be
sugar
crystals
separated from the sirup.
This
is
done
in large cen81).
trifugals
(Fig.
You
ac-
know that when mud
cumulates on the rotating

wheel of a wagon, there
a
it
is
constant
to be
tendency for
off,
thrown
and
^'-
that the faster the wheel

is
81 Centrifugal
This
is
machine.
is
rotating, the greater is this tendency.
due to
centrifugal force,
and
this principle
made
use of in cen-
trifugal separators,
used not only in the sugar industry, but
in laundries, creameries,
and
in
many
other places.
Imagine two
arranged that
stationary.
large, tall saucepa;ns, the
one fitting inside
the other, and the inner one

it
made
of wire
gauze and so
can be rotated while the outer one remains

sirup
The sugar
containing
this is
the
crystals
is
put into the inner saucepan, and
then rapidly rotated.
230
There
is

a great tendency for everything in the inner vessel
to fly out
through the gauze.
The
sirup can escape through
the holes in the gauze, but the crystals are too large to pass
through, and so remain in the inner cylinder.
The sugar
crystals are then
washed by throwing a
little
water on them, so as to free them from the sticky sirup.
The sugar is now pure though it still has a slight yellow tinge. To counteract this, the last wash water is often colored with
a
little
ultramarine.
This counteracts the slight yellow
and leaves the sugar a bluish white. You must in the same way, and for the same reason. The sugar crystals are now run into the upper end of a large, slightly inclined cylinder, which is heated. As this cylinder is rotated, the crystals tumble over each other until, when they have reached the lower end, they are dry.
tinge,
have seen clothes treated at home
The granulated sugar

If
is
now ready
for barreling.
the moist crystals are pressed together, they form a
solid
mass
If
that,
when broken
fine
is
up, forms limip sugar.
If
the crystals are

sugar.
results,
ground to a
powder, we have powdered
the grinding
continued until a very fine powder

It is obtained
we
call it confectioners' sugar.
of large crystals of cane sugar.
Rock candy consists by allowing
sirup to crystallize slowly.
Beet sugar.
Sugar cane
is
not our only source of sugar.
Much
of the sugar that
you use comes from the sugar beet
(Fig. 82).
In
many
countries the sugar beet has been culti-
vated and selected until the best specimens

as
may
contain
much
as
16%
of sugar.
The
beets are washed, sliced,
and put into large

heated to 140 F.,
iron vats, called diffusors.

is
Here water,
is
added, and the sugar diffuses from the
beets into the water.
The
sirup thus obtained
then
CARBOHYDRATES
purified
231
and
is
crystallized in a
way
similar to that used with
cane sugar.
the world
More than one

beet sugar.
half of the sugar
produced
in
Maple sugar. Many farms in the Northern states and Canada contain a grove of sugar maples, Acer sacchannum. " In the spring, when the sap starts to flow, the farmer " taps
232
Maple sugar is essentially cane sugar, containing a little and certain substances that gi\'e it its charIt is easily adulterated by using acteristic taste and color. cane sugar and a flavoring extract obtained from hickory bark. About 6000 tons are produced annually in the
invert sugar,
United States.
Fig. S3.
Collecting sap for
making maple
sirup
and
sugar.
Sorghum sugar. Small quantities of sucrose made from the sorghum cane. In spite, however,
sive experiments
are
also
of exten-
by the government
to
improve both the
cane and methods of extraction, the production of sugar
from
this source has never
been successful commercially.
Boiling sugar.
Most
of us
have a sweet tooth, and a
paragraph that
will
help us to enjoy some toothsome dainties
may
be welcome.
CARBOHYDRATES
When
sugar
is
233
of water,
dissolved in a small
amount
and
this,
the solution boiled, the sugar tends to grain or crystallize,

as the water evaporates.
When we
wish to prevent
we must be
careful not to stir or jar the solution.
The
sirup in contact with the sides of the
pan becomes
slightly
more concentrated than the

tion starts there.
rest,
and therefore
crystalliza-
If these crystals are
allowed to remain,
they
line;
will speedily
cause the entire mass to become crystaloff
they must therefore be removed by wiping them
with a
to a
tion.
damp
cloth.
The
addition
of
half
a mustard
spoonful of cream of tartar, or of a few drops of lemon juicej
pound
of sugar will help to prevent this crystalliza-
The temperature
rises
of
the boiling sugar solution slowly
as
the
water evaporates.
little
When
the
temperature
reaches 215-217 F., a-
of the sirup,
when pressed
between the thumb and

thread.
finger,
can be drawn out into a thin

is
At
this stage the sugar

F.,
suitable for boiled icings.
At 236-238
is
little,
dropped into cold water, forms a

This
fetage
it
soit ball that can be rolled between the fingers.
used for fondant.
At
310 F., dropped into water,
forms a mass that breaks

called the crack,
it
easily,
and
is crisp.
At
this point,
it is
crystallizes
of
very
easily, so
that
well
to
add four drops

is
lemon
fuice for
This stage
used for glac6 nuts.
each pound of sugar. At 345-350 F., it turns

It
yellow-brown, and acquires the flayor of caramel.

contains practically no water, and burns very easily.
now
the thread, the soft ball, the crack, These four stages and caramel are the four most used in cooking. The experienced cook can easily recognize them by the behavior of the sirup, but the use of the thermometer will enable even the beginner to recognize them with certainty.
234
Maltose.
CHEMISTRY IN THE' HOME

When
is
the ptyalin of the saliva acts
upon
H2O.
starch, maltose
formed.
the
This sugar has the same formula

of
as sucrose, îth
addition
starch
water, C12H22O11
Maltose
is
made from
by the
action of malt extract.
When
seeds germinate, the ferment diastase that they con-
tain changes their starch into maltose, on which the
young
is
plant feeds.
Lactose.
When
maltose
is
inverted, only glucose results.
Lactose,
milk sugar,
its
C12H22O11
H2O,
the
substance that gives milk
sweet taste.
Cows' milk conseparated.
tains about five per cent of lactose.
In making cheese, the

is
whey
is
of the milk,
is
which contains the milk sugar,
This whey then

ing, the
treated with chalk
and aluminium hydroxide,
filtered,
and the
clear filtrate evaporated.
On
stand-
milk sugar separates.

is
The
souring of milk
due to the action
of bacteria
which
change the lactose to
lactic acid.
is
Milk sugar
infants' foods,
is
not as sweet as cane sugar, and

It
is
much
less soluble in water.
used extensively in prepared
Com
number by
products.
of
and powders of the druggist. Under the general name of glucose, a different carbohydrates, mixed in varying proand
in the pills
portions, are on the market.
They
are all
made from
starch
hydrolysis.
More than
50,000,000 bushels of corn are
annually used in the manufacture of starch and the glucose products
well illustrates
made from it. The process is interesting, as it how in a modern industry chemistry has enall
abled us to utilize
utilization of
of the products obtained.
It
is
this
what was formerly thrown away, that marks
The following diagram shows the products made from the corn kernel. The corn is first soaked in water. This softens the grain, and dissolves some soluble materials. This water is not
one great result of modern chemistry.
CARBOHYDRATES
235
in
thrown away, but is evaporated, and the residue used making a cattle food.
The
being
is
softened corn
is
then ground coarsely, so as not to
crush the germ, and then thrown into water.

light,
off.
The germ,
because of the
oil
that
it
taken
The germs
are then dried

is
corn
oil is
obtained.
This
used in
and and pressed, and making soaps and in

contains, floats,
HULL-
GERM
ENDOSPERM-^
Oil cake
236

of their dif-
Here the starch and gluten separate, because

ferent specific gravities.
The
and
gluten
is
used as a cattle food.
The
starch
is
dried,
sold as edible corn starch,
and
as the various grades of laundry starch.
and lump laundry starches are

methods
is
all
The pearl, crystal, made from the same

by
different
stock, their different appearances being caused

of drying. of dextrin.
Manufacture
produced.
yellow,
If this starch is roasted, dextrin
The
different varieties of dextrin, as white,
and British gum, are due to heating to a higher or lower temperature, and by varying the time of treatment. The dextrins are used as adhesives, as in the gum on the back of postage stamps, as sizes in the textile industry, and for
thickening the colors used in calico printing.
,
The
crust of
bread
is
sweet because of the dextrin that
it
contains.
Manufacture of glucose. To prepare glucose, starch is mixed with water, a small amount of hydrochloric acid added, and the liquid heated under pressure. The starch hydrolizes, and is converted into dextrin and glucose.
(CeHioOe)?!
If
+ n H2O
(CeHiaOe)^
is
a table sirup
is
to be made, the conversion
stopped
dextrin
when a product containing 50%

is
glucose and
50%
obtained.
The
of
hydrochloric acid
is
next neutralized by the addition

filtered,
sodium carbonate, the liquid

it
ing
through bone black
filters,
decolorized by passand concentrated to the
desired thickness.
If
a solid glucose sugar
is
to be made, the inversion

is
is
continued until most of the dextrin

It
is
converted into glucose.

it solidifies
then purified as for sirup, and evaporated until
on cooling.
CARBOHYDRATES
Glucose
is
237
used extensively in confectionery, in jams
and
jellies,
pastes and sizes, tanning of leather, and in

It
is
mak-
ing vinegar.
only three fifths as sweet as cane sugar,
but has the advantage over cane sugar of being absorbed

directly into the body, requiring
no digestipn.
It
is
a desir-
able food, but should be sold under its
own name, and not

it
under the
many
fanciful
names with which

Glucose,
in
appears in
commerce.
dextrose,
and
grape sugar occur in nature
many
fruits.
The hard
Fruc-
white particles found in

raisins
are
glucose.
tose, also called levulose fruit
sugar,
and has the same
?5^
.., -J-?^'?;.
'^#^ff^^J'a^^#l%î^îSfvi^
Fig. 84.
-
Manufacture of potato starch,

ing cylinder.
(a)
Rasping machine,
(6)
Rasp-
formula as glucose, CeHiaOe, but
its
physical properties are
somewhat
Starch.
of
different.
It
is
found in honey.
Just as business
men
store
up a
certain .amount
money
starch
against a time of need, so plants store
up a reserve
form
roots, bulbs,
of food. of
This accumulation of food

(CeHioOs).
It
is
is
largely in the
found
in
the
tubers,
and sometimes
in the stems
and
leaves.
238
It
is

easily separated
from the potato by grating the tuber,
placing the pulp in a cloth bag, and washing in water.

fine grains of the starch pass
The
through the cloth and make
FiQ. 85.
Shaking table
is
for sei)arating| starch
from potato pulp.
the water milky, while the fiber
is
held back.
On
settling,
a layer of starch
plant from which
obtained.
Starch grows in fine grains, the size depending on the

it is
obtained (Fig. 86).
The potato
starch
ill OP
Fig. 86.
Different kinds
of starch grains.
1,
Potato.
2,
Wheat.
3,
Rice.
granule has an average diameter of

ules of
g^ of an inch, the granwheat starch have an average diameter of ijVtr o^ ^n

of rice starch are
still
inch,
and the granules
smaller.
The
CARBOHYDRATES
identification of
239
starch under the microscope
makes
it
possible
to
detect
many
forms of food adulteration.
Fig. 87. (a) Pepper starch (angular bodies) adulterated with bean starch (rounded).
(6)
Characteristic
in. coffee is
in chicory
by which
ence
sap vessels its presdetected.
Starch
is
not soluble in water.

the case
On
heating the grains
with water to 158 F., the granules

of semi-solution, as in of laundry starch or starch paste.
swell,
and form a kind
When
starch
heated
hydrolizes,
with
as
an
acid,
we have
already seen in the manufacture

of glucose.
This change of starch

also
to
sugar
takes
place
in
seeds
change
when they germinate. The is caused by a ferment

in
^
contained
diastase.
the
seed,
called
arch (rounded Every woman is familiar '\ J^^f*" f hnniesl n.nnIrern,tRH Tvitn corn nnrn bodies) adulterated with starch (angular bodies). with the uses of starch in making Courtesy of the Scientific American. foods, in baking powder, where it, is used as a filler, for laundry purposes, and as a size for
stifPening fabrics in the textile industry.
240

saliva
is
The
starch
contains a ferment called
ptyalin.
When
with
brought into contact with
this, it is hydrolized,
the formation of dextrin and maltose.
Hence the impor-
tance of thoroughly masticating
all
starchy foods.
Commercial forms
ket not only under
arrowroot, etc.
particular plant.
ture, it
of starch.
its
Starch appears on the maras sago, tapioca,
own name, but

all
These are
Sago
is
starches obtained from
some
made from a palm.

it is difiBcult
In manufac-
has been heated so that

it.
to find separate
starch grains in
Tapioca
is first
is
separated from the
made from the cassava plant. The woody fiber of the plant by
in water.
starch
grind-
ing
it is
and washing
Before the starch becomes dry,
heated, with the result that the starch grains are broken
up,
find
and the starch

it is
is left
in the familiar
form
in
which we
in the market.
Arrowroot
indica,
usually obtained from a plant called

in tropical regions.
Canna
These
which grows mainly
It
is
also ob-
tained in
Bermuda from the Maranta
arundinacea.
arrowroots are used largely in invalid foods.
They form
a firm, semi-translucent mass when heated in a small quantity

of water.
The name comes from

.
the fact that the bruised
stems of the plant were used as a poultice for wounds caused
by arrows.
Cellulose.
CelMose forms the

all
chief part of
wood.
It
is
the building material of

wall.
plants,
and comprises the

filter
cell
Absorbent cotton and the best grades of

cellulose
paper
are nearly pure cellulose.
Pure
is
white, insoluble in water,
in the air.
Treated with a mixture of strong

is
and permanent nitric and sul-
phuric acids, cellulose
converted into a nitrate of cellulose.
This
is
guncotton, a violent explosive used in torpedoes.
CARBOHYDRATES
One
alcohol
of these cellulose nitrates
is
241
soluble in a mixture of
and ether, and forms collodion. This is used in photography and surgery. If a small amount of castor oil is added to collodion, it remains flexible when it dries, and is
then used to cover cuts in the skin.
Celluloid.
called celluloid
By adding camphor to guncotton, an elastic mass is obtained. When hot, this is plastic, and can
be rolled out into sheets, or formed into combs, knife handles,
and a multitude of materials used in the home. It can be colored, and made either transparent or opaque. In using celluloid, do not forget that it contains guncotton, and will therefore burn with great violence. Moreover, since it is a nitrate and contains a large amount of oxygen, the flame
once started requires no outside supply of oxygen.
celluloid therefore
Burning
cannot be extinguished by smothering.
Moving
picture films are made on thin sheets of celluloid, and the many disastrous fires that have occurred in moving picture theaters have been due to the diflBculty with which
burning celluloid
is
extinguished.
Mantxfacture of
of
handmade
paper.
The
use of some forn>
paper dates from the
earliest antiquity.
We have papyrus
that long
rolls,
written on by the Egyptians, that date from 4000 B.C.
This kind of paper was

used a paper
grows on the banks of the Nile.
made from the papyrus reed The Chinese have
made from
the inner bark of the mulberry tree.
In the Middle Ages, paper was made from linen by mixing

the linen fibers with enough water to form a thin, milklike
liquid.
This was poured on a wire sieve of the
size
that they
wished the finished sheet to be.

but the fibers remained in the
placed on a piece of
of
felt
The water ran
through,
sieve.
This sheet was then
and
pressed.
When
dry, a sheet
paper resulted.
242
Paper made in this way was porous, like blotting paper, and could not be used to write on, as the ink would spread. To overcome this, the dried sheet was passed through a
thin solution of gelatin, to size
it.
This process
is
slow and
expensive, and to-day only the most expensive papers are
made
in this way. Manufacture of machine paper.
Modern paper
is
made
is
on the Fourdrinier machine.

rags,
The crude
material used
wood, esparto grass, old paper, cotton refuse, and many

of .paper
other fibrous materials.
the grade
best,
but also the

is
The raw stock used depends on The all-rag papers are the most expensive. Newspaper is made
wished.
first
from wood, and

the buttons cut
the cheapest paper made.

sorted
In making a rag paper, the rags are

off,
by hand,
and the cloth cut into small pieces. It then goes to the duster, where it is beaten to remove as much dirt as possible. Here it may lose as much as five- per
cent of
its
weight.
The rags then pass to the rag boiler, where
they are treated with sodium hydroxide or with lime.

of the coloring matter
is
Much
here removed while the rags are
They then go to the beating engine, where knives them up and the stirring separates them into individual fibers. Here also the pulp is bleached, or colored, as may be
washed.
cut
required.
This pulp, mixed with

endless
much
water,
is
flowed upon an
woven
screen of wire, which travels rapidly under
the box containing the pulp.

while the fibers felt together
paper.
are
The water to make an/
drains through,
endless sheet of
Seventy feet of
fine paper, or
600 feet of newspaper,
made a minute. As the paper passes
on,
it
passes between rollers that

of the endless
squeeze out the water.
At the turning point
WEED
CHEMl.STHV
244
wire belt, the
CHEMISTRY IN
paper leaves
it,
't'HE
HOME
hollow iron cylinders, heated by steam.

It then passes between
it,
and passes over a number of Here it is dried.

steel rollers to
heavy polished
smooth
after
which
it is
cut into sheets.
This gives a porous
paper.
If
a writing paper, or a paper on which to print illustrais
tions containing fine lines
needed, the paper must be sized.

as clay,
is
Glue or
the
rosin,
and some
filler,
then added to the
paper pulp.
last,
When
such a sized paper passes

rolls,
through
or calendering
the paper
is
given a smooth
or even a glossy surface.

that,
if
So much clay is sometimes added such " supercalendered " paper is bent, it will crack.
probably noticed the disagreeable odor that some
off
You have
paper gives
when damp.
This
is
because of the glue used
in the sizing.
Wood
in
pulp paper.
Rag paper
this
is
too expensive to be used
newspapers.
is
For
purpose paper
is
pulp
used.
Wood
is
pulp
of
made from wood two kinds, mechanical and

This
is
chemical.
Mechanical pulp
simply ground wood.
made
by splitting poplar or spruce into small pieces and grinding them against a wet grindstone. The wood forms a powder fine as flour. The fiber is so short that it would not make paper by itself, but it is useful as a filler. Chemical wood pulp is made by chipping wood, and then
heating these chips in solutions of sodium hydroxide or
lime sulphite in large vats under pressure.
dissolve the materials that hold the
These chemicals
fibers together.
wood
After the " cooking "
is
complete, which takes from six to
eighteen hours, the mass

screened, to
is thrown into water. It is then remove lumps, and used in the same way that
rag pulp
is.
lîptT
making machine.
//,
T>r\
![!;_
ml Hnishing the
|>:ipi
Fig.
s'.).
'
Paper making.
245
246
and
is
Common newspaper contains about 25% of chemical 75% of mechanical wood pulp. Sulphite wood pulp
largely used in
size.
book papers.
size.
Blotting paper contains
no
Filter paper is
fiber,
and contains no
papers, as linen finish,

rolls
made from the best grade of linen The finish put on some writing is made by passing the paper between
CyHsOsSN,
is
that have the desired design engraved on them.

Saccharin,
Saccharin.
not a sugar, but

taste.
is
compound that has an exceedingly sweet

500 times as sweet as cane sugar. with glucose in cheap candy to
as
if
It
is
about
It
is
sometimes mixed
of course
make
the product as sweet

is
cane sugar had been used.

It
is
Such a use
fraudulent.
also used
by
and
diabetic persons
who must
avoid the use of sugar.

is
It has
no nutritive value and

deleterious
considered
a poisonous
ingredient in
foods.
Carbohydrates as foods.
largely used as foods.
The carbohydrates
are
very
In nature, they occur in both soluble
and insoluble forms. The soluble forms, as the sugars of and honey, require little action of the digestive juices indeed, many of these soluble forms require none, but are absorbed imchanged by the body to be used in giving heat and energy. The insoluble forms are mainly starch
fruits
;
and
cellulose.
Before these can be
made
Our
available in our
digestive juices
is
bodies, they
must be made
soluble.
are not able to do this to cellulose, as a food for us.
and
so this
unavailable
In our digestive tract starch can, however,
be
made
soluble,
and
it
forms one of our most used foods.

starts this action
if
Cooking starchy foods

the starch grains, and,
starch into
by breaking up
dextrin
prolonged, converts some of the
other soluble carbohydrates, as
and
glucose, thus aiding the action of the digestive juices.
CARBOHYDRATES
Proteins.
247
in
all
One
large group of
compounds found
is
animal and most vegetable matter
the proteins.
They
contain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and
sometimes phosphorus.
Nitrogen
is
the essential element
which distinguishes the proteins as a

Albumin, casein, gluten,
of proteins.
gelatin,
class of
food compounds.
all
and peptone are
examples
Ptomaines.
cause
When certain bacteria act upon proteins, they

ptomaines.
These ptomaines and the eating of meat containing them causes ptomaine poisoning, which often results fatally. The heat of summer accelerates the growth of bacteria, and hence causes the quick decay of food. This is the reason why ptomaine poisoning is so much more common in summer. Albumin. Albumin occurs in many of the soft parts of
putrefaction, forming
are violently poisonous bodies,
the bodies of animals.
albumin and water.

ble in water,
and
is
The white of egg is almost pure The blood also contains it. It is solucoagulated by both heat and alcohol.
found in
piilk.
Casein.
Casein
is
It resembles albumin,
but
is
not coagulated by heat.
It is
prepared by passing
sweet milk through, a centrifugal cream separator, to free

it
from butter
fat.
An
acid
is
then added, which precipitates

It
is
the casein in the form of a curd.

it
if
then washed, to free

It keeps indefinitely,
from milk sugar and

kept dry.
It
is
acid,
and
dried.
used extensively as an adhesive, in buttons, in paper
making, in casein paints, and in preparing plastic masses.
Paper
bottles, used to contain milk, are
made by soaking
it
paper in a solution of casein, and then exposing
to the
vapor of formaldehyde.
Casein paints are
This makes the casein waterproof.

dissolving casein in borax or
made by
248
lime, or
sodium hydroxide, and adding a filler and a pigment. Clay, powdered feldspar are used as fillers, and lamp
cobalt blue, or chrome green as pigments.
filler
black,
It
is
and a pigment that will not be affected by the alkali used. These paints dry hard, may be rendered waterproof with formaldehyde, and are cheap. Gelatin is an animal jelly. Gelatin. It is the chief constituent of glue. It is made by heating the bones and skins of animals in water for a long time. These animal products contain collagen and ossein, which, on long boiling,
necessary to pick out a
change to
Gluten.
gelatin.
gelatinizes.
The solution obtained is cooled, when it The water is driven off, and dry gelatin remains.
If you will place a handful of flour in a cloth and knead it under water, the starch grains will pass through the cloth and make the water milky. There will
bag,
remain in the cloth a tough, yellowish substance called

gluten.
Some
flours, as those
used to
It
make macaroni,
is
con-
tain a large percentage of gluten.

it
gluten that makes

flour is
possible to
it
is
make bread
light.
When
mixed with
water,
the gluten that forms the pasty dough that
entangles the bubbles of carbon dioxide gas.

Alkaloids.
nature are foods.

as alkaloids.
acids to
Most of the nitrogenous compounds found in One exception is the class of bodies known
These are feeble bases, and combine with which as a rule crystallize easily. They
form
salts,
are slightly soluble in water,
and readily soluble

in
in alcohol.
The
is
alkaloid, theine or caffeine, present in tea
and
coffee,
the
stimulating
substance found
is
these
beverages.
Theobromine, a similar alkaloid,

Nicotine,
found in the cocoa bean.

CoIt
is
found
in
tobacco,
is
intensely poisonous.
caine
is
prepared from the leaves of the coca plant.
used by physicians in the form of cocaine hydrocJilorate
CARBOHYDRATES
as a local anaesthetic
;
249
that
is, if
applied to some part of the

of the
body, as the gums,

to pain.
it
makes that part

tree,
body
insensible
Quinine and cinchonine are obtained from the
bark of the cinchona

malaria.
alkaloids.
All
and are used as specifics in the above more or less poisonous bodies are
,
SUMMARY
Carbohydrates are compounds containing
multiple of
six,
six atoms of carbon, or a and hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion in which they occur in water. Sugar, starch, and cellulose are
important carbohydrates.
Sucrose comes from the sugar beet, the sugar cane, and from the
sugar maple.
Glucose, or grape sugar,
is
made from
starch
by heating
'
it
with a
minute quantity
Fructose,
t>r fruit
of acid.
is
sugar,
found in honey.
Maltose
Lactose
is is
malt sugar.
milk sugar.
is
Hydrolysis
Inversion
the splitting up of a molecule caused by the hydrolysis of a sugar solution.
its
combining
is
with a molecule of water.

is
Invert sugar
produced.
is made by heating dry starch. It is used as an adhesive. Paper is made from cellulose. Saccharin is not a sugar. It is 500 times as sweet as cane sugar.
Dextrin
It has
no nutritive value and
is
harmful.
of plants.
Cellulose forms part of the

is
woody part
Absorbent cotton
casein are
nearly pure ceUulose.
Proteins are nitrogenous organic bodies.
Albumin and
examples.
Exercises
1.
Why
does the crust of bread taste sweet?
2. 3.
any difference between caramel and burnt sugar? In cooking cranberries, when should the sugar be added and
Is there
why?
CHAPTER XXIII
FOODS
Food defined. One great difference between animals and plants is in the food that each can use. Plants are able to build up from carbon dioxide, water, and mineral Animals cannot do salts, the most complex compounds. this, but are dependent for food on products that plants have elaborated for them. Plants can get along without animals, but animals cannot get along without plants.
The requirements
other animals.
of our. bodies are similar to those of
We
need food to repair -the

fiu*nish
cells,
to build
up new
tissue,
and to
energy and heat to the body.
Food may, therefore, be defined as anything which will build up body tissue, and furnish it with heat and energy. This food must be both organic and inorganic. Inorganic foods. As about 65% of the weight of the body is water, we require large amounts of this to replace
the loss that
is
continually taking place.
We
take large
in the
amounts
food that
of water,
both directly as a beverage, and
we consume.
teeth, blood,
The
skeleton of the
and the
of iron,
body is largely calcium phosphate, and tissues all contain comjjounds
sodium, and chlorine.

is
The
total of the mineral
constituents
about
is
6%
of the weight of the body.
This
mineral matter
diet will give
supplied to us in our food.
Almost any
soil.
more than we
require, for vegetables all con-
tain mineral matter that they
have taken from the
2.50
FOODS
251
MINERAL CONSTITUENTS OF MEATS, FRUITS, AND VEGETABLES IN PERCENTAGE OF THE EDIBLE

PORTION!
Food
252
U
S.

M itrKuAiR
Prtpm
U.S.DtHniMnt
DnniKii4
ma a
gl itfiriunait
PitmBl
C- f-
ty
Eiptrlmtoi
Sutbn
lAKWDBTNY
COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS.
^H -
flnnnn
r=^?^
V
^^ .
S """ ^H
^
lOBDCileilu
WMITC BREAD
Water.-^.3
WHOLE WHEAT BREAD

Watr:U.4
Ptotein-9.7
^tolin:9Z
Carbohydrat>a;53.l
Carbohydrite!l9.7
l;.|\^:-:
I81O
^^H iMfa
WSr:3.0
STICK CANDY
(Cj>bohdrate>-
963
1300
Asl
IIIDcutnu
u
CirbohydritBsiil.b
TOASTED BREAD
.....
MAPLE SUOAR
^
Wer;3B'9
ProlB;n:7.9'
11.5
CORN BREAD
Walof; ?<
Protein. 0.4-
Carbohydratas:6l.2
Carboh;drite3.463
CarbohyiJritei:82.S
CarbO"
^fdtattsa\.Z
MACARONI
:78.+
:0.>Li^
Ash; 1.3" 1500
uiMin n >m*
Fig. 90.
Composition of sugar
products.
Pttltnt kr
c.
Fig. 91.
Composition
of bread.
1.
1.
Dtpirtntit ir
.4
Itncunvl
HfKi
t.-ii siuwM
' iwwoaritT
OfKct l tiptiimtiA
SMHit

CORN
-Water: 10.8
WHEAT
Waler:105-
1U
bo?!ydrates-.73
4 CarbDhy?utsg:T3.7
BUCKWHEAT
Protein JO
^^M
fsZi cuonts
O-^gr-WaiarilZ.S
Carbo.-
-^-Fat:;.?
--Waicr:ft.O
159^ wuatU-
Water-IZO-^
to/ Carbo-
BYE
fijdftM-.77.0fe^.J
hjdfJMJ 719 \,ai Aah;l,9
Fig. 92,
Composition
of vegetables.
Fig. 93.
Composition of
cereals.
FOODS
U.I.
253
Ot^mal ( Af ihuKuct
A.C.
Itgf LipiiiiKtntSiiiiolu A.C. Tnil' tKiaitgr
C.F.LWIOTO'ITIIY
Eipl'ti'lClU'3ii:(Nu1'r1<on Initlt^gJIim:
Oincc el rilirrit Suilwit
Tnic Pixctgr
COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS

WHOLE EGO

SALT COD
Fig. 94.
Composition
cheese.
C
of eggs arid
FiQ. 95.
Composition
C. F.
of fish.
U.I.
DiHilmnl
*'
*f ulkn
F,
I.
S.
DtpuimM 9f <4iii(inii(e
UNWroinilT
[iptrlbiChugtiKNutmiMr
lAllGWORTHI
AC
1iui
Dir
Itpirt In CfiVB' "I fmrilloii lniiHt>(iUr
Dfnu dI tiHilint Iniign A. C. Tnir DmcKii
COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS

WKa
nnnrm
n;n
^^^
!(tSq.ln.e<iîli
I I
(WO Cilwiit
VEQETABLE OILS.AS
ProtBln;
BACON
9,4^
^FmI.&IA
FiQ. 96.
Composition
of fats.
Fig. 97,
Composition
of meats.
254
We get protein from the white of egg, from, lean meat, and such vegetable foods as peas, beans, and the gluten of flour. The function of protein in the body is to build and repair the tissues, and it is the only food that can do this. This It can also be burned in the body to furnish heat. is not economical, as both fats and carbohydrates are cheaper
sources of heat.
Analogy of the motor.

car to run properly,
In some ways our bodies resemble

If
it
the gasoline motor that drives a car.
we wish our motor

has the proper fuel
use too
we must
see that
If
and use
burned.
this in the right
amount.
we
much
If
fuel,
our car does not run well, and
much
and
of the fuel (escapes un-
The same
thing
is
true of our bodies.

logy,
we
over-
load our stomachs,
we
are dull
and cannot do our
work
If
properly.
we wish our
car to run properly,
we must
carefully
all
if
adjust the proportions of air and gasoline, and see that
the bearings are properly oiled.
So with our bodies,
we wish them
any one
If
class.
to run well,
we must
use all of the different
foods in the proper proportions, and not limit our diet to
heavy loads up steep hills, more gasoline to the motor. So too, if we are doing heavy manual work, our bodies require more fuelfood and also a slight increase in building-food, than if we
are using our car to carry
we
we must
feed
are doing office
work
all
day
long.
is
One
car
great
difference
between a car and our bodies

If
found in the result which follows neglect.
by neglecting to oil it properly, the car have a heavy repair bill to pay. We may abuse our bodies, and for a while the body will struggle along, but in the end the result is the same. We have a heavy doctor's bill to
we abuse a stops, and we
FOODS
pay, but unfortunately the physician cannot put a
in
255
new part
can only
our bodies, as the mechanic can in a car.
He
patch them up, and consequently we

long as
may be
inefficient as
we
live.
A
Our
tire
that will give 5000 miles of service under ordinary
conditions will give but 200 miles

bodies, too, are
when used in a meant to be used moderately.

it
race.
If
we
burn the candle at both ends,

half as long.
can be expected to last only

a machine, for
Of course our body we have the power to
is
much more than

and
think,
intellectual
and
spiritual
field,
if
powers that no machine has.

ber that the
a sound
But, even in this
we wish to develop our powers to the utmost, we must rememfirst

is
requirement
is
a sound body, and that

of proper foods in
body
best obtained
by the use
correct amoimts.
buy and
and economy. Large manufacturers do not by the ton. They have the coal analyzed, its power to give energy determined. They do not rely altogether on price. Some coal at $4.00 a ton is cheaper than other coal at $3.00 a ton, for it contains more heat units; that is, when burned it will give much more heat
Efficiency
coal solely
than the coal sold at the lower price per ton.

will
Its
appearance
not
tell
us this
thing
it
must be analyzed.
It does not follow that
is
The same
tive value.
it
is
true of foods.
the appearance and
taste of food
its
an indication
of its nutri-
To
determine
and
find the quantities

it
food constituents
value to uS, we must analyze and proportions of the different contains, and the amount of available the body.
energy
it
will yield to
We
must
also
know
the
requirements of the body, and
we
are then in a position to
provide wholesome food in the proper amounts.
By know-
256

we
shall
ing the food value of different foods in the market,
be able to buy nourishment economically.
The two
an idea
charts (Figs. 98 A
of the
economic values
and 98B) are intended to give of food from two standpoints. No. 1
considers
the
mil^
ECONOMY
I.
IN BUYING FOODS: BUILDING-STUFFS

COMPAHATIVB COST
the
question from
standpoint
of Building
FOOD
Oranges Bananas
Salt Pork, Fat Celery
Ham
Ma2
ac-
terial;
No.
into
Apples
Com, Canned
Oysters
takes
Eggs
Cabliage Beef, Sirloin Pork, Smoked
count the cost of

the Energy Material, or stuffs foimd
in the^ different foods.
SLijce
Mutton
TomipB
Rice Milk Potatoes Beef, Dried Cod, Fresh Pork, Loin Beef, Round Beef, Flank
most
foods provide for us both building

materials and energy, these ,charts
should
be
studied
together.
It
Wheat Bread Wheat Breakfast Food

Cheese
would be incorrect to attempt to get results from either chart to the

exclusion of the other.
Salmon
Cod, Salt
Beef, Stew
Meat
The amount
of building stuff in
1,
Com Meal
Oatmeal Beans
Fig. 98A.
The cost of the
each food in chart No.

stuff
2, is
or energy
in
each food in chart No.
of building stuffs in different forms of
same amount
the same.
The only
these
varia-
foods.
tions
in
shown
'prices
in
charts
are
for
the
which we pay
these materials, as, represented

lengths.
by the black bars
of different
A little perusal will bring out the fact that the foods found
nearest the top of each chart are the most expensive and the
more economical ones are found toward the bottom

list.
of the
FOODS
Although the number and range
tables
sive.
is
257
of foods in these small
necessarily limited, the lesson need be no less impres-
It
of the question
must be remembered that only the financial side is here considered and that digestion and
ECONOMY IN BUYING FOODS: II. ENERGY STUFFS

FOOD
Oysters Celery Cod, Dressed
COMPARATIVE COST
5S(/
Oranges
EgBB
Halibut Beef, Dried
personal idiosyncrasies are indi-
Bananas
Beef, Sirloin
vidual problems
it is
believed,
Corn, Canned
Mutton Cabbage
Cod, Salt
Beef, Round Beef, Flank
however, that a family that cares

to
live
economically,
in variety
can get
enough
and substance
of these
Pork, Smoked Ham Salmon, Canned Fork, Loin Milk Apples Cheese Turnips
Beef,
in the lower
two thirds
Stew Meat
them palatably, economically, and well. Calories in food. The energy

charts, to nourish
Butter Rice Potatoes
value of food has been deter-
Wheat Bread Wheat Breakfast Food

Pork, Salt
Com Meal
Oatmeal
Fig. 98B.
The cost of
mined by burning the food and determining the amount of heat given off. This is measured in
the same
differ-
Calories.
amount of energy stuffs in

ent forms of foods.
food will give the body

is
The energy that the when oxidized in

thus determined.
Respiration calorimeter.
To study the requirements of the

of these
is
body under
is
different conditions, the respiration calorimeter

of the
used.
One
most famous
the one at WesIt
leyan University, built by Professors Atwater and Rosa.

is
a copper-lined box, 7 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 6 feet 4

It
is
inches high.
so arranged that a
man
can
live in it
258

All of the necessary
off
for days, either resting, or doing work.
food can be passed in to him, the heat given

going in and coming out analyzed.
outside without opening the box.
by the body
air
measured, the amount of work done measured, and the

It
is
provided with a
telephone, so that the subject caii communicate with the
Men
during
all
have lived
all this
in this
box
for
from 3 to 12 days, and
time accurate analyses have been made of

all
food and
all
air used,
and
changes in the weight of the body determined.
effect of different diets,
work done has been measured, The and the amount of food necessary
have been determined.
to keep the
body
in condition,
The problem has been attacked, in other ways, in many countries, until we can now estimate closely the amount
compounds required to maintain the body under different conditions, and how these compounds may be
of food
obtained from different combinations of foods.
Balanced
ration.
diet
containing the proper propor-
and protein, to maintain the body in health, is called a balanced ration. In the army and navy, and in all large institutions, an effort is made to
tions of fats, carbohydrates,
provide such
a, diet.
You
will find in
the tables beginning on page 261 the
analyses of the different foods which
we
eat.
From
these
you can calculate whether your

of
diet
is
properly balanced.
According to recent experiments by Professor Chittenden,
Yale University, the ordinary
man
weighing 160 pounds,
and doing a moderate amount of work, requires 2 oz. of available protein per day and enough of the fuel foods (fats and carbohydrates) to make the total fuel value of the food consumed 2500-3000 Calories. Another way of stating this fact is ^^ of an ounce of
:
FOODS
protein
is
259
required for each pound a person weighs, and

total of
enough of the fuel foods in addition to make up a 2500-3000 Calories per day.
of
The food requirements of the body vary with the amount work done. The energy requirement which should be met with fats and carbohydrates varies almost proportionally with the amount of work done, while the protein
requirement remains nearly constant.
These statements
apply to adults.
Disadvantage of excessive protein.

our American dietary
is
The
great fault with
that
it
contains too
much
is
protein.
Protein eaten, but not required
by the body,
is
mainly
broken down and excreted by the kidneys as uric acid and

other poisonous substances.
This
not only a waste, but
throws too
much
of a strain
on the kidneys, and leads to

girls.
various diseases.
Ration for growing boys and

requires
growing child
more food in proportion to his weight than an adult, as is explained by Frank A. Rexford, in the text of his " A One-Portion Food Table." " Boys and girls of school age present many difficulties in phe way of rational feeding. Their needs are more in proportion to their size and weight than those of adults. They must have building stuff (protein) enough to keep them in repair, and in addition to this they must have a goodly amount of this material to grow on, for, if they are normal and healthy, they are continuously adding new tissues to their bodies. They must also have a generous supply of
energy stuffs because of their
many
(fat
activities.
We
allow
the average growing child 2 to 2| ounces of protein per
and enough
of the fuel stuffs
day and carbohydrates) to

Calories
bring the fuel value to 2000-3000
according
to
260
his activity.
boy on the football team requires more energy stuff than the girl whose chief exercise consists in playing the piano. The tendency of most children is to eat nearly double the amount of protein they need and rather less of the fat and carbohydrates." Condiments. There are certain adjuncts to a meal that are widely used, but contain little nutriment. These are condiments and spices, as mustard, pepper, catsup, and
sauces.
They may be
useful,
however, because they stimu-
late a jaded appetite,
and increase the secretion of the digestive juices. The beverages, as tea and coffee, act as stimulants, but have no nutritive value. The use of all these is best kept at a minimum.
Use
ments
of the one-portion food table.
Knowing the
require-
of
your body, you can use the food tables^ on the
following pages to plan a balanced dietary that will give you
amount of protein, and Calories enough to mainbody at its highest efficiency. If you will note down for a few days the amount of food that you eat, you can readily, by using this table, determine whether your diet is a If it is not, you will do well to correct it. suitable one. On page 271 is given a child's dietary taken at random from
the proper
tain your
several thousands.
The
figures giving the values of the

fuel value
different " food stuffs "
and the
were copied from
the table and totaled.
The
was getting 3.77 ounces of and carbohydrates to make the

In
show that the child proteui per day and enough fat
results
fuel reach
2890 Calories.
this particular case the child
was instructed to lower

\
These food tables were eomputed and arranged in a convenient form by Mr. Rexford. He has worked for several years with the students of the Erasmus Hall High School and determined the weight of the ordinary helping of the common foods.
FOODS
26
the protein total to 2.5 ounces and the fuel total to somethiiii
between 2000 and 2500 Calories without diminishing th
number
271.
of dishes.
The modified
dietary
is
shown on pag
'
FOODS PRIMARILY OF PLANT ORIGIN
262
FOODS PRIMARILY OP PLANT ORIOm ~ Continued
FOODS
263
FOODS PRIMARILY OF PLANT OniQlN Continued
264
FOODS PRIMARILY OF PLANT OUIGIN Continued
FOODS
265
FOODS PRIMARILY OP PLANT ORlGm Continued
266
CHEMISTRY IN THK HOME
FOODS PRIMARILY OP PLANT ORIGIN Coniinued
FOODS
267
ORIGIl^S
FOODS PRIMARILY OF PLANT
Continued
268

FOODS PRIMARILY OP ANIMAL ORIGIN
FOODS
269
FOODS PRIMARILY OP ANIMAL ORIGm Continued
270
FOODS PRIMARILY OF ANIMAL ORIQIti Continued
FOODS
271
ORDINARY DAILY DIETARY

Op this the Body can use Food for One Day
Protein
Fat
drates (Starch aid Sugar)
Carbohy- THE Body in
This Portion CAN YIELD TO
Energy and Heat Units
Breakfast
Oranges
Coffee
....
. .
.04
.01
.01 .17
.58 .27
75.
53.
Bread and butter Omelet

.
.22
.48
1.18
.03
275. 296.
.48
Lunch
3 Beef sandwiches
1.17
.04
.01
1.17
.01
3.57
.58 .73
827.4
75.
Orange
Dinner
Chocolate candy
.01
90.
Lamb
chops
.43
.59
Potatoes,
Peas Lettuce Pineapple cheese Crackers, soda Apple pie . .

. . . .
....
mashed
.09 .09
.01
.26
.09
210. 103.4
.54
.03
.09
66.6
7.
.60
.78
.09
.31
.10
.29
.19
.73
Milk
Total
....
.
1.44
.30
.24
280.6 120.3 287.8 123.6
3.77
5.09
10.75
2890.7
MODIFIED DIETARY
Breakfast
Oranges Rice
.04
Cocoa
Dry
toast
Butter
Lunch Bean soup

Lettuce
....
mayon-
and
naise sandwiches
Dates
272
CHKMISTRY IN THE HOME

MODIFIED DIETARY Continued
FOODS
to buying food the proposition
is
273
a
little different.
it
We
do
not buy food by the portion

market.
we buy
as
it is
sold in the
The
analyses here given are therefore in most
cases computations from
government bulletins and are
for
quantities of different foods in just the condition
we buy
them.
That
is,
meat with the bone,

list
lobster with the shell,
peas with the pods, nuts with the
shell, etc.
The
following family market
shows the food bought

it
for seven people for
one week.
Work
out,
and answer
the following questions

1.
Is this
family of
seven people getting the proper
amount
of protein ?
2. Is its fuel
3. Is this
value well regulated ?

list?
an economical or an extravagant weekly
FAMILY MARKET LIST

3jlb.
274

it is
This work has value only when

able that each family in the
applied.
It
is desir-
market
paid.
list
and compare
ing account in
community work out a weekly This can be done by keepeach case of what is bought and the price
notes.
(a)
tabulation of the results will show:
compara-
tive cost of the same foods in different parts of the town;

(6)
whether or not the family

(c)
is
being approximately well

is
nourished;
whether or not the family
getting good^.
value in nourishmeni for the
money expended each week.
FAMILY FOOD TABLE

Foods Primarily of Plant Origin
Nourishment in This Food
Muscle
For Heat and Energy
a B
Q
i
Food as we but It
Builder
o ^
f^
CarbbhyProtein
Fat
drates (Starch
Ml
andSugar)
Beverages
CocoEj, 1 lb.
Pounds can
. . .
Pounds
.28
Pounds
.38 .00
Calories
.22
-.00
Coffee, lib.
.00 .00
Tea, 1
lb.
.00
.00
2320 0000 0000

1515 908 1470 912 912 855
Bread Buns,
1 doz., 1 lb. 5c. loaf, 1 lb.

.
.07
.08
.01
.58
.39
Graham,
.06 .10
.07 .07 .08
.
Rolls, 1 doz., 1 lb.
.04
.01 .01 .01
.60
Rye, 5c. loaf, 12 oz. White, 5c. loaf, 12 oz. Whole Wheat, 12 oz. loaf
.
.40 .40
.37
Crackers
V
1 lb.
. . .
Graham,
Oatmeal,
.10
.12
.09 .11
.73 .69 .73 .69
1 lb.
.
.
Pretzels, 1 lb.
Saltines, 1 lb.
.10
.11
.04 .13
.09
Soda,
1 lb
.10
.73
1955 1970 1700 2005 1925
FOODS
Foods Primarily op Plant Origin
275
Continued
276

Poods Primakily of Plant Oeigin
Continued
FOODS
Foods Primarily op Plant Origin
277
Continued
278

Foods Phimahilt of Plant Origin
FOODS
Foods Brimarily op Animal Origin
NOUKISHMENT
Muscle
IN ThIS
279
FoOD
\3
Food as we buy It
Builder
For Heat and Energy
o a o ^
Carbohy
Protein
Fat
drates (Starch
and Sugar)
Beef
Pounds Chuck, roast or steak,

lb
'
Pounds
.00 .22
.07
Pounds
.00 .00 .00 .00
.03
Calories
1
.
.15
920
1195 780 1185 555
Corned,
1 lb
.14
.26
1 lb.
Dried, 1 lb Flank, roast or steak,
.19
.20
.03 .09
Liver, 1 lb Round, roast or steak,

lb.
.20
1
.19 .17
1
.00
.00 .00 .00 .00
745 985 825 545 270
Sirloin, roast or steak, 1
lb
.17
.12
Sweetbreads,
lb.
.17
Tongue,
lb
.14
.12
.07
Tripe, lib
.01
Dairy Products
Butter, 1 lb. Buttermilk, 1 qt., 2 lb Cheese, cottage, 1 lb. Cheese, American, 1 lb Cream, 1 bottle, 2 pt., 8 oz Ice cream, 1 qt., 2 lb. Milk, 1 qt., 2 lb.
. .
...
.00 .05
.21
.85
.06
.01
.00
.01
.04
.02
.26
.01
.34
.08 .18
.02
.06 .06
.08
.44 .10
.48
.08
3605 330 510 1950 430 1808 650

1323
Milk, condensed,
can;
.07'
.83
Oleomargarine,
1 lb.
.01
.00
3525
Eggs
Hens',
1 doz.,
I5
lb.
.20
.14
.00
935
Fish
Bass, 1 Blue, 1 Butter,
lb. lb.
1 lb.
.08 .10
.01
.01
.01
.00
.00 .00
.06
200 201 460
280

Foods Primarily op Animal Origin Corefinwed
Nourishment in This Food
Muscle
3 e ^ a ! a
!-
oQ e,
Food as we but
Builder
It
For Heat and Energy
CarbohyProtein
Fat
drates (Starch
and Sugar)
Fish
(con't)
Pounds
.18
.2? .06
lb.
1 lb,
Founds
.08 .27
Pounds
.00
.00 .00
Calories
Cod, Cod,
fresh, 1 lb.
salt, 1 lb.
Flounder, 1 lb. Halibut, steak, 1 Halibut, smoked,
.00 .04
.15 .06
.07
.15
.21
.00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00
Mackerel, 1 lb. Salmon, 1 can, 12 Shad, 1 lb. Trout, lake, 1 lb.

. .
.14
oz,
.
.18
.09 .09
.05 .05
165 1020 130 470 1020 525 638 380 380
Poultry and Game Chickens, broilers, Fowl, lib Goose, 1 lb. Turkey, lib.
1 lb.
.13
.01
.00
.00
... ...
.14
.13 .16
.12
.30
.18
.00
.00
295 775 1500 1475
Lamb
Chops,
Leg, 1
1 lb.
.14
.28 .15
.00
1445
lb.
.15
.00
900
Mutton
Kidnev,
Leg,
1 lb.
.
.17
.03 .23
.00 .00
440
l'235
1 lb.
.14
Pork
Bacon, Chops,
1 lb.
.13 .13
.36 .26
.33
1.
.00 .00 .00 .00
loin, 1 lb.
.
Ham,
Lard,
1 lb.
1 lb.
.15
.00
1740 1340 1670 4226
Sausages Bologna,
1 lb
.18
.19
.20 .24
.19
.00 .00
.01
City, beef and pork, 1 lb. Frankfurters, 1 lb.

. .
.20
1170 1380 1170
FOODS
Poods Primarily of Animal Origin
281
Continued
1-
NOHRISHMENT IN THIS FoOD

Builder For Heat and Energy
It
Irfl
to
Muscle
Food as we buy
CarbohyProtein
Fat
drates (Starch
and Sugar)
Shell fish
1"
Pounds
1 doz.,
Pounds
.
Pounds
.05
Calories
Clams,
lb.
.10 .16
.12
.00
.02 .02
Lobsters, 1, heavy, 3 Oysters, 1 qt., 2 lb.

Scallops, 1 qt., 2 lb.
lb.
. .
.00
.06 .07
.30
.00
350 400 460 690
Veal
Breast, 1 lb. Cutlets, 1 lb. Leg, 1 lb. Liver, 1 lb.
.15
.09 .06 .02
.00 .00 .00 .00
.20
.18
.19
645 690 585 575
SUMMARY
Our foods must be both inorganic and
and
oils,
organic.
Water and mineral

Carbohydrates, fats
matter comprise the inorganic foods.
and
protein, the organic foods.

is
Protein builds up the tissues and
the only food that can do this.

furnish heat
Carbohydrates and fats (including

the body.
oils)
and energy to
balanced ration
is
necessary to health.
Food requirement. Under ordinary conditions a man requires tV of an ounce of protein for each pound he weighs and enough fats and carbohydrates to furnish 2500-3000 Calories daily.
Exercises
1.
Name two
or
oils, (c)
animal and two vegetable foods rich in

carbohydrates'
differ
(a) protein,
(6) fat
2.
How
should a farmer's dietary
from that
of a
book-
keeper's ?
Why ?
282
3.

From what
foods do
we obtain the mineral matter needed

consumed yesterday, and the
for our bodies?

4.
Compute the
it
protein you
Calories your food provided.
could
5.
diet well balanced? How have been improved? Make out suitable meals for a day for yourself. (Use the
Was yoUr
one-portion food table.)

6.
How How
By
is
does a vegetanan obtain the protein necessary for his
body?
7.
would the number
of
articles of
food in a meat and
vegetable diet compare with the
number
in a diet that
was purely
vegetable?
8.
family
the use of the family food table determine whether your being well and economically nourished.
CHAPTER XXIV
FOOD PRESERVATION
Importance of food preservation.
science
is
In hundreds of ways
of these
making our
lives easier,
and one
ways
is
in teaching us
how
to preserve foods so that

all
we may enjoy
meats,
fruits,
and vegetables, at
is
times, instead of only in
their season.
The
table of a laborer
to-day provided the year around
with foods that two hundred years ago not even a king could
have obtained, and

has taught us
for this
we must thank
science,
which
underunder-
how
to preserve foods from decay.
To
first
stand
how to
fungi.
prevent the decay of foods
we must
stand the causes of their decay.
The
The
green coloring matter of plants, called

is
chlorophyll, with the aid of the energy of sunlight,
able
to convert the carbon dioxide of the air into the complex
compounds found
phyll,
in plants.
One, great group of plants, the fungi, contains no chloro-
them unable to prepare their They must start from organic matter that has been elaborated by other plants or animals that is, they are saprophytes. Our common fungi, the mushrooms and toadstools, are examples of such plants. It is to these fungi that the decay and spoiling of foods is almost
and
this lack renders
food from carbon dioxide.
entirely due.
There are three great divisions

that
of these colorless plants
we must
consider,
the molds, the yeasts, and the bac283
284
teria.

To
call
these colorless plants
is
likely to lead to a
misunderstanding.
They may be
is
highly colored in reds,
browns, or grays, but not greens, for'the absence of the green

coloring matter, chlorophyll,
characteristic of the group.
Molds and seen by the naked

their
their spores.
eye.
Molds
are large
enough to be
but as
There are many
varieties,
growth and reproduction are similar, we need not distinguish between them. If you will expose moist
methods
of
pieces of
bread, potato,
banana, or cheese, to the

air,
and allow them to

place
for
stand undisturbed in a
warm
a few
days, you will have

abundant opportunity to study mold growth (Fig.
99).
Fig. 99.
Mold, producing spores.

down
in
You
first
will
notice
that
white threads, the
mycelium, grow
rapidly
increase
into the host of the mlold.

size
and number,
These and throw out

After
colored.
branches until the bread
is filled
with them.
two
or
three days, the surface of the

color
mold becomes
This
may
be a brown, red, or blue, depending on the This color shows that the mold
is
variety of the mold.

fruiting, or
producing reproductive bodies called spores.
Close examination of the
common
blue mold, even with-
out the aid of a lens,
will
show that the mold has thrown up
above
ball.
its
surface tiny stalks, each bearing at the top a colored
Examination under the microscope shows that these

hundreds of small bodies called spores.
balls contain
As
the mold matures, these balls break open, and the spores
FOOD PRESERVATION
escape to be borne
285
away by
the winds, ajid to cause more
trouble to the housewife.
How
food.
to avoid molds.
The
conditions necessary for the
germination of the mold spores are moisture, warmth, and
This gives us the clew to the means of avoiding molds.

covered with a paper or with paraffin.
it
Jellies are usually
When
and
a spore drops on this covering,
can obtain no* food,
so does
no harm.
If,
is
however, a spore has fallen on
the jelly before the cover
put on,
it
will germinate.
Soon
the top of the jelly will be covered with a thick coating of
mold, and the upper part of the contents spoiled.
Most molds
jar
soft jelly
is fit
are not harmful, so that the contents of the

If
need not be thrown away.

immediately under
If,
it,
the mold
itself,
and the
are removed, the remainder
for use.
after the jelly has
been poured into the
and has hardened, the surface is brushed over with brandy, the alcohol will kill any spores present. It may now
glasses,
be covered with the assurance that

ing foods helps to keep them.
it will
not mold.
Cover-
Common
to 100 F.
molds grow best at a temperature
of
from 70
then help however,
Keeping food
growth
in the refrigerator will
to prevent the
of molds.
few
varieties,
grow best at a temperature of 40 F., a,nd these will of course grow freely in an ordinary ice chest. A temperature of 150 F. will kill any mold that has started
to germinate.
Some
spores will resist this temperature.
To make
it
sure, therefore, that
canned
Allow
fruit will
it
not mold,
should be heated to 150 F.

this time
to stand for a day.
During
Heating a second time

with certainty.
any spores present will start to grow. will kill these, and the fruit will keep
The
presence of moisture aids the growth of mold upon
286

Leather
is
almost any organic material.

is
safe as long as
it
dry, but, allowed to

is
become moist,
it will
mildew, and milis
dew
one of the forms of mold.
Dry
food, as crackers,
never troubled with these annoying

of foods
is
visitors.
The drying
an important method
of preserving foods.
The housewife should prevent any molds

in the kitchen
that
may grow
from fruiting and scattering spores to make
other foods mold.
possible in the light, as
Foods should be kept cool, and where most molds grow best in the shade.
all,
Most important
importance of this
tell
of
is
foods should be kept dry.
The
will
well seen in apples.
Every grocer
you that cold storage apples do not keep long after removal from the cold storage warehouse. This is largely because, when they are removed from the cold rooms, they condense a film of water on their skins. Any spores that fall on them will then stick fast. The moisture remains longest where the apples touch each other, and therefore the apples start to decay there. If, after the apples have warmed to the temperature of his store, the grocer would carefully wipe each one, the tendency to spoil would be
greatly lessened.
Wrapping
fruit in
paper tends to preserve
it,
for not only
does the paper keep spores from falling on the
fruit, but,
be-
ing absorbent, keeps the surface of the fruit dry.
Knowing
you can see why one rotten apple will infect a whole barrel. As the mold ma'tures, the spores scatter, and soon all of the fruit is covered with them. Every break in the skin is then an invitation for spores to enter and grow, and they quickly accept the opportunity offered. Flavors due to molds. Sometimes molds are purposely introduced into food to give it a characteristic flavor. Roquefort cheese when first made is entirely lacking in its wellthe
life
history of the molds,
FOOD PRESERVATION
known
taste.
287
first
To
.produce thi, wires are
thrust
into,
They are then thrust into the new cheese. In this way the mold from the ripe cheese is introduced into the new cheese, where it grows and produces the green color and pleasant flavor. Brie, Stilton, and Camembert are
ripe cheese.
other cheeses the flavors of which are at least partly due to
molds.
All of these cheeses should
be eaten when just

finally
ripe,
as the continued
growth
of the
molds
makes the
flavor too strong to be agreeable.
Yeasts and
how
they grow.
Yeasts are microscopic oval

called budding.
plants that reproduce

ining
scope,
by a process more
Exam-
yeast under the micro-
you can
oval
g-fnTir
see little
than
about
colorless
bodies,
o^
^^
iîch in
diame-
ter (Fig.- 100).
If
you continue
your w;atch, you will see a small knob form on one end of the
yeast
plant.
in,
The
cell
wall
draws
dividing
this
knob
the
from the original plant,
two break apart, and we have two plants. In this way yeast plants increase in numbers with
great rapidity.
Fig. 100.
Yeast plant.
The enzyme of yeast. The yeast plant secretes a substance known as zymase. This is one of a class of bodies known as enzymes (also called /ermente). When studying oxygen, we found that the decomposition
of potassium chlorate took place at a lower
temperature
if we added manganese dioxide, yet after the oxygen was all given ofi^, the manganese dioxide remained unchanged.
288

are
call
The enzymes and we may
compounds that serve a similar purpose, them by the same name, catalytic agents.
Their presence enormously increases the speed of certain

chemical changes.
There are many

in the body.
of these
is
enzymes
found
or digestive ferments
saliva,
Ptyalin
found in the
is
and changes and

is
starch to sugar.
Pepsin
in the gastric juice,
changes proteins to peptones and proteoses.
Trypsin
and has much the same action as pepsin. The particular action that is aided by zymase is the change of sugars into carbon dioxide and alcohol.
found in the pancreatic
juice,
CeHijOe -^ 2
Yeast in bread making.
CaHsOH +
2 COj
The use of yeast in making bread light has been known from antiquity. Leavened bread was bread made light by adding leaven to the dough.
'
This leaven was dough saved from a previous baking, and

contained yeast.
Yeast spores are found floating in the
air
everywhere,
and
if
dough
is
yeasts " are sure to
always desirable
to taste sour.
some of these " wild fall into it. These wild yeasts are not additions, for some of them cause the bread
exposed to the
air,
From
these wild yeasts the cultivated yeast of to-day. has
been obtained. The yeast plants are placed in large vats, mashed potato and hops added, and the whole kept at a temperature of 80 F.
tents of the vat
is
Yeast plants multiply rapidly, the con-
becoming thick and frothy.

well drained, starch
it is
The yeast
it
then thrown on a cheesecloth, to remove some of the
excess water.
When
is
mixed with
to
make
it
firmer,
and
cut into cakes and sold as com-
pressed yeast.
FOOD PRESERVATION
If yeast is gently dried, it passes into a in
289
which state
it is
sold as dry yeast cakes.
where, a supply of yeast
must be kept
for
dormant state, These are used some time, as com-
pressed yeast will not keep long.
The carbon dioxide produped by the action of yeast in dough makes the bread porous, and more easily digested, owing to the larger surface exposed to the action of the
digestive juice.
Biscuits raised with baking powder,
and
aerated bread, contain the same ingredients as ordinary

bread, but have a very different flavor.
Fermented drinks. All fermented drinks, from homeroot beer to champagne, are made by the action of yeast on sugar. In root beer a small quantity of a highly flavored extract is mixed with sugar, yeast, and water, and
made
bottled.
Fermentation
occurs,
and the
carbon
dioxide
produced makes the liquid bubble and froth when the bottle
is
opened.
It
must be remembered
is
if
in using these
homemade
bever-
ages, that alcohol
produced
in addition to the
carbon
dioxide,
days, an
and that, amount
the fermentation continues for several

is
of alcohol
produced as great as that
contained in a light beer.
Kumiss is made by adding yeast and sugar to milk. The mixture is allowed to ferment for a day, and then
bottled.
When
is
cool
it
is
ready for use.
It
is
claimed
that
it
more
digestible
than raw milk, and
is
used by
invalids.
Manufacture
alcohol,
of grain alcohol.
is
Ethyl alcohol, or grain

Grain,
C2H6OH,
is
made
by converting the starch of grain

and
distilling the alcohol.
into sugar, fermenting this,
as barley,
It is
spread out on jloors to a depth of six inches.
kept moist and warm.
The
grain starts to germinate,
290
CHEMISTRY
IN
THE HOME
when the
to sugar.
diastase present changes the starch of the grain
As soon
as the
maximum amount
is
of sugar has
been ob-
tained, the grain
ground, and yeast and water added.

is
Fermentation takes place, and alcohol

mixture
is distilled,
produced.
The
and as alcohol
boils at a lower
all of
tempera-
ture than water, the distillate contains
the alcohol,
is
mixed with a good deal

then again
alcohol of the druggist
is
of water.
it.
The
dilute alcohol
distilled to concentrate
In this a
way
the
95%
prepared.
Properties of alcohol.
liquid, lighter than water,
Alcohol
is
colorless,
it.
,
volatile
and miscible with

colorless,
all
It burns It
is
with a very hot, almost

intoxicating
blue flame.
the
is
constituent
fuel,
of
fermented
solvent.
is
drinks.
It
widely used as a
dissolve in
in alcohol.
and as a
Resins and
oils
it freely.
Shellac varnish
a solution of shellac
The
tinctures of
the druggist, as tincture of
iodine, are all solutions in alcohol.
Denatured
alcohol.
The government
levies
a heavy tax
on alcohol that can be used for drinking purposes. Formerly this tax was a burden on the manufacturer of chemicals,
who
uses large quantities of alcohol as a solvent.
To meet
called de-
industrial needs, the
government allows what

This
is
is
natured alcohol to be sold tax free.
alcohol to which
it
some substance has been added that renders

solvent.
unfit for
drinking, but does not interfere with its use as a fuel or
Denatured alcohol can be sold at about one

it
fifth
the price of pure alcohol, as
pays no tax.
is
Wood
CH3OH.
alcohol.
When wood
is
distilled,
one of the
alcohol,
dis-
products obtained
wood
alcohol,
or
methyl
This
is
a
It
light, colorless liquid,

is
having a
agreeable odor.
used, like grain alcohol, as a fuel
FOOD PRESERVATION
and a
solvent. It
is
291
a poison, and must not be used' in
beverages.
Ether.
By
distilling
is
a mixture of strong sulphuric acid
and
alcohol, ether
obtained.
CaHsOH + H2SO4 -^
is
(C2H5)20
+ H2SO4 + H2O
Ether
exposed
Ether
istic
is
a very volatile, colorless liquid, having a characterIts
odor.
vapor
is
very heavy and inflammable.

ansesthetic.
used by surgeons as an
Manufacture
to the
into alcohol.
is
of vinegar.
When
;
sweet cider
is
air, it first
turns hard
this
that
is,
yeast converts the sugar

is
If
hard cider
the
allowed to stand,
it
converted into cider vine-
gar.
This
is
due to
action Of mother-of-vinegar.
An
examination of mother-
of-vinegar under the micro-
scope shows that
it
is
comis
posed
of
myriads of bacteria.
then,
Vinegar,
which
weak
is
solution of acetic acid,
one of the products of bac-
terial action,
and we should
would be acted
FiQ. 101.
-
expect that any dilute solution of alcohol

Bacteria in mother-ofvinegar.
upon
in the
same way.
is
Much
alcohol.
of the vinegar used in pickling It

is
prepared from
the ordinary " malt vinegar " or " white
wine vinegar " of trade.
large cylinder
is
filled
with
wood
shavings, placed on trays so thkt they cannot pack
too closely together.

vinegar, to
These shavings are
first
soaked in
Pro-
impregnate them with mother-of-vinegar.
WEED CHEMISTHY-
292
vision
air
must be made by means of holes for the passage of through the cylinder, for the change of alcohol to acetic
acid
is
really
an oxidation
is
of the
alcohol (Fig. 102).
Dilute alcohol
trickle slowly
then allowed to
the
shavings,
through the cylinder.

over
As
it
passes
which are covered with the necessary bacteria, the alcohol

is
con-
verted into acetic acid.
If
the
conversion
is
not complete by one

that
passage through, the liquid
runs from the bottom of .the cylinder

is
returned to the top and run
through again.
The product
FiG. 102.
is
satisfactory for
cooking and pickling processes, but

Vinegar m^tking. Quick process.
lacks the flavor of cider vinegar.

It has
'
sometimes been a tempta-
tion that the manufacturer could not resist to
add a
little
caramel to the product.

vinegar,
This gives
it
the color of cider
and
it is
sold under that
name.
Bacteria
are
still
Bacteria and
how
they reproduce.
smaller than either molds or yeasts.
They
are so small
indeed that the highest powers of the microscope are needed

to see them,
and even these high powers do little more than show us moving dots. One of the largest of these bacteria is about loî^-Q of a-n iiich long, while many are not more
than ioloo of an inch in diameter. It is only within the past few decades that we have known anything about these minute forms of life, for they are
invisible to the eye,
and
their study even
under the micro-
FOOD PRESERVATION
scope
tells
293
us
little
it is
about them.
at them.
They
are very simple in
structure,
and
quite impossible in
many
must
cases to identify
test
the variety
by looking
We
them
to see
Fig. 103.
Bacteria.
(1),
Typhoid
fever.
(25)
Forms
of bacteria
found
in milk.
what they can

Bacteria
do.
In form, they are usually spherical,
rod-shaped, or spiral.
multiply
individual will lengthen,
by simple division. and then divide

Reproduction
is
A
in
rod-shaped
two.
This
process
is
named
fission.
very rapid, some
bacteria dividing every half hour.
This accounts for their
immense numbers, for if every individual divides every half hour, at the end of six hours there would be 4096, and at
the end of 24 hours about 17,000,000 bacteria
all
descended
from one parent.
These organisms are plants, but have the power to move. In popular usage bacteria are called germs, and all kinds of malign influences are attributed to them. This idea is not
quite right.
It
is
true that certain varieties,
called the
pathogenic bacteria, cause certain diseases.

tion,
Thus, consumpbacteria
typhoid fever, and diphtheria are caused by the presence
in the
are,
body
of certain bacteria.
The pathogenic
however, in a small minority, the nonpathogenic forms
far
outnumbering them. These nonpathogenic forms are
of great
importance to
us.
its
They destroy the

elements to the
organic refuse of the world, and return
soil in
such a form that plants can use
294
them.
CHEMISTRY
They
lisT
THE HOME
One
are of great importance to the farmer.

is,
form
in particular fixes the nitrogen of the air, that
changes
the free nitrogen of the air which plants cannot assimilate

into a nitrate
which they can
use.
These nitrifying bacteria are often found associated with

the legumes, such as peas, beans,
lentils, clover,
,and alfalfa.
They grow
the
in nodules
on the roots
of these plants
and make
soil fertile.
In starting a new
field of alfalfa,
the ground
should always be inoculated with these nitrifying bacteria

before planting the alfalfa seed.
dirt
field.
This
is
done by sprinkling
from an old
alfalfa field over the
ground
of the
new
Bacteria are also useful to the dairyman, for the
flavor of butter
and cheese depends on
their action, as well
as on that of the molds.
Some pathogenic
certain forms
of
bacteria cause diseases to which only

life
animal
are
subject.
Advantage
is
sometimes taken of this to exterminate rats and mice.
Food
is
spread around that contains these bacteria.

it,
The
mice and rats eat
and
die of the disease that
it
produces.
Other animals can eat the food with impunity, as they are
not subject to the disease caused by these bacteria.
How
to control bacteria.
To
the housewife, however,

it is
bacteria are always a trouble, for

activity that
their presence
difficult.
and
make
the preservation of food
We
must then study the conditions that favor

so that
their growth,
we may know how to control them. Most of the common forms grow best at the ordinary temperature, or a
temperature slightly higher.
cold will then help.to preserve
few, however,
grow best
at
a temperature only slightly above freezing.

it.
Keeping food
Certain kinds of bacteria multiply by spores.

are formed inside of
thie
These
individual bacteria, break through
POOD PRESERVATION
the
cell wall,
295
ing place.
and float around until they, find a suitable growThese forms are very difficult to get rid of, for
even boiling them for a
Their spores, howkill
their spores are so resistant that
short time will not
them.
all
Boiling will
kill
practically
bacteria.
ever, will resist boiling for a short time, so that to
be sure
that food
either boil
is sterile,
that
is,
contains no bacteria,
we must
it for an hour, or boil it for a short time, allow it and stand, so that any spores present will develop, and then boil again. Merely warming the food will not answer, for this only causes the bacteria to grow the faster. Light is a great enemy of bacteria. They grow best in dark, damp, dirty corners. To keep our houses as free as possible from these enemies, we must have plenty of sun-
to cool
light streaming into every
room.
Light
The
is
sunlight
may
fade
the carpet, but this
is
of
no consequence, compared to the

especially fatal to the
preservation of our health.
pathogenic forms.
of keeping the
In sickrooms, then, the

is
common
practice
room dark
not to be recommended.
A light
room
will
not only make the patient more cheerful, but will
assist in controlling the disease
by
killing the
germs that
may
cause
it
in others.
Like molds,
bacteria
require
water for their growth.

:
There
molds grow best on acid grow best on slightly alkaline materials. Fruits therefore decay by the action of molds, while meats
is
this difference,
however
foods, while bacteria
spoil
by the action
is
of bacteria.
This rule
is
not of universal
application, but
generally true.
Where
where.
or of a
bacteria are found.
Bacteria are found every-
An
bank
examination of the saliva, of the dust of a room,

note, will
are,
show
their presence in large
numbers.
air.
Small as they
they are somewhat heavier than the
296
and therefore
found

settle to
the
floor,
where they can
easily
be
in quantities.
In cleaning a room the
common
practice of sweeping,
stirs
and
then dusting with a feather duster, simply

bacteria,
It
is
up the
and they find new and

diseases are "spread
less desirable
growing places.
of these facts.
better to use an oiled cloth
and wipe the dust away.
Many
The
by a disregard
saliva of a
consumptive contains the bacteria that

If,
cause the disease.

street,
then, the consumptive spits in the
and the
saliva dries,
many
of these bacteria will
be
set free to float in the air, to be
healthy persons, and so

tion.
drawn into the lungs of expose them to the danger of infec-
Too
great care cannot be exercised in keeping these
pathogenic forms under control.

Action of bacteria on proteins.
Proteins form the main
its
food of bacteria.
Their action causes

unfit for use.
putrefaction and
makes the food

outward sign
bacteria
Even food that shows no

be dangerous,
for, in addiitself,
of their action
may
tion to the products arising from the decay of the food

secrete
some poisonous compounds. These are called ptomaines. Fish, shellfish, and ice cream are very likely to develop ptomaines, especially in the summer. They often cause severe and sometimes fatal poisoning.
Pasteurization of milk.
Different
varieties
of
bacteria
produce
different
results.
Thus,
the
mother-of-vinegar
bacteria change alcohol to acetic acid.

is
One
other variety
troublesome to the housewife, the variety that changes
milk sugar to lactic acid, and thus causes milk to sour. This variety does not form spores, and
to a temperature of 155 F.
is
killed
by exposure
To keep
milk sweet, then,

is
it
should be heated to 155 F.
This process
called pasteurization.
Milk heated to
this
FOOD PRESERVATION
297
temperature does not have the taste of boiled milk, nor are
the albuminoids coagulated, as they are in boiled milk.
To
pasteurize milk
it
should be placed in bottles, and these
placed in a double boiler and heated to from 155170

(Fig.
for
twenty minutes
104).
The
cold.
is
milk
should then be cooled rapidly,
and kept
If
pasteurized milk
kept
at ordinary temperatures,
it will
spoil
more quickly
Although
than raw milk.

sour,
pasteurized milk does not

it is
subject to putre-
faction
and should not be
kept over 24 hours.

Preservation by cooling
Fig. 104.
Pasteurizing apparatus.
it
and drying.
best
One
and
of the
is
means
of preserving food
to keep
is
cold.
The
use of
refrigerators,
of cold storage,
universal for this pur-
pose.
Even
cold storage will not, however, keep food inof time in the
definitely,
food
may
and a limit should be placed- on the length remain in cold storage. As you learned
is
previous paragraphs, cold storage
efficacious
because most
molds and bacteria do not grow in the
cold.
it.
Keeping food dry

fish,
also tends to preserve

all
Dried
fruits,
and meats are
examples of the use of this method

is
of preserving food.
Its usefulness
due to the fact that

will
is
bacteria and molds require moisture for their growth.
Preservation by canning.
for this kills the bacteria,
Boiling
if
preserve foods,
and
the food
protected from
298

it will
keep a long time. The canned vegetables that form such a large proportion of the stock of the
fresh infection,
grocer are examples of this
method
of preservation.
if
The
vegetables are washed, cut up
necessary,
in tin cans.
The cans
cooked.
are then covered
and placed and heated, often
under pressure to raise the boiling temperature, until the

vegetable
is
The
cans are then sealed.
The
diflfi-
culty in the process comes in being sure that every form of
microorganism
is
killed
by the
heating.
If a singje spore
survives, the contents of the can will spoil, and, as
some
of
the bacteria spores are very
resistant,
it
is
difficult
to
be sure that they are

keep
indefinitely,
all
killed.
Properly canned foods
and the process has been a boon to
hunCianity.
The canning
ciples.
sterile,
of fruit at
home depends on
it
the same prin-
If
the fruit jars, the rubbers, and the tops are

fruit is
and the
If,
heated until
too
is sterile,
the fruit
will keep.
however, the rings are washed in cold water,
or the hot fruit allowed to stand open in the jars for a while,
will probably not keep. serves sometimes " work,"
it
bubbles of
smell?
Can you now explain why preand why, when they are opened, gas are seen and the preserves have an alcoholic
Foods are sometimes kept by These must have two properties. They must have antiseptic powers, and they must be harmless to man. There are many substances such
Chemical preservatives.
the use of chemical preservatives.
as mercuric chloride, corrosive sublimate, that will prevent
the growth of the microorganisms that cause food to spoil.
Corrosive sublimate
is,
however, a violent poison, and so
Other substances as sugar, salt, spices, vinegar, and the smoke from smoldering wood, have a precannot be used.
FOOD PRESERVATION
servative
action,
299
harmless.
Still
and
are
regarded
as
another class of
acid, benzoic acid
preservatives,
including
borax,
boracic
sali-
and benzoates,
is
salicylic acid
and
cylates,
and
sulphites,
used.
Some
of these,
used in small quantities, are probably

it
harmless.
Their use, however, makes

.use
possible for the
manufacturer to
sumption.
of
If
material that
is
unfit for
human
con-
tomato catsup can be made without the use
any preservative, why should we buy a product that contains a preservative? It may be harmless, and the material used by the maker may be of a high grade, but so long as its use makes it possible to use inferior materials, and so long as it is not certain that preservatives are harmless, why buy the doubtful products? There is another objection to their use. Even the manufacturers
who
use these preservatives claim only that they
are harmless in small quantities.
Now
if,
as sometimes
is
happens,
if
much
of the food served at a
meal
canned, and
preservative,
considerable.
each of the articles contains only a
little
the total
It
is
amount that we consume may be
therefore a wise rule to avoid their use altogether.
Never buy food preserved with sodium benzoate or other preservatives, even if their
use
is
allowed by law.
One notable example

tives
is
of the use of such
harmful preservaThis
will preserve
it will
it.
the use of formaldehyde in milk.

is,
the milk, that

rot.
the milk will not turn sour, but
Its use
will
is
illegal,
but some cheap milks contain
If
milk
not sour in the ordinary length of time, you
may
be sure that a preservative >has been added.

or use such milk.
Never buy
find
The same
thing
is
true of
all
foods.
Whenever you
a brand of catsup that will not
spoil, or
sausages that do
300

They must contain
all
not go bad, do not use them.

tives,
preserva-
and
it is
best to avoid
such food products.
Antiseptics.
of
The same
also
agents used, in the preservation
foods
may
be used as disinfectants, and here we

of certain
must be sure that we understand the meaning

terms.
deodorizer
it
is
a substance that destroys a noxious

one.
odor or covers
up with a stronger
Many
deodorizers
are of no value, indeed are harmful, for their use leads to
the belief that the cause of the odor has been removed,
which
is
not the case.
liberal
use of cologne
it
may
cover
up the odor
of perspiration,
but
will
not obviate the
necessity for bathing.
An
antiseptic
is
a material that checks the growth of

not, however, kill
all
bacteria.
It
is
may
of those present.
germicide
a material that
kills all bacteria.
Antiseptics,
when used
in quantities, are generally germicides.
To
disinfect is to
remove the cause

it is
of trouble.
If chlorine If corrosive
oxidizes decaying matter,
a disinfectant.
sublimate
is
used in a strength that will

it
is
kill all
bacteria
and prevent putrefaction,
a disinfectant.
We
have
already seen that both heat and sunlight will
kill bacteria.
We may
use both of these as disinfectants.

of
The number
to
is
chemical disinfectants
is
great,
but there
are five that can so easily be used at
home
that you ought
know something
mercuric
of
them.
called
One
of the
most important
HgCl2.
quickly
is
chloride,
corrosive
sublimate,
Used at the strength

fatal
of 1 to 1000 of water, it It
is
to
all
microorganisms.
intensely
is
poisonous,
and
this limits its use to places
where there
is
no danger
of its
being swallowed.
extensively used.
Bleaching powder, or chloride of lime,

Its value
depends upon the liberation of chlorine.
When
FOOD PRESERVATION
the
301
it is
damp
material ceases to have a strong odor,
ex-
hausted, and should be replaced
by
fresh.
Carbolic acid,
It
is
or phenol,
is
an. excellent
disinfectant.
not as
efficient as either corrosive
sublimate or chloride
It
is
of lime,
poison,
but is used more than and must be handled with Formaldehyde. Formaldehyde,
either.
an intense
one of
is
care.
or
use.
is
formalin,
is
the best disinfectants for
home
It
Formaldehyde
It
gas with a disagreeable odor.
soluble in water,
40%
solution of
it is
sold as formalin.
and a has no effect on
fabrics,
and
it.
so clothes that need to be disinfected
may
be
soaked in
is
One of the difficulties of effectively disinfecting a room to make sure that all parts of the room come into contact
Formaldehyde
is
with the disinfectant.

liberated in a
will
a gas, and,
if
it is
room
in quantity, every part of the
room
be disinfected.
is,
Formaldehyde polymerizes, that

is
several
molecules
combine together to form a new molecule.

called paraformaldehyde. It
is
This polymer
solid,
a white
which on
heating
solid is
changes back into the gas formaldehyde.

heated over a lamp and
,
The
of
is
thus
made
to give off the
disinfecting gas.
This
is
an easy and
efficacious
way
disinfecting a room.
Sulphtir dioxide.
Sulphur,
when burned, forms the

is
gas
sulphur dioxide, SO2. sulphur trioxide, SO3.
This gas
It
is
easily oxidized,
forming
therefore a
good reducing agent.

burned
in
For
this reason it
is
used as a bleaching agent, especially for
straw,
and dried
is
fruits.
mass
of sulphur,
closed room,
a fair disinfectant, but not so good as for-
^naldehyde.
It
has the advantage that sulphur can be

its
bought anywhere, and
use requires no especial apparatus.
302

gas sulphur dioxide
is
The
and
is
easily
sold in the liquid state in tin cans
compressed to a liquid having an opening
closed
by a lead
it is
pipe.
To
use these cans to disinfect a
room,
only necessary to close the room as tightly as
possible,
sealing all cracks
by pasting paper over them,
then cut the lead pipe.

to flow out.
This allows the sulphur dioxide
Place the can on a tin dish, go out, and close

liquid changes to a gas, which, going everyit.
the door.
The
where in the room, disinfects
SUMMARY
Molds cause foods to
Heat
kills
spoil.
They propagate by
spores.
They
require moisture, warmth, and food, before they can grow.
them.
Certain foods, as cheese, owe their flavor
to them.
Yeast contains zymase, which changes sugar to alcohol and carbon

dioxide.
An enzyme
specific
is
an organic catalytic agent which hastens certain

is
chemical changes.
Ethyl alcohol, or grain alcohol,
prepared by the action of yeast

to purify
it.
on sugar.
.
The product
is
is distilled
It is used
in beverages, as a fuel,
and as a
solvent.
Denatured alcohol
alcohol
made nonpotable by
the addition of
wood
Ether
is
alcohol, etc.
It is
ethyl oxide.
made by
taking one molecule of water

It
is
from two molecules

Vinegar
Bacteria
is
of alcohol.
used as an ansesthetic.
made by
the action of mother-of-vinegar on alcohol.
It is dilute acetic acid.
rapidity
to
microorganisms. They multiply with enormous by fission. They cause foods, especially protein, putrefy, and are useful as they destroy organic waste.
are
Pathogenic bacteria cause disease. BoiUng kills them. Ptomaines are poisonous bodies produced by certain bacteria.
Pasteurization
is
heating milk to 155 F.
This kiUs the bacteria
that produce lactic acid and sour the milk.
FOOD PRESERVATION
303
Keeping food dry and cold preserves it, because this prevents the growth of bacteria and molds. Harmless preservatives sugar, salt, spices, vinegar,, and the smoke from smoldering wood wiU preserve food. These preservatives
:
are harmless.
Chemical preservatives to be avoided borax and boracic acid, benzoates and benzoic acid, salicylates and salicylic acidj and
:
wiU presence foods. They are all probably somewhat harmful. Formaldehyde is a poison and should never
sulphites,
be used as a food preservative.
deodorizer cover's
of
up a bad odor with a stronger
one.
It
is.
no value.
of bacteria.
An antiseptic is a material that checks the growth A germicide is a material that kills all bacteria.
Household disinfectants
:
mercuric
chloride,
chloride
dioxide.
of
lime,
carbolic acid, formaldehyde,
and sulphur
Ezeicises
1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
Why is it important to prevent molds from forming spores? Why do preserves sometimes "work"? Why do not preserves in strong sirup spoil, even if left open? Why do canned soups sometimes spoil?
What would you
conclude
if
bottled milk kept sweet for
four days?
6.
Why
If
does sweet cider become hard?

explain
7.
8.
Name two enzymes and

vinegar
is
what each
does.
sul-
only dilute acetic acid,

It
why
not use dilute

for sodp
phuric acid instead ?

9.
How
would be cheaper. can druggists keep " fresh fruit "
fountain
use on their counters for days without its spoiling?
CHAPTER XXV
SILICON, SILICA,
Silicon.
AND SILICATES
It
is
remarkable that the second most abundant
element
people.
is
not known, even by name, to the majority of
Silicon constitutes
28%
of the earth's crust,
and
yet you probably never saw even one specimen of the pure
element.
This
is
because
it
always exists naturally in comsilicate.
pounds, either as the dioxide, or as a
It resembles
carbon in
It
is
its
chemical properties.
its
reduced from
compounds with great

is
diflBculty.
But with
the aid of the electric furnace it
now made
itself
is
in
large quantities.
The element
is
a brown, crystalline body,
which burns readily

no. importance in the
in the air.
The element
of
home, but
its
compounds are
in use
by
every one.
Silica
and
its varieties.
Silicon dioxide, Si02,
known
of
also
as
silica,
occurs distributed everywhere in nature.

it
In the
form of quartz
soils.
constitutes the bulk of sand,

it;
and
many
Many
is
plants contain
the coating of rattan, for
example,
almost pure
it
silica.
When
by
pure,
crystallizes
(Fig.
in
six-sided
prisms, topped
clear,
six-sided
pyramids
of
105).
These
colorless
crystals are called rock crystals and,

stones.
when
cut, are rhine-
Many
is
the stones sold under such names as

are cut from quartz.
"
Congo diamonds "

Quartz
harder than glass, and has only a small coefficient
of expansion.
That
is, it
expands very
304
little
on heating.
dish
made of quartz can
therefore be heated red-hot
and then
SILICON, SILICA,
plunged into
ice
AND
SILICATES
305
water without breaking.

is
This, together
with the fact that quartz
infusible at a white heat
and
Fig.
105.
Quartz
crystals.
is
unaffected
in the laboratory
by most chemical reagents, makes it valuable for dishes and crucibles. These were
formerly so expensive that chemists could not afford to use
them, but they are

electric furnace.
now made cheaply by
the use of the
The
colors in quartz are
due to small amounts

colors
it violet,
of im-
purities.
little
manganese
and makes the
serniprecious
stone, the amethyst.
Other impurities pro-
duce smoky quartz, or the cairngorm stone of Scotland,

rose quartz, chalcedony, jasper, carnelian,
and the
so-called
yellow topaz.
Opal
is
is
quartz containing some water.
Its play of color
due to
fine cracks in the ston^,
which cause an interference

in the
of light.
These
colors are
produced
same way
as are
the colors in a soap bubble.
306

of these stones
Many
They
polish
all
when
cut are of a beautiful color.

soft,
have, however, the disadvantage of being

stones,
compared to the precious
and
so
do not hold
their
when subjected
to hard wear.
Sand is broken-up quartz, and, when cemented together, makes sandstone. Flin^ too, is a variety of quartz. Quartz sand is used in making glass, porcelain, and as a building material in mixing mortar and cement. Silica as an abrasive. Quartz is largely used as an abrasive and polishing material. Sandpaper consists of sharp sand
glued to paper.
The
shells of certain small

silica.
water plants,
die, their soft
falls
the diatoms, are largely
When mud
they
parts decay, but the shell being silica remains,
through
the water, and forms a layer of

water.
on the bottom of the

earth,
106).
it
The
shell
remains of these diatoms are called dia-
tomaceous
earth
(Fig.
or
infusorial
When
is
freed
from impurities,
polishing powder.
sold as a
Examine some "electro-silicon"

under the microscope, and you
will see
the curious structure of

valves of these diatoms.
the
silica
Agate.
Fig. 106.
Quartz
is
insoluble in
Diatoms.
(X
pure water, but in the presence of

50.)
an
Since
alkali it will slowly dissolve.
many
natural waters, especially in the western part of
our country, are alkaline, quartz dissolves in them.

solved quartz
This
is
dis-
may
be precipitated by an acid.
It
in this
way
that agates are formed.
into a hole in the rock, the quartz

layer.
Sometimes the water
is
Water containing silica runs is deposited, and forms a clear and leaves a clear layer.
SILICON, SILICA,
AND
SILICATES
brown or black
is
307
ring.
Sometimes
In this
it
is
muddy and
leaves a
way
the banded structure of the agate
produced.
The
brilliantly colored agates are all colored artificially.

silicates.
Common
known
Silicon forms a large
as silicic acids.
Their
salts, called
number of acids silicates, make up

all
the bulk of the rocks of the earth.

stone, serpentine, asbestos,
Feldspar, slate, soapare

silicates.
and
talc
We
may
sodium silicate in the laboratory, by fusing together sand and sodium carbonate, and dissolving
easily prepare
the resulting mass.

soluble glass,
Sodium
and by
silicate is called
water
glass, or
and
is
used as a cement for asbestos and glass,

calico printers
in preserving eggs,
and soap makers.

silicates
Making
important
sand,
glass.
is
glass.
Among the artificial By melting together
the most
in a large clay pot,
calcium
car-
bonate (marble), and
sodium sulphate or
carbonate, a
trans-
parent .viscous mixture of sodium
and
is is
calcium
obtained.
glass.
If
silicates
This
the
are
materials
perfectly
colorless
used
pure,
glass
results.
The
Fig.
presence of iron as
an impurity gives us
green bottle glass.
107. Glass furnace. The glass is melted in clay pots (AA) whicli are sur? rounded by hot gases.
,
By
purposely adding a coloring agent,

color.
we can produce glass of any

manganese, a
violet,
Cobalt gives a blue,

color to glass.
and chrordium, a green
'
308
CHEMISTRY
glass
IN
THE HOME
The workman pushes
on
Many
molten
utensils
are blown.
the end of an iron tube (the blowpipe) into the mass of

glass,
and
collects a ball of the thick material
the end of his blowpipe.
By
this
blowing
through the blowpipe,

ball
is
changed into a bubble of glass, and, as

it is
soft,
the work-
man
into
can
form
it
any required
a bottle
shape, as
or tumbler.
\Yindow
large
glass
is
made by blowing
bubble
swinging
it
and
it
then
until
stretches
out into a cylinder

(Fig.
lOS).
The
are
top anil bottom of

this
(6)
lil-llL-utillK.
cylinder
Fig. 108.
Window
It
is
glass
making.
then cut off, and the

cylinder
cracked
down one
side.
then placed on a hot iron plate, the
cracked side uppermost.
The heat
softens the glass,
and
flat-
the cylinder slowly opens, forming a sheet.
This
is
tened as
much
as possible
by pressing
is
it
against the iron
plate with an iron instrument resembling a spade.

urally the
Natthe
sheet of glass
never
quite
flat,
hence
unevenness of our window
glass.
SILICON, SILICA,
Plate glass.
plate glass.
If
AND
SILICATES
309
use
c wish
is
perfectly flat glass,
we must
This
made by pouring molten

all
glass
upon an
from
iron table having a ledge
around
is
it
to keej) the glass

it
running
it.
off.
A heavy
roller
then passed over

glass.
It is
to flatten
This gives a thick sheet of
then ground and

is
polished on both sides.
As much
of the glass
wasted
in
(a)
Getting a lump of glass on the blonpi|je.
iln
Blowing
a bottle in a
Fig. 109.
Bottle making.
is
the grinding and polishing, and as the cost of these two
operations
is
high,
plate glass
nuich more costly than
ordinary glass.
of
Molding glass bottles. Many bottles are molded, instead being blown into shape. The blowpipe, havijig a lump
on
its
of glass
end,
is
inserted into a mold.
The workman
blows through the pipe, thus forcing the glass to take the shape of the mold (Fig. 109).
The mold
is
then opened, artd

left
the completed bottle taken out.
Usually a ridge
by the
place where the mold opens can be seen on such
bottles.
310
'CHEMISTRY IN THE
variation in the
HOME
its
Any
amount
of glass used will alter the
thickness of the walls of the bottle, and this will alter

capacity.
To be
it is
sure that the bottle will hold the required
amount,
weighed.
An
automatic weighing machine

its
is
used that will reject the bottle unless
weight
falls
be-
tween certain fixed
limits.
In this
way
the bottles that
and remelted. Making glass tubing. Glass tubing is made by blowing a small bubble of air into a ball of glass on the end of a bloware too thin or too thick are detected
pipe.
blowpipe
is
then stuck in the side of the glass ball
opposite to the
directions.
first,
and the two workmen run
in opposite
This stretches the ball out into a tube.

size of
By
varying the
glass,
the air bubble in the original ball of

at
and the speed

glass.
which the men run, large or small

'
tubes, with thick or thin walls, can be made.
Chemical
Many
glasses contain silicates of other
metals than sodium and calcium.
For chemical glassware
a potassium calcimn
as
it is
glass, called
Bohemian
glass, is used,
harder and more infusible than the sodium calcium
glass.
For the
glass.
glass used in photographic lenses, the
most
is,
diverse mixtures of silicates are used.
Cut
glass
Cut
glass
is
made from
a lead glass, that
containing lead
silicate.
It is heavy,
and takes a
a cut glass
beautiful luster
on being polished.
is
To make
molded.
bowl, the heavy bowl shape

is
first
The
ground
design
then drawn on this with chalk and then cut on sandstone This leaves the glass rough and
this cutting
like
glass.
wheels.
It
is
then polished, using rouge or some similar polishing

It
is
powder.
expensive.
and polishing that make cut
glass
Ground glass. Ground glass is made by the use of a sand Sand is blown by compressed air against the surface blast.
SILICON, SILICA,
of ordinary
AND
SILICATES
311
the glass
window glass. Each grain of sand as it strikes makes a tiny scratch, and these scratches crossing
glass translucent.
and recrossing each other make the

ground
glass
is
Fine
also
made by pouring
dilute hydrofluoric acid
on a glass
plate.
Graduating glassware.
tage
Glass resists the action of most
chemicals, but hydrofluoric acid,

is
HF,
dissolves
it.
AdvanThis
taken of this in marking thermometers and graduates.

of the
The stem
is
thermometer
is first
covered with wax.
scratched through with a needle where the graduations are
to come,
and hydrofluoric acid poured

it
on.
This dissolves
the glass wherever
has been exposed, 'and has no action
on the wax.
In this
clay.
Formation of
way lines or letters are placed on glass. So many minerals are silicates that a
fill
mere
list
of their
is
names would
several pages of this book.
Meerschaum
a silicate of magnesium;
garnet and horn;
blende are both silicates of calcium and magnesium a silicate of potassium and aluminium
of
;
mica
is
feldspar
;
is
a silicate
and asbestos is a aluminium and sodium or potassium These are only a few examples of silicate of magnesium.
the
many
is
important
common
silicates.
and for monucomposed of a mixture of quartz, feldspar, and usually mica or hornblende. Long-continued action of Quartz air and water eventually breaks up the granite. mica, being light, is washed away and is set free as sand
The
familiar rock, granite, used in building
ments,
feldspar remains.
This feldspar disintegrates, the sodium'
or potassium silicates
left.
wash
out,
This
is
called clay.
When
it is
a white, earthy^mass, called

tile,
and aluminium silicate is free from all impurities, kaolin, Al2Si207 2 H2O.
Brick,
a hard mass.
and stoneware. Clay when heated becomes Bricks and tile are made from it by this pro-
312
cess.

When
clay
is
is
This plastic clay

set aside to dry.
mixed with water, it becomes plastic. molded into the shape of the brick and
dry
it
When
is
" fired,"
that
is,
heated
to a red heat in a kiln.
Since the clay used contains fusible
impurities, these melt,
and bind the mass together into a

present in the clay, as
If
is
hard brick.
If iron is
usually the
case, the brick turns red.

results.
the clay
is
pure, a white brick
as brick.
Stoneware and flower pots are made by the same method To glaze them salt is thrown into the kiln while
the stoneware
ing fired.
tilizes,
is
be-
This volaattacks
of
and
the
surface
the
pot, forming a fusible
sodium
melts
silicate.
aiifl
This
spreads
over the surface of

the ware, thus forming
a
smooth,
im-
pervious layer called

a glaze.
Such stoneis
^r^mmmmim^^^
Fig. 110.
ware as this
cheap,
often
but the glaze

imi)erfect,
is
and
the
Insii:l(-
a potterj- kiln.
ware
It is
itself is
porous.
not suitable for plates, cups, saucers, and similar ware.
Porcelain.
porcelain.
The best quality of ware made from clay is To make this, pure clay is mi.xed with fine sand
and
which
and the whole is ground to a fine powder, mixed with enough water to make a plastic mass. lump of this is placed on a potter's wheel, which is a h(jrifeldspar,
is
SILICON, SILICA,
AND
SILICATES
313
zontal round board that can be rotated.
the wheel, and with his fingers shapes the

vase, plate, cup, or
is
any other object and fired. The feldspar contained in the mixture melts, and changes the whole mass into translucent,
then
air dried
The potter rotates lump of clay into a desired. The article
white porcelain.
of
The glaze used with porcelain is a finely ground mixture much the same composition as porcelain itself, but more
This
it.
fusible.
is
mixed with water, and the
fired porcelain
dipped into
A thin coat of glaze is left all

is
over the
article.
The
procelain
then fired again, the glaze melts, and forms
the smooth outside surface that
we
see
on our table porcelain.
When
potter's
a considerable number of articles are wanted that
are to be duplicates, instead of " throwing " the clay on the
wheel,
it
is
molded or
cast.
Plates,
cups,
and
saucers are
commonly made in Let us suppose that we wish

is
this
way.
to cast a cup.
plaster of
is is
Paris mold, having the shape on the inside that the cup
to have,
stirred
made
of the
in
two
pieces.
The
procelain mixture
is
with water until a thick cream called slip
produced.
slip
The halves
poiu-ed
in.
mold are then
tied together
and the
The
plaster, being porous, absorbs water,
and
a thin layer of the porcelain mixture sticks to the mold.
When
this layer
is
thick enough, the excess slip
is
poured
mold separated, and the cup taken out. A piece of the plastic mixture is rolled out, and from this the handle of the cup is formed. This is pressed on the cup and sticks fast. It is air-dried and fired. Porcelain may be decorated by painting any design on
out, the halves of the
its
surface, using a colored fusible silicate as paint.

is
When
the procelain
fired, this
paint melts into the glaze, and
becomes a part
of
it.
314

concrete.
Cement and reenforced

proportions,
Cement
is
made by
heating together Hmestone, clay, and sand in the proper
and grinding the resulting clinker to a dust. mixed with water, a mass is produced that becomes hard, even under water. Sometimes a rock is
When
this
is
found in nature containing

in the proper proportion.
all
three necessary ingredients
Such a roCk occurs near Naples, and was used by the Romans to produce the cement from which they made their famous aqueducts. When cement is mixed with sand and crushed stone, and then water is added, the mass hardens to an artificial stone
called
concrete.
This
is
extensively
used for
sidewalks,
building foundations, and floors.
Concrete buildings usually
contain iron rods imbedded in the concrete.
This makes
are
what
is
known
as reenforced concrete.
Such buildings
almost everlasting.
Blast furnace slag,
when mixed with

excellent cement.
limestone, heated,
and ground, makes an

good
illustration
This
is
another
of the
way that
chemists are utilizing
materials which were formerly waste products.
SUMMARY
Silicon
is
the second most abundant element.

is
Silicon dioxide, silica, or quartz
common
mineral.
Rock Sand
Opal
crystal,'
amethyst, agate,
jasper,
carnelian,
onyx, are
all
varieties of quartz.
is silica.
Sandstone
is
is
sand cemented together.

Its fire is
quartz containing water.
due to cracks
in the
stone.
is sharp sand glued on to paper. Diatomaceous earth is the silica valves of diatoms. a polishing powder.
Sand paper
It is
used as
SILICON, SILICA,
Glass
is
AND
SILICATES
glass
is
315
a mixture of
silicates.
Window
sodium calcium
Plate
glass
is
silicate.
Cut glass contains lead ground flat and then polished.
silicate.
Hydrofluoric acid will attack glass.

Pottery
is made by burning clay. Cement is clay, limestone, and silica ground together and heated. Mixed with sand and crushed stone it is concrete.
Exercises
1.
2. 3. 4.
6.
How How
could you distinguish stoneware from porcelain?

is
cut glass distinguished from
its
imitations?
What
? Why How can letters painted on glass bottles be made permanent?

v
advantages has a concrete house? are flower pots red, while clay is white
CHAPTER XXVI
TEXTILES
Fibers used in cloth.
Varied as are the fabrics and weaves
used in dress goods, the fibers used to produce them are few
in of
number.
Silk, wool, cotton,
and linen are the only four
much commercial
importance.
Many
others are used in
small amounts, as hemp, ramie, asbestos, and jute.

Characteristics fibers should have.
to spin fibers, they
To make
it
profitable
must
possess a
number
of characteristics
which adapt them to use

be woven until the thread
fibers
in thread or fabric.
is
Cloth cannot
spun, and to spin suitable thread,
having a considerable tensile strength are necessary.
Fibers which are able to resist a pull give good wearing

qualities to the cloth.
The
will
fibers,
too,
must be
long, as otherwise the thread
not hold together.
The
separate fibers
must have some

is
ability to stick together, as otherwise the thread
weak.
They must be pliable, so that they may be easily bent in weaving. They must be porous, or they will not take a dye, nor can they be easily bleached. They must be thin, They must be as otherwise we cannot weave a fine cloth.
of
imiform
size, as
otherwise the cloth will not be of uni-
form thickness.
success the fiber
Lastly, to
make weaving a commercial
must be available in large quantities, must be cheap, and must wear well. If you will consider the above necessary qualities that a fiber must have before it is suitable for commercial
316
TEXTILES
317
Fig.
111.
Asbestos
.4,
nutivu mineral
B, clotli
C, cord
D, atraud of
fibers
used in weaving cloth.
318

why
only a few of the
use on a large scale, you will see
many
use.
fibers
with which nature provides us are suitable for
Animal and vegetable
fibers.
The common
fibers.
fibers
may
The animal fibers, wool and silk, are nitrogenous compounds. They may be distinguished from other fibers by the peculiar odor they give when burning. Heat readily affects them, even a moderate heat weakening them materially. They are attacked by alkalies, but withstand the action of dilute
be divided into animal and vegetable
acids better than the vegetable fibers.
The
'
vegetable fibers, cotton and linen, are

cells,
made up
of
plant
and are largely
cellulose.
They
can withstand
quite a high temperature and the action of alkalies, but

acids attack
them and impair

fiber.
their strength.
Asbestos and glass

classes,
Outside of these two main
we have such
fibers as asbestos.
This
is
a mineral
that occurs in long white or greenish white fibers.

are very fine, but possess
It
is
These
brittle.
little
cohesiveness,
and are
therefore difficult to
make
a fine asbestos thread.
The
fibers can,
however, be woven
into, cloth,
and
will felt together
into a paperlike sheet (Fig. Ill),
Asbestos
is
a poor conductor of heat,
is
incombustible,
and melts at a high temperature.

it
is
The
cloth
woven from
a theater
fire,
therefore suitable for the fire curtain of
to shut off the auditorium from the stage in case of

for firemen's gloves, for a protection to
woodwork behind
is'
stoves,
and
for similar uses.
The mineral
cheap, and
asbestos paper, cloth, and sheets are used extensively.
Glass can be drawn out into fine thread and this has been
used to weave cloth.

possible,
Its
commercial use
is
of course im-
owing to
its
weight and brittleness.
TEXTILES
Even
its
319
material, but
curiosity.
is
spiders'
cost
and
scarcity
web has been used as cloth make the product only a

Our
its
it.
Cotton.
Cotton, an impure form of cellulose,

earliest records
the most
its
important fiber known.

use.
speak of
Herodotus
tells
us of
use in India, and the
army
of
Xerxes was clothed in

plant that
Is
It is the
product of the cotton
grown so
largely in our Southern States.
The
(a)
Cotton.
(6)
Wool.
fibers.
(c)
Silk.
Fig. 112.
Textile
world production
is
enormous, the annual growth being

seen to be a thin twisted
(Fig.
about 18,000,000 bales.
Under the microscope,

112).
it
is
ribbon, something like a dumb-bell in cross section
The
best grade
is
known
which
as Sea Island cotton, valued

is
for its long, strong fiber,

fine
used in the best grades of
thread and for mercerizing.

is
The average length

silk,
of
a cotton fiber In strength

it
1.6 inches
and
its
diameter 0.00064 inch.
comes between wool and
but
it is
not as
elastic as either.
If
is treated with dilute sodium hydroxide, and then with alcohol, 'all of the impuriare removed, and a soft, pure cellulose remains. This
the crude fiber
dilute acid, water,

ties
is
the absorbent cotton of the household.
Cotton goods, if tightly stretched and treated with concentrated cold sodium hydroxide for a short time, and then
320
well

Washed with water, gain about
silk.
30%
The
in strength
and
acquire a luster like that of
process
is
called
If the
mercerization, and the product, mercerized cotton.
process
is
well done, mercerized cotton can scarcely be dissilk.
tinguished from
Linen.
The
flax plant gives us the fiber called linen.
Its
use in cloth dates back even earlier than the use of cotton,
for
mummy
cloths of linen
have been found
in
Egypt that
fiber.
date from about 2000 B.C.
The
oil
plant grows to a height of
about 40 inches, and

addition
it is
the stalk that yields the
In
we obtain
linseed
from the seeds.

stagnant water, where an
The
flax stalks are placed in
active fermentation soon starts.
This allows the linen fiber
to be separated from the other plant products
by mechanical
silklike
means.
The
It
is
length of the linen fiber varies from three feet

It
is
to a few inches.
luster.
smooth, and has a somewhat
much
stronger than cotton.

it is
As
it is
better conductor of heat than cotton,

as a dress material.
cool
much when used

a
Wool.
varieties,
is
Wool
is
the hair of
sheep.
There are many

it
depending on the variety of sheep from which
Cashmere comes from the Thibet goat, mohair from the Angora goat, and alpaca from the llama. Not all of the dress goods having these names come from the
obtained.
proper source, as the peculiar characteristics can be imitated
by common wool.
All wool fibers
have an outer layer

(Fig.
of flattened cells, the
edges of which project outward, giving a saw tooth appear-
ance under the microscope

fibers
112).
When
the
wool
are beaten together, this peculiar structure causes

interlock,
them to
and
felt.
These
scales are small
and
numerous.
In mohair there are 2000 ^scales to the inch.
TEXTILES
Wool
fiber.
321
fibers are
from
to S inches in length.
Wool
is
bleached with hydrogen peroxide, as chlorine attacks the
Wool
is
readily soluble in
sodium hydroxide, which

it
gives us an easy
It ilyes easily
way
of distinguishing
from other
old
fibers.
and the
colors are usually fast.
As wool
cloth
is
is
comparatively expensive,
picked to pieces, woven again into

proportion of
to
worn woolen yarn, and used
with a
new
cloth.
wool
make
is
" This " shoddy
has a
short
antl
fiber,
weak,
w'ear
will
not
as
well
as
new
wool.
It is of
course
cheaper.
Much
of
the
of
" all
wool cloth "
comfor
merce contains cotton.

If
it
were
sold
what it is, the cotton would not be objectionable, for the partly
Fig. 113.
of
Testing for
"all wool."
The ends
cotton
clotli
can
be
two pieces of cloth were placed in hot dilute sodium hydroxide. The " all wool " is shown on the left the mixed wool and
:
cotton on the right.
produced more cheaply

than the
with care.
if
all
wool.
It
is
not as
warm
as wool,
it
two materials shrink

It
is is
ditt'erently,
so that
and the must be used
a simple matter to detect the fraud, for
such a cloth
SUk.
placed in hot dilute sodium hydroxide the

the cotton will remain (Fig 113).
wool
will dissolve, while
Silk
is
obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm.
The cocoons
silk
is
are heated to 70
C, which
kills
the worm.
The
then unreeled, the
silk fibers
from several cocoons
322

is
twisted together, and thus a silk thread
obtained.
is
Only
about
thread.
10%
of the
weight of the cocoons

is
obtained as
Five per cent

silk,
waste
is
silk
and broken threads
used in spun
while the rest
waste.
Fig. 114.
Silkworm, cocoons,
chry.salis,
moth, and skein of
silk.
Silk
thread
has a beautiful luster, and a high
tensile
strength, 64,000
pounds per square

is
inch.
The average diamIt is readily It

is
eter of the thread
about 0.0005 inch.
dyed.
The
fiber
is
round and smooth (Fig 112).
easily soluble
in concentrated hydrochloric acid, or in basic zinc chloride,
which gives us an easy means
of distinguishing the fiber.
TEXTILES
Artificial silk.
323
silk,
Owing
to the beauty of
and
its
high
cost,
silk.
many
attempts have been made to prepare an artificial There are several products on the market that go
of artificial silk.
by the name
three
They resemble
them.
it
in luster,
but have an entirely different composition.
There are
main methods
is
of preparing
Collodion silk
in a
made by
dissolving nitrated cellulose
mixture of alcohol and ether, and squirting the solution through a small opening. The fine thread that forms is
passed through water, which coagulates
it.
made by moniacal copper oxide. The

Cuprate
silks
are
dissolving cellulose in solution

is
amcop-
forced
it.
through
fine glass tubes into water,
which coagulates
The
per
is
removed by a treatment with

is
dilute acid
and the
thread dried.
Viscose silk
a solution of mercerized cellulose in sodium

It
hydroxide and carbon disulphide.

ish
forms a thick yellowThis solution

is
gelatinous
mass,
fine
soluble
in
water.
forced through
openings into a solution of
ammonium
but are
sulphate which coagulates the fine thread.

All of these artificial silks
have the
luster of silk,
deficient in strength, especially
to dye, as
injured.
in the
when wet they are They are used extensively

of braid, neckties,
when wet. They are difiicult so weak that they are easily
as silk substitutes, as
manufacture
and
artificial horsehair.
SUMMARY
Asbestos
Cotton
is is
silicate
that occurs in long

cellulose.
fibers.
It is
used in mak-
ing heat insulation cloth.
almost pure
It is the
most used
fiber. for cloth
and thread. Linen comes from the flax plant. Wool is obtained from sheep. It
WEED CHEMISTBY
21
is
soluble in sodium hydroxide.
324
Silk

comes from the silkworm.
It is soluble in hydrochloric acid.
Artificial silk is
made by
dissolving cellulose, forcing the solution
through small holes to produce a thread, and then coagulating the solution. It has the luster of silk, but is weak, especially
when
wet.
Exercises
1.
How is felt made,
arid
what causes the fibers to
stick together?
2. 3. 4.
What simple test will distinguish wool from cotton? What is shoddy? Would the fibers \n rhubarb be suitable for weaving
Paper can be made waterproof.
a cloth?
Explain.
6.
Why
is
this material not a
suitable dress goods?
CHAPTER XXVII
LAUNDRY CHEMISTRY
General methods of removing stains.
To remove
a stain
from
cloth,
without injury to
it,
is
often a difScult matter.
The knowledge gained in your study of chemistry will help you, for when you know the properties of the substance causing the stain, you can often tell what means to use to
remove
it
with certainty and safety.

:
The
it,
general methods of removing a stain are

it,
to dissolve
it,
to absorb
to bleach
it,
or to neutralize
Many
delicate colors are altered or destroyed
by the chemicals
used to remove stains.
If
a small piece of the goods can
be had,
it is
it,
well to try the effect of the reagent
to use on
so that
you expect you may guard against using anything

solution.
that will change the color of the fabric.
Removing
pend on the
stains
by
The
safest
method to
will
try
first is solution.
The
solvent to be used will of course de-
stain to be
removed.
Water
dissolve
such substances as sugar, gum, and

use cold-water
first,
many
salts.
Always
and plenty
of
it.
A good way is to hold
the stain under the cold water faucet, and allow the water
to flow through
out,
it.
After most of the stain has been washed
warm
water
may
be used to complete
its
removal.
To
remove a
bleach.
stain takes time.
In bleaching cotton sheeting
the manufacturer takes more than a day to complete the
Do
not expect water, or any other solvent, to

325
326
remove a
CHEMISTRY IN TKE HOME

stain instantly.
water will often help.

Alcohol
The addition of soap to the The soap forms an emulsion with

its
the staining material, and aids

is
removal.
another
common
solvent that will
remove
many
stains caused
by organic substances.
Grass stains
readily dissolve in alcohol.
Grease
is
soluble in benzine, naphtha, gasoline,

of
and benzol.
While
use
is
all
these will readily dissolve the grease, their

all
dangerous, as they are
inflammable materials.
silk
Fires have been caused
by rubbing a
waist in gasoline.
lîny electric
The
friction of the silk
sometimes generates
sparks,
results.
it is
which set fire to the gasoline, and a disastrous fire Carbon tetrachloride, CCI4, will dissolve grease;
It should
cheap and noninflammable.
be used instead
of gasoline.
Carbona
is
is
largely carbon tetrachloride.
Fresh paint
turpentine.
easily
After paint has dried,

it
removed by carbon tetrachloride or it must be softened,

or pine tar
oil,
by soaking
be removed.
or
oil.
in
amyl acetate
is is
before
it
can
Varnish
a solution of
gums
in either alcohol
If
it.
a spirit varnish
If
it.
to be removed, alcohol will

is
dissolve
an
oil
varnish
to be removed, gasoline
will dissolve
Ether and chloroform are other solvents
that are sometimes useful.
you must remember that you and forming a solution. If this solution is not removed from the fabric, you have not removed the stain, but spread it. If, starting at the center
using
solvent,
When
any
are dissolving the stain
of the spot,
you rub a grease spot with a
little gasoline,
the grease dissolves, the solution spreads, and you have a

ring of grease.
To
avoid
this, start at
the edge of the spot,
and work toward the
center.
this dissolves the grease,
Use plenty of solvent, and as remove it, and replace it with fresh.
LAUNDRY CHEMISTRY
Removing
stains
327
by absorption.
Grease spots can also

gasoline
be removed by absorption.
Mix
with
talc
or
starch to a thick paste, and place this over and under the
spot.
Capillary action will draw the grease solution up
into the talc.

if
When
dry, brush off the talc,
and repeat
necessary.
Blotting paper
may
be used in the same way.

grease will be
Place a piece of blotting paper over and under the spot,
and press with a warm

into the paper.
ii;on.
The
drawn
must
that
Necessity of using a suitable solvent.
The
solvent
be suited to the material to be removed.

iron oxide
is
You know
insoluble in
far.
all
is
of the solvents that
have been
mentioned so
iron rust with
It
then useless to try to remove
iron rust before
any of them. You must find a solvent for you can remove it by solution. Acids will
dissolve rust, but strong acids are likely to injure the cloth.
An acid must be selected that will do as little harm as possible,

and used weak.
The
Silk
is
acid that
we
select
depends, too, upon the fabric.
soluble in hydrochloric acid.

silk.
Obviously hydrochloric
acid cannot be used on acid
weak
solution of oxalic
may
be used.
On
cotton or linen cloth, weak hydro-
chloric acid will
acid has served or

it
its
remove the rust more quickly. After the purpose, it must be carefully removed,
stains.
will injure the cloth.
Removing acid
dicators, a
color.
Since most anilin dyes are

alkali will
If
in-
drop of either acid or

is
change their
spilled
The remedy
silk skirt
to neutralize.
its color,
lemonade
on a
changes
a drop of dilute
ammonia
will restore
the color, for the change produced by the lemon
was due to the acid that it contained. In the same way, washing soda will alter colors. A few drops of a dilute acid
328
will restore

them.
Do
not forget to wash out the materials
used.
Bleaching with Javelle water.

solved.
We
may
must
is
resort to another
One simple way

water
^
to bleach
it.
Mildew cannot be dismethod to remove it. weak solution of Javelle

cloth
is
be used.
The mildewed
The
cloth
soaked
in
weak
Javelle water, rubbed well,
and allowed to remain

is
until the
mildew
is
oxidized.
then well washed.
Many
stains caused
by
anilin dyes
can also be oxidized by
the use of Javelle water.

either wool or silk.
Chlorine must not be used on
Bleaching with sulphur dioxide. turned yellow

hat
is first
Straw hats that have
may
wet,
be bleached with sulphur dioxide.
The
dirt,
little
scrubbed with soap and water to remove

still
and, while
sulphiuis
hung up
in
an inverted
barrel.
burned under the
barrel.
The sulphur
dioxide
produced
will
bleach the straw.

After clothes have been washed they
Bluing clothes.
commonly have a slight yellow tinge. They may be bleached by the action of dew and sunlight. If the clothes are spread
on the
grass,
and allowed to remain some time, they
will
it
be
bleached to a pure white.

possible to
Most
is
city dwellers find
im-
do
this,
and bluing
piu*e white.
resorted to.
The
slight
blue tinge given to the clothes neutralizes their yellow tinge,
and they seem to be
A
lump
number
of different substances are
used for bluing.
Formerly indigo was used.

of indigo
As
it is
insoluble in water, a
and swished through the If care was used, this was satisfactory, but, if the bluing water was allowed to stand, the indigo settled, and the clothes were streaked.
was
tied in a cloth
water.
This
left
indigo in suspension.
'
See the laboratory manual for
its
preparation.
LAUNDRY CHEMISTRY
Ultramarine
action
is
329
Its
is
now used
as a substitute for indigo.
the same as that of indigo.
Reckitt's blue belongs
to this class of insoluble blues.
Prussian blue
is
used as a cheap substitute for ultramarine.

if
This has the disadvantage that

rinsed before the blue
is
the goods are not well
used,
It
it is
will
decompose and produce
iron rust on the clothes.
not as satisfactory as either
indigo or ultramarine.
Soluble washing blues are largely aniline colors.

are easy to use, as they do not settle,
satisfactory color.
stain the fibers.
They
and give the clothes a Dyes are used that do not permanently
Soap
of
is
The use
clothes.
of soap.
used for ordinary cleansing of
good grade
laundry soap should not contain

fat.
too large a percentage of water, and no free
The
is
yellow
laundry soaps are
made
in part
from
is
rosin.
This
hardly
an adulteration, as rosin soap

freely.
a detergent and lathers

clothes yellow.
it is
It tends, however, to
is
make the
The
presence of free alkali

clothing
objectionable, as
harmful to a disputed
and to the
skin.
is
Just
how soap
aids in the removal of dirt

is
question.
chanical.
Its action Its action
probably both chemical and me-
solutions will break
is largely due to the fact that soap up and emulsify the fatty substances
that hold the dirt on the clothes.
Washing powders.
softens hard water.
Washing soda
acts
upon grease and
mixture of washing soda and pow.of
dered soap makes up the majority

It
is
the washing powders.
usually cheaper to use washing soda and soap than
these prepared powders.
When
crystals of
washing soda
are used, they should be dissolved in water
and a
little of
the solution mixed well with the wash water.
330

laundries
How
wash
clothes.
An
outline of the
method
will
used in a large laundry in cleaning collars and cuffs
show the
differences
between commercial and home methods.

to identify them,
The
collars are
marked
and then placed

dirt, and*
in cold
water for five minutes.
This loosens the
dissolves
some albuminous matters that would be coagulated This water is if the collars were put into hot water first. then run off, and hot water and soap added, also washing
if
soda
that
is
necessary.
The water
is
gradually heated
to the boiling point.

this " first suds."
Twenty-five minutes are allowed for
The
lime
is
dirty water
is
run
off,
replaced
by
fresh,
and a small
chloride of
quantity of soap added.

also added.
bleach
made from
is
This " second suds "
gradually heated
to the boiling point.
After twenty-five minutes this second soapy water
is
run
acid
off,
and the
is
collars rinsed twice
with hot water.
Ten
minutes
is
allowed for each rinse.
third rinse containing

is
then given.
The
object of the acid
to neutralize
any
alkali
remaining in the clothes, as this would destroy
the bluing used.
The collars are then blued, rinsed again, and The starch used is a thin boiling, cornstarch, and The excess of into the collars by machinery.
then rubbed
cloth,
off, first
starched.
is
rubbed
is
starch
with the hand, and then with cheese-
and the
collars dried.
They
are then
dampened and
the bleach em-
ironed.
The main
ployed.
objection to such laundries

is
is
This
often used too strong, so as to hasten the
whitening of the clothes.
As a
result,
the cloth
is
made
very tender, and
is
easily torn.
LAUNDRY CHEMISTRY
SUMMARY
Stains are
331
removed by
solution, absorption, bleaching,
and neuSoluble
tralization.
Laundry blues are
indigo, ultramarine,
and Prussian
blue.
blues are aniline colors.
Washing powders are mixtures
of soap
and washing soda.
Exercises
1.
2.
How would you remove Why does the juice of
a grass stain from a white skirt?

grapefruit stain colored goods,
and
how would you remove

3.
the stain?
Why
4.
5.
What
6.
7.
do you put clothes to soak in cold water? is " dry cleaning "? How would you clean your straw hat? Why are blued clothes sometimes streaky? Are yellow soaps economical?
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE CHEMISTRY OF COOKING
Advantages
life
of
cooked food.
all
It
is
possible to sustain
on raw food, but
mankind, including even the savage
races,
has found that cooking renders
many
foods
more
be
palatable.
Food
is
cooked for
many
reasons.
T.'ie flavor
may
improved, as in the case of meats.
The tough
fibers are
softened, allowing easy digestion, as in the case of vegetables.
Any
parasites present are killed, thus
making the food more
healthful.
verts starch into dextrin
Cooking coagulates the protein present. Dry heat conand glucose. Moist heat swells
the starch granules and causes

are
them
fats
to break open.
Sugars
changed to caramel, and
decompose.
All these
changes cause alterations in the flavor of the food, and often
produce savory odors that arouse the appetite.
How
to
cook protein.
Boiling an egg
is
perhaps the
you understand how to do this, you will understand the fundamental principles underlying the cooking of all meats. Albumin when 158 F. coagulates. If the raw egg is put into heated to boiling water, the outside layer of albumin quickly becomes hard and tough, while the inside of the egg is still raw. If, however, the egg is placed in cold water, and gradually heated, it becomes hot all through, the albumin coagulates
simplest operation in cooking,
if
and yet
332
THE CHEMISTRY OF COOKING

throughout to a
jellylike
333
mass, and the egg
is
more palatable
and
digestible.
if
In boiling meats,
the meat
is
put into cold water, the
albuminoids and extractives dissolve, and pass into the water.
This makes the water

tasteless.
rich,
but leaves the meat "dry and
We
should therefore put the meat into boiling

the albumin on the outside and
If
water.
This
will coagulate
prevent the escape of the

juice, as in
juice.
making soups
9,nd beef tea,
we wish to extract the we should cut the

and heat
meat them
into small pieces, put these into cold water,

slowly.
Simmering.
ture of 185 F.,
into boiling
Simmering, which
is
cooking at a tempera-
makes meat
tender.
The meat
is first
put
water to coagulate the outside, and then the

This keeps the fibers tender, but the
temperature lowered.
meat must
fault
is
of course be cooked for a longer time.
Fried steak has ruined
many
a farmer's stomach, but the
not in frying, but in the

is
way
in
which
it is
done.
If
put into a cold frying pan, with some fat, and then heated, the fat is drawn up between the fibers of the meat. Each individual fiber is covered with a layer of fat, and a
a steak
greasy, dry,
indigestible
mass
results.
If
the steak had
been put on a very hot frying pan, the outside ends of the fibers would have been seared, and a result almost equal to
broiling obtained.
Deep-fat frying.
is
Frying by immersion in deep, hot fat

of cooking
common method
many
foods.
Fat does not
but when heated to a temperature considerably above the boiling point of water, it smokes. It is then almost at its kindling temperature, and care must be taken that
boil,
it
does not catch on
fire.
it
As smoking
fat
is
far
above 212
F.,
water thrown into
instantly changes into steam.
This
334

is
causes a slight explosion, and hot fat

It is for this reason that
thrown around.
whatever we wish to fry should
be dry.
Fried foods are greasy because cooks do not keep the fat
hot enough.
fat
is
When,
as in the
home, a small quantity

it
of
used, to throw a large handful of potatoes into
cools
the fat so much, that, instead of a crust forming on the

outside of the potatoes, which prevents the entrance of the
fat,
the grease sinks in between the starch grains.

is
Naturally
a greasy, indigestible mass
the result.
Rule for cooking meat.
There are only two things to

If
remember
in,
in cooking meats.
heat quickly to coagulate the outside.
extract the juice, heat slowly,
you wish to keep the juice If you wish to and keep the temperature
advantage gained
in
below 185 F.
Cookiag vegetables.
cooking vegetables
is
The
in
chief
Heating swells
making them more digestible. the starch granules and they burst, tearing
and
if
apart the cellular structure in which they are imbedded.
The
digestive juices are then able to get at the starch

it.
digest
Vegetables are best placed in plenty of boiling water
we wish
to retain their flavor.
When we
wish to extract
part of the flavor, as in the case of onions, they are best
placed in cold water, and then brought slowly to a boil.
A
cook
fallacy of cooks.
is
One very common mistake
of the
in thinking that
hard boiling heats water to a higher
temperature than slow boiling.

at 212 F.
boiling,
You know
is
that water boils
Whether it is boiling makes no difference. It
furiously, or is only just
impossible to raise
is
its
temperature.
fuel.
To
boil
potatoes hard, then,
to waste
THE CHEMISTRY OP COOKING

SUMMARY
Cooking food makes it easier to digest, more palatable, and Cooking meats To keep meat juices in, place the meat
:
335
safe.
first in
boiling water.
To
extract
meat
juices, place
the meat in cold
Simmering
water and heat slowly. is cooking by heating in water at a temperature of

185 F.
Temperature of boiling water. Water has the same temperature, whether boiling slowly or furiously. In an open vessel at
sea level
it is
212 F.
Exercises
1.
2. 3.
How would you hard-boil an egg? How would you prepare beef tea ? Why do thin pieces of potato swell when
dropped into very
hot fat?
4.
5.
Why is the meat left in preparing soup so tasteless?

In cooking vegetables should they be put
first
into hot or
cold water?
6.
Why?
causes greasy doughnuts?
is
What
7.
Why
toast rather than bread given to invaUds?
CHAPTER XXIX
CALCIUM AND ITS COMPOUNDS
The metal
found
calcium.
The element calcium

sodium,
it
is
a hard,
is
sil-
very metal, that has no commercial use.

free in nature, for, like
Calcium
never
oxidizes
on exposure
air.
to moist
easilj'
It
is
prepared
by
Its
the electrolysis of the
fused
chloride.
compounds are important,
forming about
the
one fifteenth of the

bulk
of
earth.
You
them,
are
as
already
lime
familiar with
some of and
marble.
Calcium carbonate.
Calcium
carbonate,
CaCO.3, occurs in the
most
Fig.
11.5.
varied
forms,
LimofttoiK^, sliowiijg
it.H
shell orijîn.
sometimes beautifully
and sometimes as an amorjjhous rock. Marble, limestone, and the shells of shellfish are almost entirely Chalk is thi' shell remains oF a microcalcium carlxmatc.
crystallized,
organism
and
is
almost pure calcium carbonate.

336
When
CALCIUM AND
washed
ing,
ITS
COMPOUNDS
337
and
puri-
fied, it is called h7(/<-
and
is
used for
calcimine.
ing
Whitmixed with linoil
seed
forms putt)-.
are calcium
is
Pearls
carbonate, as
coral.
it
also
When
pure,
occurs in large,
crys-
transparent
tals, called
Iceland
spar and dogtooth

spar.
All
toDtll
,S|j;ir.
varieties
of
calcium carbonate are easily acted on by acids, carbon dioxide being given
off.
CaCO^ +
Marble.
HCl -> CaCb +

it
IL2O
+ CO2
and
This serves to distinguish

]Marble
is
from other white rocks.

it is
insoluble in water,
an inter-
esting question
how
sucli
animals as corals can obtain the

If
calcium carbonate necessary to form their skeletons.
you
have ever noticed the marble slab under the faucet of the
soda fountain, you
will
have seen that
it is
very badly worn,

is
even though the rest of the soda fountain

slabs
new.
These
clue.
have to be renewed every
jêar.
This gives us a
Carbon dioxide when it dissolves in water forms an acid called carbonic acid, and marble is soluble in this acid, forming calcium bicarbonate.
II.2O
CO2 -> H2CO3
II2CO3
CaC03^(;'aIl2f('03)2
338

When
rain
it
rains, the
water
dissolves
carbon dioxide
the
air,
from
and forms a
weak
Fig. 117.
solution of car-
How caves
it,
bonic acid. This sinks

are formed
by water
into the ground, and,

if it
containing carbon dioxide.
runs over marble.
will dissolve
forming a solution of calcium bicarbonate.

sea,
This runs to the

animals
and
it is
from
this source that the coral
and the
shellfish
obtain the
calcium carbonate
necessary for their growth.
How caves are formed.

stone leaves cavities
in the
This dissolving of marble or lime-
ground. These
are caves, such as the
Mammoth
Kentucky.
ble
cave
of
As marin
varies
hard-
ness,
it
some parts of will be more easily

the
dissolved than others,
hence
winding
the
large
passages,
rooms, and low channels

If
found
in caves.
water containing
calcium bicarbonate
trickles over the roof of a cave,
rates,
and evapocarI'lo.
calcium
.
118.
bonate
is
left.
As
Stalactites
and stalagmites
in
Mammoth cave.
CALCIUM AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
339
icicle,"
water continues to flow in and evaporate, a stone "

called a stalactite, forms.
A
its
slight
wind blowing through the

In such ways the most
cave will force the water to one side of the stalactite, or a

grain of sand wifl divert
course.
curious stalactitic forms arise.
more water trickles down the stalactite than can evaporHere it forms a pool ate, some drops to the floor of the cave. that slowly evaporates and deposits a mound that slowly
If
grows upward.
This
is
a stalagmite.
When
a stalactite
and a stalagmite meet, they form a column. As the water occasionally contains iron and
purities, these growths are sometimes white,
mud
as im-
and sometimes
little
brown, pink, or dark

Chair, and other fanciful olijects
gra>-.
It recjuires
only a
imagina-
tion to see in these grotesque growths the Organ, the Bishop's
that the
to
guide points out

you.
Coral rock.
Coral
live
animals
cannot
out of water, so
when
to
they
their
have
carried
skeletons
within a few feet of the

surface
of
the
Coral.
ocean they stop building.

it
Storms break
oft'
the top portion of the coral rock, grind
to powder, and this
fills
vegetable matter drifts
up the cracks of the coral. Floating on to the coral and is caught, shells and
finally, as a result of all these
seaweeds are washed up, and

agencies, a land area
is
formed above the surface
of the ocean.
Birds then use this as a resting place and deposit seeds there.
340
or,

Soon
perhaps a floating coconut strands on the shore.
we have a verdant coral isle. you have been in Florida and noticed the rock (coquina) of which St. Augustine is largely built, you know that it is composed of broken shells. In time, these broken shells become compact, and limestone results. This cpmpletes the cycle, that will recommence when rain water falls on the limestone and again dissolves it. All marble and limestone
vegetation starts growing, and
If
deposits are the remains of
life.
In
many
specimens of
limestone you can
make out
is
faint traces of the shells
from
which
was built. Gypsum. Gypsima

it
one of the
common
white minerals
is
found in
it
many
parts of the United States.

nail.
It
so soft that
can be scratched by the finger

it is
When pure it is white,
by the presence amounts of impurities. Chemically it is calcium sulphate, CaSO^, containing two molecules of water of crystallization, CaS04 2 H2O. When heated, gypsum loses most of this water of crystallization and is converted into amorphous calcium sulphate. This, when mixed with water, combines with it, crystallizes, and forms gypsum once. more. Plaster of Paris. Anhydrous gypsum is ground to a fine powder called plaster of Paris, because it was first made near the city of Paris. This is used to make plaster objects by mixing it with enough water to form a thick mud, and pouring
but
often colored red, yellow, or brown,
of small
into molds.
The water combines with the calcium

is
sulphate,
forming gypsum, the niass sets or becomes hard, and a

plaster cast
thus obtained.
Large amounts of plaster of
Paris are used in

of walls,
making
plaster casts, stucco, the final finish

of such
and the outside

is
temporary buildings as are

one part of gypsum
often erected at seaside resorts.
Gypsum
slightly soluble in water,
CALCIUM AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
it
341
requiring 500 parts of water to dissolve

peratures.
at ordinary temit
Since
gypsum
is
common
mineral,
follows
that in
contain
many
parts of the country the spring waters will
gypsum in solution. Making of quicklime. When heated

off
to a red heat, marble
decomposes, and gives

oxide, called quicklime.
carbon dioxide, leaving calcium
CaCOg
The making
kilns.
heat
is
-> CaO
+002^
by
of quicklime
carried out commercially
heating marble or limestone in large furnaces called lime
The product
kiln
is
is
a white solid used in making mortar.
The
from
filled
with
gases
limestone.
The hot
furnace
the
conit.
stantly
mingle with
At about 1800
F. carbon
dioxide escapes from the
limestone and lime results.
This
is
drawn from the

of
bottom
the kiln from
time to time.
Slaked lime.
water
lime,
is it
When
added to quickswells up, and is
changed to slaked lime or

calcium hydroxide.
CaO + H2O -> Ca(0H)2
A
is
large
amount
of
heat
developed
during this
It
is
chemical change.
not
Fig. 120.
A Hme
kiln.
342
uncommon for a barge carrying quicklime to catch on fire, if, by chance, a little water reaches the lime. It is a dangerous chemical and must be stored with care. Self-heating canned soups, have been made by taking advantage of this heating
is
effect.
sealed pint can of soup

is
placed in a quart tin can, and the space between the two
filled
with quicklime.
The
outer can
is
then sealed.
When
is to be used, holes are punched in the outer can and water poured in. The lime slakes, and the soup becomes hot. This method of heating is of use to balloonists,
the soup
who dare not

loon catch on
use a
fire.
fire,
lest
the gas contained in the bal-
plaster. Mortar is made by mixing quicklime, and sharp sand. This mixture is placed between bricks to hold them together. The calcium hydroxide that is produced absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, and changes back to marble.
Mortar and
water,
Ca(0H)2
CO2 -> CaCOs
H2O
on walls
In time the mortar becomes as hard as the bricks themselves.
The
plaster used to cover the laths nailed
is
mortar to which some hair has been added to increase

tenacity.
its
Newly
built houses are unhealthful because both
the mortar and plaster, although seemingly dry, are giving

off large quantities of water.
This makes the house damp.
Then, too, the hair in the damp plaster slowly decomposes,
and
this
is
unpleasant.
Limewater.
Calcium hydroxide
is
slightly soluble in water.
The
filtered solution is called limewater.
It
is
used as a test
for carbon dioxide,
and
is
mixed with milk to
make
it
more
air,
digestible for invalids.
It
must be protected from the
as
otherwise
it
absorbs carbon dioxide and becomes worthless.
CALCIUM AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
343
use
As calcium hydroxide is a base, and is cheap, chemists it in large amounts to neutralize acids. It is also used
manufacture
of
in the
sodium hydroxide,
in bleaching powder,
and
in purifying illuminating gas.
Calcium phosphate.
in
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(P04)2,

of our bones.
places.
is
the
main mineral constituent

phosphorus in this rock
is
It occurs as a rock
Canada, Florida, South Carolina, and other

valuable as a
The
This
fertilizer,
but must
it.
be changed into a soluble form before plants can use

is
done by
treating the phosphate with sulphuric acid,

is
when
calciiun superphosphate
formed.
Ca5(P04)2
2 H2SO4
-^ 2 CaSOi
CaH4(P04)2
This superphosphate
is mixed with some nitrogenous material and forms a commercial fertilizer.
Bleaching powder.
Chloride of lime, bleaching powder,
CaOCla,
chlorine.
is
made by
The
in
passing chlorine gas over layers of powIt

is
dered slaked lime.
a white powder that smells feebly of
addition of an acid sets free chlorine, as you
have seen
your laboratory work.
CaCl(OCl) + H2SO4 -^ CaS04 + HCl + HCIO HCl+HC10->H20 + Cl2

It
is
used as a source of chlorine and for disinfecting.

waters.
Hard
salt is
When
water containing a soluble calcium
brought into contact with soap, a white precipitate Such water is called hard water. of lime soap is formed. There are two kinds, temporary and permanent hard water.
Temporary hard water contains calcium bicarbonate. It may be softened by heating, which drives out the carbon
dioxide, leaving calcium carbonate as a white precipitate.
CaH2(C03)2
heat
-^ CaCOs |
CO2 f
+ H2O
344

large quantities of
is
When
temporary hard water must be

Instead, lime
is
softened, heating
too expensive.
added,
right
and the water allowed to stand until clear. Exactly the amount of lime must be added, as otherwise, the
of
excess
lime
will
itself
make the water
hard.
This
method of softening can only be by a chemist.

CaH2(C03)2
carried out successfully
Ca(0H)2 -^ 2 CaCOs |
+ 2 HÔ
Permanent hard water contains calcium sulphate, or sometimes magnesium sulphate or chloride.
It
can be softened
by adding
sodiimi carbonate.
CaSOi
NaaCOs -* CaCOs |
Na2S04
in the
in-
Disadvantages of hard water.
Hard water used

It deposits a fur
home has
several disadvantages.
on the
side of teakettles,
of heat, renders
and
this deposit, being a
nonconductor
it difficult
to heat the water.
In washing, large amounts of soap must be used to precipitate lime soap,
and
this is waste, not only
on account of the
is
soap that
is
consumed, but because the lime soap

also objectionable in industries.
sticky
and
soils
the clothes.
is
Hard water
esses.
It forms
a scale in boilers, and interferes with
many
chemical proc-
How
hardness
is
measured.
always given in degrees.

carbonate, or
its
The hardness of water is One degree is one grain of calcium

salts, in
equivalent in other
one gallon
of
water (58,333 grains).
The
higher the degree of hardness,
the worse the water for domestic use.
One hundred
gallons
of water, of ten degrees hardness, requires of soap to soften

it.
about one pound
CALCIUM AND
ITS
COMPOUNDS
345
SUMMARY
Calcium
air. is
a silvery white metal that oxidizes on exposure to moist

exists
Calcium carbonate
shellfish, pearls.
as marble,
is
Umestone,
coral,
shells
of
Gypsum
calcium sulphate.
Heated and
forms plaster of Paris. Slaked lime is calcium hydroxide. Mortar is a mixture of quicklime, sharp sand, and water. Bleaching powder is made by passing chlorine over powdered calcium hydroxide. Temporary hard water contains calcium bicarbonate. It is softened by boiUng or by adding slaked lime.
ground,
it
Quicklime
is
calcium oxide.
Permanent hard water is water containing calcium sulphate, or magnesium sulphate or chloride. It is softened by adding sodium carbonate. Hardness of water is measured in degrees. One degree is one
grain of calcium carbonate, or
in one gallon of water.
Exercises
1. 2.
its
equivalent in other salts,
3.
4.
How would you obtain a plaster repUca How should putty be stored, and why ? Why does putty harden?
If
of a
medal?
you breathe through limewater,
it first
becomes cloudy and
then
5.
clears.
Why?
How could you distinguish between a temporary and a perma-
nent hard water?
CHAPTER XXX
DYES AND DYEING
Usefulness.
Many
of us
have in our home materials that

of a
have been discarded, not because of wear, but because the

color has faded, or
no longer goes with the furnishings

it is
room.
In
many
such cases
possible with a little care to

it
dye the
article at
home
so that
again becomes
useful.
Dresses, satin slippers, draperies, curtains, straw hats,

feathers, all
if
and
may be done as well

little
at
home
as
by a professional,
it
only care and a
chemical knowledge are used.
Preliminary precautions.
Before dyeing anything
must
not
be clean.
If
This means more than a mere surface cleanliness.

it
a grease spot has been imperfectly removed,
may
show on the goods, but it will prevent the even action of the dye and cause a spot. Perspiration stains, fruit stains, rust spots, all must be removed if we are to have a perfect result. It is well to remove any buttons, especially if of metal, and any bead or metal trimming, as these interfere with some of the dyes used. It is impossible to dye a light color over a dark, and in general the colors produced are more satisfactory on white cloth. It is well therefore to remove as much of the
original color as possible before attempting to re-dye.
Often
of the
boiling in
two changes
of water will discharge
much
original color.
Care necessary.
First select a suitable dye.
This means
not only to pick out a dye of the color you wish, but also one
346
DYES AND DYEING

that will be suitable for the material used.
347
When you have
studied the later paragraphs of the chapter, you will under-
stand
is
how to pick the
dye, depending on whether the material
fiber. Special care must be used in mixed goods. Many dyes do not take on cotton as well as they do on wool, sd that these dyes used on a mixture of wool and cotton would produce a mottled effect.
vegetable or animal
Having
(assuming
selected
it
the dye, dissolve
it
in a little water
to be one of the
common aniline dyes), and filter

particles.
through cloth to remove any undissolved

will
Dilute
the solution to the required volume in a large vessel that
Do not use iron pots, as any rust will prevent and the iron will discolor many dyes. Heat the dye until almost boiling and then immerse the goods, having first wet them thoroughly. This is important and is often overstand heat.
success,
looked.
If the
goods are not kept constantly in motion,
different parts of the cloth will receive different
amounts
of
the dye, and the color will be uneven, or not " level."
fore with the aid of
There-
two
sticks
lift
the goods and
move them
about during the time required to complete the dyeing.
Most dyes take best at the boiling temperature, but this does not mean that it is necessary to boil them furiously simply keep them at the boiling temperature. The shade of the
;
goods after drying

this reason,
is
generally lighter than while wet,
some experience is necessary to match shades exactly. and because of the uncertain character of the fiber in some goods, it is well to dye a sample first, noting the time, etc., and then treating the main bulk of goods in accordance with the experience gained.
and For
To
less,
finish, rinse in cold
water until the wash water
is
color-
then dry and press.
Remember
especially to enter the
goods wet, not to hurry the operation, not to try to dye light
348

and most important
of all to use
colors over dark,
a suitable
dye.
Obtaining dyes.
is
The
coloring
power
of the artificial dyes
them are needed. They can be bought by the ounce from chemical dealers costing from 25 to 75 cents an ounce. The small packages of the dyes on sale under various trade names are satisfactory, but they are more costly in proportion to the amount of dye
so great that only small quantities of
received.
Fast colors.
One annoying
change
thing about colored goods
is is
their tendency to
color.
The
fastness of colors
measured by
their resistance to the different changing agents.
Thus a
color
may
be fast to
light,
but not fast to washing,
or fast to washing but not fast to perspiration.
The only
meet your
way
to be sure that
is
any given piece

it.
of
goods
will
requirements
to try
An
is
easy
way
to try fastness to light
is
to cut a sample in
two, and put one half in bright sunlight, while the other half
kept in a book away from the

It
is
light.
After a few days com-
pare the color.

if
easier to get quick results

itself,
with this
dissolve
test
it
you
will
take a small sample of the dye

little
in
water,
and smear a
on paper.
The
color
smear should
Cut in two and expose to light. As one end of the smear is so light, it will show a change of shade much sooner than will a dyed cloth .containing a considerable amount of the dye. Your chemical experience will suggest to you similar ways in which you can l^sst any dyed material for any desired
be dark at one end, and very light at the other.
as before
quality of fastness.
ingly
Many of the artificial dyes are of exceedin every
good quality
will give
way, and
it is
possible to find a
dye that
will
almost any color on any material and that
be fast enough for any practical end.
DYES AND DYEING

Natural dyes.
of indigo,
349
Formerly
all
dyeing was done with the aid
logwood, cochineal,
artificial dyes.
etc.
Most
of these
have been
still
superseded by
its
Logwood, however,
holds
own
in
wool dyeing.
Many
oiu*
of these colors are
dyed by
the aid of mordants, and
next study will be to see just
how a dye
to stick to
that has no natural affinity for a fiber can be

it.
made
Lakes. The addition of ammonia to a solution of an aluminium salt yields a white gelatinous precipitate of aluminium
hydroxide.
This has an
is
affinity for dyes, so
that
if
a solu-
tion of litmus
shaken with the precipitate the color and the
aluminium hydroxide form a loose chemical combination

called a lake.
The
lakes used in painting, such as carmine
lake
and
rose lake, are
made
in this
way.
These lakes
may
have
iron, tin,
chromium, or other metals substituted for the

Cotton has no
will affinity for logit will
aluminium.
Aluminium as a mordant.
wood
dye.
If
we soak
cotton in a logwood solution,
be
stained,
but on washing, the stain

color
almost entirely dis-
appear.
The
is
not
fast.
Let
us,
however, This
If
first
soak the
cotton in alum, and then in ammonia.
will precipitate
is
aluminium hydroxide on the

cotton but
fiber.
the cotton
now
lake.
soaked in logwood, the color will be absorbed, not by the
by the aluminium hydroxide, forming a

then be
fast.
The
color will
Materials used in this
way
to
fasten colors on fabrics are called mordants, and the dyes are
known
as
mordant dyes.
is
Salts of tin
and iron and chromium

It gives a
silk.
are largely used, as well as tannic acid.
Logwood
cheap black,
one of the mordant dyes.

is
good
and
used extensively on wool and
By
sillc
using tin as the mordant, silk
may be weighted
so that the
350
will

weigh 400 times as much as the raw material.
this,
Such
weighting as
however,
is
objectionable, as the silk will
crack and wear poorly.

Indigo.
Indigo blue, or indigotin, as the color

It
is called,
is
was
formerly obtained from the indigo plant.

synthetically in large
now made
is dis-
amounts and the natural product
appearing from the market.

biit
The
color
is
insoluble in water,
when reduced becomes soluble, in which form it is colorless.

is
Before dyeing, the indigo
reduced with acid sodium sulphite,
NaHSOs. This makes the indigo both soluble and colorless. The cloth is then entered and the dye made to soak into the fibers. The cloth is then removed and exposed to the air. The indigo reoxidizes and the indigo blue develops. It is
an exceedingly
serges.
fast color,
and
is
extensively used for blue
The artificial dyes come under many chemand we can consider only a few of them. The ones given below constitute some of the more important, and will illustrate the subject. Acid dyes. The commercial dyestuff is usually an alkali
Artificial dyes.
ical classes,
or calcium salt of the color acid.
When
used with wool, the

Alkalies will
wool acts as a base, setting free and combining with the color
acid,
and forming an insoluble compound.

it,
render the color soluble and remove
hence
fibers
dyed with
these colors should not be washed with washing
compounds
containing alkalies.
They
are generally fast to light, and
hence are useful in dyeing such things as feathers that do not

require washing.
Seventy-five per cent of the wool
is
dyed
with these dyes in an acid bath. with

silk,
Acid dyes are also used

are important in the
is
but not for cotton.
They
dyeing of jute.
The
process of dyeing on wool
simple.
The
dye, together with 15 per cent Glauber's salt and 3 per
DYES AND DYEING
351
cent of sulphuric acid, based on the weight of the material
that
is
to be dyed,
is
placed in water heated to 140 F.
when
the goods are entered.
The bath
is
then heated to boiling
and the boiling continued
They
for about three quarters of an hour. removed and rinsed. Basic colors. These colors are characterized by their bright or even gaudy colors. They are not very fast to
are then
light,
the name.
They are basic in character, hence They have an affinity for wool and silk, but not for cotton. They are used largely for silk. If we wish to use them with cotton, we must first mordant the fiber, using
but are to washing.
tannic acid. Direct or substantive colors.
this class
The name
direct is given to
because they
will
dye directly on cotton.
All
vegetable fibers absorb them, as do the animal fibers, but for
them the
wool,
acid colors are preferable.

is,
The
direct colors are
used extensively in union goods, that
mixtures of cotton and
and cotton and

is
silk,
as the dye will color both fibers.
Glauber's salt
usually added to the bath to diminish the
solubility of the
concentrated bath
dye and aid its deposition on the fiber. A is better than a dilute one. A treatment
with a solution of copper sulphate after dyeing improves the

fastness of the color.
They vary much

and the
in fastness, being
generally not fast to
washing on cottons and faster on wools.

dyes,
direct dyes
Bleeding.
Many
on cotton
If
in
particular, are subject to a trouble called bleeding.

will
you two
take a skein of cotton dyed with rhodamine or some other
direct dye, twist it with a white skein,

in
and then
boil the
water, you
will find that at
the end of an hour both skeins
will
be colored.
The
color has bled
from one to the other.

color
This aids level dyeing, but

washing.
causes the
to run in
352
These are known as sulphur colors, both because they contain sulphur and because sodium sulphide They are fast to light, to acids, and is used in the dye bath.
Sulphur colors.
to washing.
They
are only suitable for vegetable fibers, as
the strong alkali used in the dye bath attacks the animal
fibers.
The
:
colors are generally dull.
sample dye bath
would be
be dyed
stuff
;
dye 1-20 per cent of the weight of the material to sodium sulphide 1-4 times the weight of the dyeGlauber's salt 20-50 per cent and soda ash 5-10 per
; ;
cent of the weight of the material.
Enter goods just below
the boiling point,
and
boil for
one hour.
The
colors are all
insoluble in water, but are soluble in soditun sulphide.
Alizarin colors.
The
with
alizarin or artificial
mordant
colors
alu-
are always used
mordants,
usually
chromium,
minium, or
ing.
iron.
is
They
are very fast to both light
and wash-
Alizarin
the most important dye of the group.
Miscellaneous colors.
colors,
There are
fall
many
any
other classes of
and many that do not
into
is
special class.
One
be
in
of the
most important
of these
aniline black, produced
by the oxidation
oratory bench.
of aniline hydrochlorate.
There
a.
may
your home a table that you would
like to use for
home
lab-
To be suitable for this use it should be finished in such a way that chemicals will not readily act on it, and that it looks well, and is easily kept in condition. You
may
gain
all
these ends
First see that the
former finish
is
left.
by staining it with aniline black. wood is clean, and that no trace of a Then apply two coats of a solution
and 5 ounces
of
composed
of 5 ounces of copper sulphate,
potassium chlorate, dissolved in 2^ pints of water. This solution should be applied hot, the second coat to follow as
soon as the
first is
dry.
When
these are dry, apply a solution
consisting of 6 ounces of aniline chloride crystals dissolved
DYES AND DYEING

in
353
When
2| pints of water. This solution should also be applied hot. all is dry, rub in thoroughly raw linseed oil, using a
cloth so as to secure a thin coating.
Rub
thoroughly and
hard in order to bring out a good polish.

hot soapsuds.
Finally,
wash with
schools
This
is
the formula used in
many high
to finish the laboratory table tops black.
SUMMARY
Material to be dyed must' be clean, must be stirred while in the dye
bath,
Indigo, logwood,
and dyed hot. and cochineal are natural dyes.

of a metallic
A lake is the combination A mordant is a substance

which
it
hydroxide with a
color.
used to
make a
color stick to a fiber for
has no
affinity.
Acid dyes are chiefly used, for wool.

genta, patent blue, scarlet 2 R.
alkah or calcium salt of the color acid.
Commercially they are the Examples: acid ma-
Basic dyes are used mainly for mordanted cotton.
Examples
rhodamine, phosphine, magenta, bismarck brown. Direct dyes are largely used in dyeing cotton and union goods.
Alizarin dyes.
Examples: primulin, benzo orange R, Congo red 4,R. Very fast. Alizarin the most important.
is
Aniline black
made by
the oxidation of aniline hydrochlorate.
Colors are tested for fastness
by exposure
to fight, acid, or what-
ever special quaUty
is
desired.
Exercises
would you dye an ostrich plume yellow? What class of dyes would be suitable? 2. A home-dyed dress showed after pressing large rings of a Ughter color. What was one possible source of the trouble? How? 3. Could you make a red ink from a red dye? Would 4. What dyes would you use to dye raffia a bright red?
1.
How
the color be fast to light? 5. Why cannot a gray be dyed over a green?
6.
dyes.
There are many more shades How are they produced?
of colored
goods than there are
CHAPTER XXXI
SOME COMMON CHEMICALS
Reference books needed.
In an elementary chemistry
it is
all,
impossible to consider
of,
or even a majority
the
common chemicals.
is
All
that such a chemistry as this
can do
to start
you on the
road of chemical knowledge,
and teach you how and

where to look
information.
for additional
When you
is
wish to
know about some

not studied
chemical that
in this chemistry,
library.
go to your
will
The librarian show you how to use

card
index,
little
the
and after a you will see how easy and helpful the
practice
use of reference books
is.
L
Fig.
Some chemicals, however, that we have not studied

are so important, that, al-
Making artificial rubies. 121. The aluminium oidde is carried from
a little at a time through C. In passing through the oxyhydrogen flame it is fused and forms the houle P JM show supports with boules in various stages of completion.
;
though we cannot spare the

time to study them in detail,
a few facts about them
should be known.
354

Aluminium
nature as
tlic
355
occurs
in
oxide.
Aluminium
oxide,
AI2O3,
mineral corundum.
This,
when
pure, forms
transparent, hard crystals, that

tute for the diamond.
when cut
are a good substi-
When colored by
the addition of small
cûantities of impurities,
corundum forms the ruby and the

it
is
sapphire.
By
melting aluminium oxide, mixed with small

possible to produce synof the natural
quantities of metallic oxides,

thetic rubies
in
and sapphires that are the equals
beauty (Fig. 121).
Fiu. 122.
Carborundum
furnace.
Much
abrasive.
of the natural
aluminium oxide occurs mixed with

This
in
is
iron oxide in a black rock called emery.
used as an
Aluminium oxide can be fused

it
is
the electric
furnace,
when
forms an exceedingly hard mass, that when
broken up
called alundum.
This
is
broken to a powder and
used as an abrasive.
Abrasives.
An
abrasive
is
a material used in grinding
and
polishing hard substances.
Sandstone and emery are two

is
natural abrasives.
Alundum
an
artificial
abrasive.
By
heating sand and coke in an electric furnace carbide of silicon

is
formed.
WEED CHEMISTRY
23
356

Si02
c ->
sic
+ 2 CO
This
is
silicon
carbide
called
carborundum
on
and forms beautiful

crystals, iridescent
the surface.
It is so
hard that
it is
widely
used as an abrasive,
many
different kinds
of polishing
and grind-
ing wheels, powders,
and stones being made

Fig. 123.
Thurniit
molds about
welding.
Preparing
from
it.
rail joints.
Thermit.
mix-
powdered aluminium and iron oxide, called thermit, burns with the production of an intense heat. At the same time the iron oxide is reduced to metallic iron and melts.
ture of
2 Al
-I-
Fe.O,,
Fe
AbO,,
By
igniting
thermit
in a crucible
having
a hole in the bottom that can
be closed,
placing the crucible
over a broken iron

article that
is
to be
repaired,
and
the
then
fused
allowing
iron produced to flow
out upon the break,

the two pieces of iron
124.
Thermit
welding.
Then
can
be
welded
to-
crucibles over the molds.

gether.
357
be easily
In
this
way
large broken articles can
and cheaply
repaired.
By
ing,
mixing aluminium with the oxides of other metals, as

ignit-^
chromium, and
ide
the metallic ox-
can be reduced
and the pure metal

obtained.
satisfactory
of
This
is
method
such
obtaining
metals as manganese
and chromium.
Alums.
The
sul-
phate of aluminium
forms loose chemical
compounds with
many
other sul-
phates.
known
as
These
Fig. 125.
double sulphates are

alums.
Nitrogen
cycle.
(From Blanchard
of Chemistry.)
and Wade's Foundations
Al2(S04)3 24 H2O, sodium alum, and chrome alum are common alums. They are used in dyeing, in water purification, and in baking powders. Nitric acid is prepared by the Nitric acid and nitrates. action of sulphuric acid upon a nitrate. Sodium or potassium nitrate is commonly used. The mixture is heated in a retort, when the nitric acid distills over.
Potassium alum, K2SO4
NaNOs
'
-f-
H2SO4 -> NaHS04
+ HNO3
Nitric acid
is
colorless,
heavy liquid having a sweetish

It is a strong oxidizing agent.
smell,
and
is
very corrosive.
Recently large quantities have been
made by blowing
air
358
through

electric arcs.
The
intense heat of the arc causes the
nitrogen and oxygen of the air to combine, forming oxide of

nitrogen.
This,
is
when
dissolved in water, forms nitric acid.

is
The
process
important because this synthetic acid
used
to prepare the nitrates that are indispensable in fertilizers.
This process
is
another illustration of the usefulness of

Fertilizers
must contain nitrogen in such a form that plants can assimilate it. The substance commonly used has been sodium nitrate. The supply of
chemistry to industry.
this Chili saltpeter (so called because it
comes from
Chili)
is
almost exhausted, and

to
if it
were not possible
for the chemist
make
synthetic nitric acid, the shortage of nitrates would
soon cause very serious trouble to the farmer.
mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids when run into

it
glycerin changes
to a nitrate.
This
is
nitroglycerin, the
violent explosive.
CsHsCOH),
+ 3 HNO3 +
3
(H2SO4) -> C3Hb(N03)3
H2O
(H2SO4)
Absorbing
nitrate,
this in
ground wood, or some other porous
material, gives
is
dynamite.
usually
their
Some
added.
oxidizing
material, as
also
Most
of the other
nitrates.
high
Guvr-
explosives
cotton
is
owe
power to their being
cellulose
hexanitrate
[Ci2Hi404(N03)6]i, prepared
by treating cotton with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. In making nitroglycerin and guncotton the sulphuric acid takes no part in the chemical change, but is
used as a dehydrating agent.
used in preparing collodion.
lower cellulose nitrate
is
Phosphorus.
When
a mixture of calcium phosphate, sand,
and carbon
is
is heated in an electric furnace, the phosphate reduced by the carbon and the element phosphorus ob-

tained.
359
The temperature
is
of the furnace
is
so high that the
phosphorus
volatilized
and escapes
as a
vapor which
It
is
led into water
and there condensed.

is
is
Phosphorus
at 111 F.,
a pale yellow,
brittle
solid.
melts
and
It
soluble in carbon disulphide.
It oxidizes
so readily that
in the air.
it
is
must be kept under water, as it catches fire poisonous, and the constant inhaling of
its vapor causes rotting of the bones, and eventually death. It is for this reason that its use in the manufactiu'e of matches has been prohibited in many coun-
even small quantities of
tries.
When
cation.
oxidize,
is
yellow phosphorus
air, it
is
heated to 527 F., out of cona powder, does not readily

is
tact with the
changes to a dark red allotropic modifiis
This red phosphorus

is
insoluble in carbon disulphide,
nonvolatile,
and
not poisonous.
By
heating
it
to a
still
higher temperature
than that required to form

yellow form.
it, it is
converted into the usual

is
The main
The head
use of phosphorus
^
in the
manufriction
facture of matches.
Matches.
of the ordinary parlor or
composed an agent, an abrasive as powdered glass, and glue A coloring material is often to hold the mass together. added, and sometimes sugar to aid the combustion. The top
match
is
of a mixture of yellow phosphorus,
oxidizing
of the
it
wooden splint is sometimes dipped in paraffin to make inflame more readily. These matches ignite when rubbed
on a rough surface because the heat of friction heats the phosphorus to its kindling temperature. The oxidizing
agent present aids the combustion, which soon heats the wood
of the
match
stick to its burning point.

;
These matches are dangerous
for
if
dropped on the
floor
and stepped on, they may
start a
fire.
Children, too, some-
360

An improvement
times suck the heads of the matches and die from phosphorus
poisoning.
is
to substitute for phosphorus
the less poisonous compound, phosphorus sesquisulphide.
Safety matches have the head composition divided into
two parts. Red phosphorus, powdered glass, and glue are on the outside of the match box, while the composition on the head of the wooden splint contains the oxidizing agent, an abrasive, and glue. When these matches are rubbed on the box, the heat developed converts a minute portion of the red phosphorus to yellow, it burns, and the match catches
fire.
Their great advantage
is
that they cannot be ignited

;
except on the box.
This
is
not quite true
for
if
you
will
carefully rub a safety
match on
its
glass, it is possible to
heat
the head composition to

will burn.
kindling point, and the match
Under ordinary conditions, however, the composiby friction before it catches on fire. The wood of the match splint is usually soaked in gome chemical that prevents the spark from glowing after the match is
tion will wear off
extinguished.
Sulphur.
Sicily,
Large deposits of sulphur occur in Mexico,

in
and Louisiana, as well as
many
is
other parts of the
earth.-
The Louisiana
sulphur, which
the source of prac-
tically all of the sulphur
used in the United States, occurs
buried many hundred
feet
below the surface of the ground.
As sulphur
is
;
cheap,
it
the sulphur
instead the sulphur
would not pay to sink a shaft and mine is melted in the ground and
then pumped out.
To
obtain the sulphur, concentric pipes are driven
down
to
the deposit.
Through one of these pipes water heated to a

F.,
is
temperature of 350
square inch,
sulphur.
forced.
under a pressure of 100 pounds to the This superheated water melts the
pipe, hot
Through the second
compressed
air
is

forced.
bles, to
it
361
air
This forces the melted sulphur, mixed with
bub-
come to the
surface through the third pipe.

it is
When
reaches the surface,
allowed to flow into large bins

it solidifies
inclosed in rough boards, where

as
into masses of
is
much
Sulphur
as 100,000 tons.
The sulphur produced

solid, insoluble in
over
99
% pure.
is
a yellow, brittle
water, but
readily soluble in carbon disulphide.

first
Heated
in the air it
melts and then burns to sulphur dioxide.

sulphur and flowers of sulphur.
It occurs in
several allotropic forms, but the
two common commercial

Roll sulphur
it
forms are
is
roll
prepared by melting sulphur ajad casting

Flowers of sulphur
is
in
wooden
it
molds.
prepared by boiling the sulphur
and passing the vapor into

denses to a fine powder.
large brick rooms,
where
con-
Sulphur
phide,
is
used in enormous quantities in the manufacture
of sulphuric acid, in
making sulphur
dioxide, carbon disul-
and sulphur
gunpowder.
dyestuffs, in vulcanizing India rubber,
and
ide,
in
SulpHur dioxide.
SO2,
is
When
This
sulphiu*
is
burned, sulphur diox-
formed.
is
a colorless gas, easily condensed
to a liquid.
It has a suffocating odor
and
it
is
a good bleaching
and reducing agent.

acid
is
By
dissolving
in
water sulphurous
formed.
H2O
The
salts of
+ SO2 -^ H2SO3
sulphurous acid, called sulphites, are food pre-
Sodimn sulphite, Na^SOs, is a crystalline, white compound, used in almost every photographic developer. Sulphur dioxide is a reducing agent and is widely used as a
servatives.
bleaching and disinfecting- agent.
Sulphur trioxide.
If
a mixture of sulphur 'dioxide and oxy-
gen
is
passed over finely divided platinum, they combine
362

This
is
and form sulphur trioxide, SO3.

solidifies
a colorless liquid that

is
at 59 F.
If
a trace of water vapor

in the
present, the
sulphur trioxide
needles.
It
solidifies
form
of
beautiful silky
it
must be kept in sealed bottles, as water from the air and changes to sulphuric acid.
absorbs
After the reaction the platinum remains unchanged.
It
has served a similar purpbse to the manganese dioxide used

in preparing
oxygen
it
has hastened a chemical change, but

It
is
has
itself
undergone no permanent change.
a catalytic
agent or a catalyzer.
The
action
is
called catalysis.
is
Sulphtuic acid.
ical processes
Sulphiu-ic acid
it
used in so
many chem-
that
may
be regarded as the most important

first
acid.
It is prepared in
two ways,
by the contact and

is
second by the chamber process.
In the contact process sulphur or pyrite

nish sulphur dioxide.
iron oxide,
This
is
mixed with
air
burned to furand passed over
which
is
kept at a temperature of about 650 F.

This
dissolved in dilute sul-
The
iron oxide acts as a catalytic agent, converting the sultrioxide.

is
phur dioxide to
phuric acid, forming the acid of commerce.
SO2
+ Oa^SOa + 0-^303
in the
SOa-FHaO^HaSOi
The chemical changes involved
very complicated.
to the trioxide
is
chamber process
are
In general, the change of sulphur dioxide

carried out
by the use
of oxides of nitrogen
as catalytic agents; that
is,
their alternate oxidation
and
reduction carry the oxygen to the sulphurous acid, changing

it
to sulphuric acid.
Sulphuric acid
is
a colorless, heavy liquid having a specific

Its
gravity of 1.84.
It boils at 640 F.
common name
is oil

of vitriol, for
it
363i
and the
liquid
is
was formerly made by distilling green of an oily appearance.

is
vitriol,
The
ever,
action of dilute sulphuric acid upon metals
the same
as that of other acids.

it
In hot concentrated solutions, how-'
acts as
an oxidizing agent.
To
illustrate
if
copper
is
is
heated with concentrated sulphuric acid, hydrogen

Cxit F^pe
first
y^ Strong ^c/tfj^nft
'\ldna/T Where
RRRH
Fig. 126.
Chamber process for the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

(From Thorp's
Outlines of Industrial Chemistry)
is
set free.
This nascent hydrogen
oxidized
to water.
The
sulphuric acid
is
at the
by the hot acid same time reduced
to sulphurous acid, which at the high temperature of the
reaction breaks
up
into sulphur dioxide
and water.
Cu
+
H2SO4
2 H2SO4
HzSO*-
+ H2 H,S03
+ Cu
"
CuSO* H2SO3
+ H2 + H2O
SOii
>
H2O
CUSO4 + 2H2O+SO2
We have
seen
two
illustrations of another use for sulphuric
acid, the preparing of other acids.
You
will recall
that you
prepared hydrochloric acid by the action of sulphuric acid

on sodium chloride, and nitric acid by the action of sulphuric
364
acid

upon a
nitrate.
is
A
is
similar
action
salt of
occurs whenever
sulphuric acid
heated with the
another acid, the
boiling point of
which
is
lower than that of sulphuric acid;

'
that
is,
the acid
set free.
Another important use

dehydrating agent.
of sulphuric acid
is
as a drying or
Gases can be dried by bubbling them
through the strong acid, provided of course no chemical
change takes place.

in this
way, as
it
would be impossible to dry ammonia would combine with the acid. Dishes
It
containing strong sulphuric acid are often placed in cases containing delicate apparatus to keep the air dry and thus pre-
vent the corrosion of metal parts.
So great is the affinity of sulphuric acid for water that it will withdraw hydrogen and oxygen from organic materials,
even where they are not combined in the form of water.
sirup
of
sugar mixed with strong sulphuric acid
will
froth up, turn black,
and a pasty mass
of carbon will be
formed.
way.
acid
Wood, flesh, fabrics, all are charred This makes sulphuric acid dangerous;
spilled,
it
in the
for
if
same
dilute
is
the water will evaporate, and

will
when
the
acid becomes concentrated,
char whatever organic
matter
atoms,
it is
in contact with.
Sulphates.
it
As sulphuric acid has two replaceable hydrogen

sulphat'e, or
can form two sulphates, a normal and an acid.
Sodium, for example, forms sodium acid

NaaSO^.
the
sodium
bisulphate, NattSO*, as well as the normal sodium sulphate,
The
still
sulphates were formerly called vitriols, and

is
name
;
used with a few compounds.
Copper'
sulphate, CuSOi, is
vitriol
blue vitriol ; ferrous sulphate, FeSO*, green

vitriol.
and zinc sulphate, ZnSOi, white

sulphide.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen
is
sulphide,
also
called
sul-
hydrosulphuric acid, H2S,
prepared by the action of

phuric acid upon a sulphide.
used.
365
is
Usually ferrous sulphide
FeS
It
is
+ H2S04->.FeS04 + H^S
in
a colorless gas, about three volumes dissolving
one of water at ordinary temperatures.

rotten eggs.
It
It has a weak taste, and an exceedingly disagreeable odor, resembling that of

is
a poison, even small quantities producing

It burns, forming sulphur dioxide
it is
nausea and headache.
and water.
with metals.
laboratory.
Chemically
Its
a weak acid, forming sulphides

as a reagent in the chemical
main use
is
Sulphides.
silver that
The
oxidized silver of the jeweler
is
really
sul-
has been dipped in a solution of potassium

of silver sulphide
phide,
side.
and thus a coat
formed on the out-
Many
is
copper articles are finished in the same way.

is
If
if
the coating
it
polished,
off
it
forms a lustrous black, while

the metal shows
burnished
in
spots, so that
results.
through, a mottled
appearance
Sodium and po-
tassium sulphides are used in photography to tone bro-
mide prints. Carbon disulphide.

disulphide.
electric
When
sulphur vapor
is
passed over
red-hot carbon the two elements combine, forming carbon
The operation
is
usually
carried
out, in
an
furnace.
In this case, as in most others, the
electricity
has nothing to do with the chemical change,
but
is
used as a convenient and easily controlled method of
heating.
Carbon disulphide is a heavy, colorless liquid, bdiling at 115 F. As usually found in commerce it has a nauseating It is odor, but when pure its odor is pleasant and ethereal.
very inflammable.
It
is
extensively used as an insecticide,
and as a solvent
for resins
and gums.
366
Zinc white.
natural mixture of the oxides of iron and
zinc called franklinite
occurs in
New
Jersey.
is
If
this
is
heated in a fiirnace with carbon, the zinc

volatilized.
reduced and
As
this zinc
it,
vapor leaves the furnace a current

zinc burns to zinc oxide.
is
of air
is
blown into
when the
The
zinc oxide,
ZnO,
It is
called zinc white,
passed into can-
vas bags, where the waste gases are filtered out, and the zinc
white collected.
as a
filler
used as a pigment in white paints and

It has the advantage in paints
it
in
rubber goods.
over lead white that sulphur compound^ do not turn

black.
Lead white.
small
acetic acid
is'
Thin perforated
pots
discs of lead are placed in
earthenware
about ten
inches
high.
Dilute
then poured in and the pots packed closely
them and over them being filled The corroding room is filled in this way with row after row of the pots. The process of forming the lead white, 2 PbCOs Pb(0H)2, is a catalytic one. Basic lead
together, the space between
with tan bark.
acetate
first
forms
this is
decomposed by the carbon dioxide
produced by the fermenting tan bark, and basic lead carbonate produced.
This sets free the acetic acid, which in
turn forms more lead acetate, and so the process goes on.
The
be
is
process requires about three
months
for its completion.

is
There are quick processes, but the product

inferior.
thought to
paint.
It
White lead
is
the pigment in
much
apt to discolor in city

it
air,
as the hydrogen sulphide present
converts
into lead sulphide, PbS, a black
The halogens.
Fluorine, chlorine,
fainily.
compound. bromine, and iodine

Their
is
form the halogen or chlorine

from a word meaning " I form
because they
all
name comes
given to them
salts,"
which
form
salts,
such as are found in the ocean.
Their properties vary in a periodic manner, which follows

the order of their atomic weights.
illustration of
367
is
The group
an excellent
what
is
meant by a family
in chemistry.
Name
of
368
CHBMISTBY IN THE HOME
of their atomic weights, beginning with lithium, a singular fact Li
becomes evident.
370
difficult to

give credit to the author of such a generalization
as this, for
-the idea
many men have

little.
worked- on
it,
each improving
The Russian chemist, Mendeleeff, was, however, the first who published such a table (1869). Milk an important food. The fact that infants thrive on
a
.
must contain all of the elements needed by the body that is, that it must be a complete food. It is so largely used by young children, and is so easily contaminated with germs, and so difiicult to keep,
an exclusive diet
of
milk shows that

;
it
that great care should be used in selecting your milkman.
Many
cities
have adopted
it
rigid rules for the regulation of
the " sale of milk, for

children's diseases
has been conclusively shown that

sale of
and the
poor milk go hand in hand.
B, and C, sold. Your milkman can tell you the local regulations, and usually they are printed by the Board of Health for free distribution. Read them and see if you know the reason for the various
In
New York there are three grades. A,
restrictions
imposed on the dealers.

In various parts of the world the
is
Composition of milk.
always means cow's milk.
milk of goats, mares, and reindeer
used, but to us milk

is
Its average composition
water
87.17, sugar 4.88, fat 3.69, protein 3.55, and mineral matter
0.71.
The composition
of year
varies within wide limits, depending
and the breed of the cow, as well as on the individual cow from which the milk is drawn. In general
on the time
the laws will not allow a milk to be sold that contains less
than
3%
of butter fat,
and 11.5%
of total solids.
Some
cows have given over 20,000 pounds of milk a year, but the average is less than one fourth of this.
Preserving.
Milk
it
is
an
ideal culture
medium
for bacteria.
To
preserve
source of
must be carefully protected from every contamination, and kept cold. The addition of
it,
'

preservatives, as formaldehyde
371
very objec-
and boric
milk
it
acid, is
tionable
and
is
prohibited
by
law.
Pasteurized milk.
To
sterilize
must be heated to
its
the boiling point, allowed to stand the boiling point.
and then heated again to

If,
This cooks the milk, and so alters

is
taste that the process

is
impracticable.
however, the milk
heated to 167 F., for 20 minutes, and then rapidly cooled,

is
the taste
not perceptibly altered, and the lactic acid bacteria
are killed.
if
The milk
will
then keep sweet for several days,

is
it is
kept cold.
Pasteurized milk
not
sterile,
and the
putrefactive bacteria present will multiply, even though the
milk does not turn sour.
Condensed milk.
into condensed milk.
Much
of the milk
is
produced
is
turned
pans,
The milk
placed in
vacuum
and water evaporated

28
until a thin liquid containing about
of
milk solids remains.

it,
This
is
canned, heated again
to sterilize
when
it
keeps for a long time.

will
Sugar
is
often
added,
when the sugar
prevent fermentation.
Milk powders. Many attempts have been made to evapoand sell it in the form of a powder. These all failed for a time owing to the difficulty of evaporating such a mix^ture to dryness, and repro4ucing the taste of raw milk in the redissolved powder. Recently the problem has been
rate milk
solved
by blowing milk through
fine holes, so as to
produce a
very fine spray, into a hot room.

freely soluble in water,
The hot
air
evaporates the
water from each, tiny drop, and the milk powder remains.
It
is
and gives a product that while

is
not identical with the raw milk,

satisfactory
for
close to
it,
and
is
perfectly
cooking.
The powder keeps

camping, or to
better
if
skimmed milkds become rancid.

is
used, as the butter fat causes the product to

Its usefulness in
sailors, etc.,
evident. WEEn
CHF-MTSTRT
24
372

is
Homogenized milk
holes
milk that has been forced through

pressure of about 2500 pounds to the
much
smaller than the average diameter of the fat glob-
ules present in milk.
square inch
is
necessary to do this.
The
result
is
that the
and a more perfect emulsion obtained, that does not separate as does'milk. That is, the cream does not readily rise. The milk is much thickened by the process. The homogenized milk is largely used in the
fat globules are
made much
smaller,
manufacture of
Butter.
ice
cream.
Cream that has ripened, i.e. slightly soured, when churned gives butter. The churning process brings the fat
globules together, leaving the other constituents of the milk
in the buttermilk,
skimmed
milk.
The
and
which has about the same composition as butter is worked to free it from water,
sold.
is
salted, packed,
Cheese.
Rennet, which
an extract from the fourth
stomach
of the calf, obtained
by soaking the stomach
in a
it
dilute salt solution, has the power,
owing to a ferment that

this change.
contains, of causing the casein of milk to turn solid.

tablets contain rennet,
first
Junket
is
and cause
This
the
step in the making of cheese. Rennet is added to milk, and after the mass has set and the curd has become firm, it is cut into cubes and allowed to stand. The curd shrinks, becomes harder, and the whey separates. The curd is then piled, when it forms a solid mass, more whey
draining from
it.
It is then ground, salted,
molded, stored
until the ripening process develops a satisfactory flavor,
and
marketed.
The
ferent
countless varieties are due to a slight extent to the dif-
ferent milks used, but mainly to the ripening process, dif-
molds and bacteria giving different flavors. Fermented milk. Milk that has soured has an acid
taste,

agreeable to many.
373
Buttermilk, which
is
sour
skimmed
milk, has a large sale.

artificially
tible.
Kumiss, Fermilac, and Zoolak are
soured milks.
They
are said to be easily diges-
Oxalic acid.
Potaasium and calcium oxalates are found
in plants, as the rhubarb
and
of
sorrel.
The
acid
is
prepared
by heating a thick paste on iron plates. Sodium

acid
is
sawdust and sodium hydroxide

is
oxalate
formed, from which the
extracted.
Oxalic acid, H2C2O4, crystallizes with two molecules of

water.
metals,
It is a poison.
it is
As
it
freely dissolves the oxides of
much used
in the
home
in metal polishes for
brass and copper.

Tartaric acid.
tartaric acid.
Many
plants contain the acid, H2C4H4O6,

it is
Commercially
obtained from the impure
potassium hydrogen tartrate (argols) that separates during

the fermentation of wine.
The
acid
is
used in dyeing, and
some
of its salts are important.
Seidlitz
powders contain
salt,
potassium acid tartrate in one paper, and sodium ^cid car-
bonate in the other.

dioxide,
On
mixing,
Rochelle
carbon
and water are formed. With the use of tartrates in baking powders we are familiar. Boracic acid, H3BO3, is a feeble Boracic or boric acid. Its solution is used as an eye wash, and as a food acid.
preservative.
Tamiic acid. The astringent principle found in oak and hemlock bark and in many plants is called tannin. It is a mixture of a number of compounds, and is used in dyeing,
making" writing
Nutgalls
ink,
and tanning
leather.
If
contain
much
tannin.
you
boil
small
little
quantity of powdered nutgalls in water, and add a
ferrous sulphate, a violet-colored precipitate, slowly changing
374

When
thickened by the addition of a
little
to black, forms.
gum,
this
forms one of the
common
inks.
The
ink would be
too pale when first used, so a color is usually added to it. As the iron tannate gradually forms, the ink turns black on the paper. Leather is made by first cleaning and dehairing the hide, and then soaking it in a tannin solution. The gelatinous compounds of the hide are gradually made insoluble by com-
bining
with the tannin, and leather results.
There are
other methods of making the hide insoluble, as
by the use
of
chromium compounds.
SUMMART
Aluminium oxide is the mineral corundum. Ruby and sapphire are impure forms used as gems. Emery is an impure form used as an abrasive. Alundum is fused aluminium oxide and is used as an abrasive. An abrasive is a material used to grind and polish hard substances.
Carborundum
Thermit
is
is silicon
carbide and
is
one of the best abrasives.

It gives
a mixture of aluminium and iron oxide.
on
ignition
an intense heat.
An alum
is
a double sulphate of aluminium and some other metal.
Nitric acid is
made by heating
is
sulphuric acid
and a
nitrate together.
Nitrates are good oxidizing agents.

Nitroglycerin
glyceryl nitrate.
It is a high explosive.
some material, as ground wood. Guncotton is cotton hexanitrate. Phosphorus is made by heating calcium phosphate and carbon in an electric furnace. Red and yellow are two allotropio
Dynamite
is
nitroglycerin absorbed in
forms.
Matches are phosphorus or phosphorus sesquisulphide, an oxidizing Safety matches have the material, glue, and an abrasive. composition divided into two parts, and one part is placed on the match box.

Sulphur
375
is obtained from Louisiana by melting the deposit in the ground and forcing it to the surface with compressed air. It is a yellow soUd, insoluble in water but soluble in carbon disulphide. Used in making sulphuric acid, vulcanizing rubber,
and
in dyestuffs.
is
Sulphur dioxide
Sulphuric acid
acid.
prepared by burning sulphur.

oxidizing sulphur dioxide
It
is
It
is
used in
bleaching and disinfecting.

is
made by
and dissolving
sulphur trioxide produced in water.
the most important
Carbon disulphide
sulphur.
Zinc white
is
prepared by the direct union of carbon and used as a solvent and insecticide. zinc oxide and is used as a pigment.
is
It is
Lead white is basic lead carbonate and is used as a pigment. Hydrogen sulphide is used in the laboratory as a reagent.
Oxidized silver
is silver
coated with silver sulphide.
Other metals
are colored in a similar way.
Milk
is
a universal food, easily spoiled and must be preserved with

the lactic acid bacteria,
great care.
Pasteurizing
It does
kills
and preserves milk.
not sterilize the milk. Condensed milk is milk from which some of the water has been
evaporated.
Milk powder is milk, usually skimmed, from which all' of the water has been taken. Homogenized milk is Dulk that has been forced through minute orifices to make it a more perfect emulsion. Cheese is the dried and ripened curd of milk, produced by adding
i'ennet to milk.
Butter
is
the collected butter fat of milk.

is
Modified milk
milk so treated as to
It
make
^
its
composition re-
semble that of mothers' milk.

Oxalic acid is"a poison.
Tartaric acid
is is
made
used in metal polishes. from argols. Tartrates are used in baking

'
powders and dyeing.

Boracic acid
is
a food preservative.
Tannin
Leather
is
used in making leather and ink.

hide
is
made
insoluble
by tannin.
376

Exercises
1.
Why
is
sulphur not mined instead of being obtained by the
present
2.
3.
method?
How could you prepare flowers of sulphur in the How could you blacken a copper ash tray?
Which
is
laboratory?
4.
the more harmful acid
if
spiUed upon a coat,
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid?
Why?
6. Wh8,t compound gives rotten eggs their disagreeable odor? Account for the formation of this compound. 6. How would you fumigate a coat, using sulphur dioxide? 7. Sulphur dioxide is sometimes used in drying fruits. Do you
consider this objectionable?

8.
How
could you obtain sulphur dioxide from sulphuric acid
in the laboratory?
9.
Have you any
reason for thinking that a strong tincture

Explain.
in the chemical change,
of iodine
10.
is it
might be injiuious?
As sulphuric acid takes no part
why
used in the preparation of nitroglycerin?
Is there 11. Carbon disulphide is used to kill mice in grain. any danger in using it ? What precautions would you take ?
12.
Why
does
ammonia not
restore the color of a dress stained
with
acid
nitric acid?
Would you obtain hydrogen by the action of strong nitric upon copper? Explain. 14. Why is the paper label on the outside of the sulphuric acid
13. 16.
bottle often blackened?
Give two reasons for the severe

Caesium, atomic weight 132.8,
Tell its properties.
is
bums
a
caused by sulphuric
of the
acid.
16.
member
sodium
family.
17.
Rubidium, atomic weight 85.5, is a member of the sodium Will it decompose water more or less energetically than potassium? How do you know? 18. Why is milk often the transmitting agent for typhoid fever? 19. If formaldehyde will preserve milk, why not use it? 20. Is there any difference between pasteurized and sterilized
family.
milk?
21.
Explain.
How would
you obtain
mUk
sugar, starting with
raw milk?
APPENDIX
METRIC MEASUREMENTS
The nomenclature
since there
is
in the metric system
is
extremely simple,
all
one general principle which applies to
tables of
measurements.
hedo,
The Greek
prefixes for 10, 100, 1000, viz., deca,

;
and
kilo,
are used to signify multiplication

viz.,
while the
Latin prefixes for 10, 100, and 1000,

are employed to express division.
ded,
centi,
and
milli,
The
principle
is
illustrated in the following table of linear
measvu-e
Linear Measure
378
APPENDIX
PHYSICAL CONSTANTS OF
COMMON ELEMENTS
INDEX
Abrasive, 355.
Ammonium,
Amorphous,
salts
carbonate, 148.
Absolute zero defined, 79.

Aoetanilide, 209.
Acetylene
Acids,
series, 204.
bases,
and
(Chapter
chloride, 147. 34. Analysis defined, 23. Aniline, 209.
XII), 130.
Acids, fatty, 206. organic, 205. typical, 130. typical properties, 131. Agate, 306.
Air, 96.
Antifebrine, 209. Antiseptics, 300. Asbestos, 318.
composition
cycle, 107.
of, 104.
Atmosphere (Chapter IX), 96. Atom, defined, 52. symbol of, 54. Atomic theory J^Chapter VI), 48. Atomic weight, defined, 109.
table
of,
378.
Albumin, 247.
Alchemists, 48. Alcohol, denatured, 290. ethyl, 289. grain, 289. properties, 290. wood, 290. Alcohols, 205. Aldehydes, 205.
Alkalies, 132. Alkaloids, 248. AUoys, 163. Alum, 357.
Bacteria, action on protein, 296. nitrifying, 294. pathogenic, 293. reproduction of, 292. sterilization, 295. where found, 295.
Baking
195.
powders
(Chapter
XIX),
Baking powders, 134, 196.

alurii,
198.
home-made, 200.
phosphate, 198.
tartrate, 196.
Aluminium, manufacture, 159.

oxide, 355. properties, 159. uses, 160. Alundum, 355. Amalgams, 164. Amethyst, 305.
Barometer, 97.
uses, 99.
Ammonia
146.
and ammonium compounds (Chapter XIV), 145.

commercial
production,
Ammonia,
preparation, 145.
Ammonium,
properties, 145. 147.
Bases, typical properties, 132. Benzol, 208. Bleaching, 328. powder, 126, 343. sulphur dioxide, 328. Bluing, 328. Boiling, effects of altitude on, 85. effects of dissolved substance on, 85. effects of pressure on, 85. explained, 83. Bone black, 182.
379
380
Boiacic acid, 373. Borax, 143. Bread, leavening, 196.
INDEX
Chemistry
of
cooking
332.
(Chapter
XXVIII),
making, 288.
Brick, 311. Bromine, 367. Bunsen burner, 69. Butane, 202. Butter, 372. Butterine, 216.
Caffeine, 248.
Chlorine (Chapter XI), 123. Chlorine, preparation, 123.

properties, 126, 367. uses, 127. Chlorophyll, 283. Cinchona, 249. Clay, 311. Coal, anthracite, 176. bituminous, 176. brown, 177. composition of, 178. lignite, 176. Cocaine, 248. Cocoa butter, 215. Coke, 178. Colors, see Dyes.
Calcium and
ter
its
,
compounds (Chap,
XXIX)
336.
Calcium, 336.
carbonate, 336. hydroxide, 341.
oxide, 341.
phosphate, 343.
sulphate, 340.
Combustion (Chapter VII), Combustion defined, 58.

spontaneous, 60.
58.
super-phosphate, 343. Calorie defined, 78. Calorimeter, respiration, 257. Cane sugar, 225.
Compounds,
defined, 24.
naming, 110.
Concrete, 314.
Carbohydrates (Chapter XXII), 225. reenforced, 314. Carbohydrates defimed, 225. Condiments, food value, 260. Carbolic acid, 301. Conduction, 85. Cart)on and its compounds (Chap- Conductivity of materials, 87. ter XVII), 176. Convection, 88. Carbon, 175. Copper, 163. Carbon dioxide, preparation, 188. Coquina, 340.
properties, 188. test for, 190. uses, 189. utilization by plants, 191. Carbon disulphide, 365. Carbon monoxide, 191. Carbon tetrachloride, 63. Carborundum, 356. Casein, 247. Cast iron, 153. Catalytic agent, 39, 288. Caves, formation of, 338.
Coral, 339. Cotton, 319. Cream of tartar, 197. Creosote, 209. Crystal defined, 33. Crystalline, 34. Crystallization, 33.
water
of, 34.
CeUuloid, 241.
Cellulose, 240.
Deliquescence defined, 35. Density, defined, 15. Deodorizers, 300. Developing, photographic, 168.
Dew,
Cement, 314.
Centrifugal force, 229. Centrifugal separators, 229, Chalk, 336. Charcoal, 182. Cheese, 372.
Chemical change defined, 56.
101. point, 101. Dextrin, 236. Diamond, 184. Diatomaceous earth, 306. Disinfectant, 300. Distillation, 21. fractional, 22, 82.
Dew
INDEX
Dyes and dyeing (Chapter XXX,) 346. Food, carbohydrates,
Dyes,
acid, 350.
alizarin, 352.
381
aniline black, 352. basic, 351. bleeding, 351. care necessary, 346.
direct, 351.
fast, 348.
246. defined, 250. economy in buying, 256. efficiency in buying, 255. inorganic, 250. organic, 251. preservation of, 298.
tables, 261-271, 274-281.
Food preservation (Chapter XXIV),

283
natural, 349. sulphur, 352. Dynamite, 358.
Foods (Chapter XXIII), 250. Formaldehyde, 301. Formulas (Chapter X), 109.
Formulas, empirical, 118.
graphic, 119. rational, 118. Frost, 101. Frying, 333. Fuels, 65. Fungi, 283.
Efflorescence defined, 34. Electrolysis, 123. Element defined, 23. Emery, 355. Emulsion defined, 27.
Energy, 76. Energy, radiant, 91.
Enzymes, 287.
Equations, chemical, 113.
Esters, 205. Ether, ancesthetic, 291. luminiferous, 89. Ethylene series, 203. Evaporation, 83. Expansion, 81.
Furnace, blast, 152. reverberatory, 154.

Gas, illumination, 178. meter, 71.
natural, 181. water, 192. Gases defined, 80. Gasoline, 180. Gelatin, 248. Germicide, 300. Glass, bottles, 309. chemical, 310. cut, 310. ground, 310.
Fabrics, fireproofing, 63. Fats, 207. extraction of, 216. Fermented drinks, 289. Ferments, 287. Fibers, animal, 318. characteristics of, 316. glass, 318. vegetable, 318.
Filters, 29.
manufacture
plate, 309.
of,
307.
tubes, 310. water, 143.
Filtrate defined, 29. Filtration, 29. Fire extinguishers, 190. extinguishing of, 63. regulation of, 65. Fireless cooker, 92. Flame, luminous, 68. Flatiron, gas, 73. Flint, 306.
Glassware, graduating, 311. Glucose, 234.
manufacture
of,
236.
Fluorine, 366. Flux in blast furnaces, 151. Food, advantages of cooking, 332. calories in, 257.
,
Gluten, 248. Glycerin, 219. Gold, 161. Grape sugar, 237. Graphite, 183. Guncotton, 358. Gjrpsum, 340.
Halogens, 366.
Hard
water. 343.
382
Heat (Chapter VIII),
Heat, effects
of, 81.
INDEX
76.
Laundry chemistry (Chapter XXVII),

325.
sources of, 80. transferring of, 85.
Law, conservation of energy,
77.
conservation of matter, 13.

101. definite proportions, 24, 49. indestructibility of matter, 13. of multiple proportions, 49.
Hot water
bottle, 36.
Humidity, absolute,
effects of, 102.
relative, 101.
periodic, 367.
Hydrocarbons and derived compounds (Chapter XX), 202. Hydrocarbons, 202.

Hydrochloric acid, preparation, 130.
properties of, 131.
radiant energy, 91. Lead, 161.

white, 366. Leather, 374. Light, chemical action
of,
166.
Hydrogen (Chapter V),

preparation, 44. properties of, 45. uses of, 46. Hydrogen peroxide, 42. uses of, 43. Hydrogen sulphide, 364. Hydrolysis, 208.
44.
Lime, quick, 341.

slaked, 341. Limestone, 336. Limewater, 342. Linen, 320. Linoleum, 218. Liquids defined, 80. Litmus, 132. Luminosity of flame, 68. Lunar caustic, 167.
Hydrogen, occurrence, 44.
Hydroxyl, 112. Hygroscopic defined, 35.

Ice, artificial, 93.
Maltose, 234. Marble, 337.
Iceland spar, 337. Illuminating gas, 178, 192.
Market
list,
273.
Image, latent, 169.

Indelible ink, 167. Indicator, 132. Indigo, synthetic, 120, 350. Infusorial earth, 306. Ink, 373. eradicators, 129. indelible, 167. Iodine, 367. Iron, cast, 153. galvanized, 158. metallurgy of, 150. rusting of, 157. wrought, 153.
Matches, 359. Matter, composition of, 51. Meat, cooking of, 334.
frying, 333.
simmering, 333. Metals (Chapter XV), 149

Metals, 149. obtaining of, 150.
Methyl
alcohol, 290.
Metric system, 377. Milk, composition of, 370. condensed, 371. homogenized, 372.
pasteurized, 296, 371. powdered, 371. sugar, 234.
Javelle water, 128, 328.
Kerosene, 67. lamp, 67. Kindling temperature defined, 69.
Mixtures defined, 24. Molds, 284. flavors due to, 286.
how
Kumiss, 289, 373.

Lactose, 234. Lakes, 349.
to avoid, 285. spores, 285.
Lampblack, 182.
Molecular weight defined, 109. Molecule defined, 51. Mordants, 349. Mortar, 342.
INDEX
Naphthalene, 209. Nascent state, 209.
Negative, photographic, 170.
fixing, 171. Neutralization, 130, 134. Nickel plate, 158. Nicotine, 248. Nitric acid, 357. Nitrobenzol, 209. Nitrogen, 103. Nitroglycerin, 358. Nonmetals, 149.
383
Paraffin series, 202. Pasteurization of milk, 296. Pearls, 337. Pepsin, 288. Petroleum, 180. Phenol, 209. Phlogiston, 77. Phosphorus, 358. Photographic films, 169. plates, 169. Photography (Chapter VI), 166.
Physical
and
chemical
changes
(Chapter
cottonseed, 214. crude, 180. extracting, 211. fixed, 213. linseed, 214. nondrying, 213. olive, 215. palm, 215. peanut, 215. semidrying, 213. sesame, 215. Oilcloth, 217.
Oil,
I), 9.
Physical changes, 10.

defined, 56. Plaster, 342. Plaster of Paris, 340. Porcelain, 312.
Jositive, photographic, 170.
Potassium, 144. Preservation of
Food
(Chapter
XXIV),
283.
Preservation of food, by canning, 297. Preservatives, chemical, 298. Pressure cooker, 17.
effect on boiling point, 17. Prints, blue, 172. Problems, chemical, 120.
Oils, fats,
and soaps (Chapter XXI), Pressure,
211. OUs, 207.
Oleomargarine, 216. Opal, 305. Organic chemistry, 175. Oxalic acid, 373. Oxidation, 40.
slow, 58.
Propane, 202.
Protein, 247. excessive in food, 259. how to cook, 332. Ptomaines, 247. Ptyalin, 288. Puddling, 154. Putty, 337.
Oxides, 40.
Oxides of carbon (Chapter XVIII),

188.
Oxidizing agents, 40.
Oxygen
and
hydrogen
peroxide
(Chapter IV), 38. Oxygen, occurrence of, 38.

preparation
properties
of, 38. of,
Quartz, 304. Quicklime, 341. Quinine, 249.

Radiation, 89. Radicals, 112. Rain, causes explained, 18. Rations, balanced, 258.
40. 45.
Oxyhydrogen blowpipe,
Ozone, 41.
uses
of, 41.
boys and
girls,
259.
Refrigerator, 86.
Palm"
oil,
215.
Panchromatic plates, 171. Paper, hand made, 241. machine made, 242.
Relative humidity, 101. Replacement of elements, 135.
wood
pulp, 244.
Residue defined, 29. Reverberatory furnace, 154. Rochelle salt, 198.
384
Saccharin, 246.
Saleratua, 142. Salt, table, 138, 141. uses of, 141. Salts, formation of, 133. Sand, 306. Sandpaper, 306. Saponification, 219. Shoddy, 321. Silica, 306. Silicates, 307. Silicon, 304. Silicon dioxide, 304.
Silicon, silica,
INDEX
Solution, defined, 28. explained, 27. of gases, 31. of liquids, 31. saturated, 30. supersaturated, 35. Solvent, 31.
Some common
chemicals
(Chapter
and
silicates
(Chapter
XXV),
Silk, 321.
artificial,
304. 323.
354. Specific gravity defined, 88. Sprinkler system, 163. Stains, acid, 327. removal of, by absorption, 327. removal of, by solution, 325, Stalactites, 339. Stalagmites, 339. Starch, 237.
,
XXXI)
weighting, 349.
Silver, 162.
nitrate, 166.
commercial form of, 239. Steam, 16. Steel, Bessemer, 155.

crucible, 155.
Simmering, 333.
Slag, blast furnace, 152.
Slaked lime, 341. Smelling salts, 148. Soap, 219. action on hard water, 223.
cold process, 223. fats, 222. powders, 222. scouring, 222. transparent, 223. uses of, 329. Soda, baking, 142. biscuits, 135. washing, 141.
hardening of, 156. open hearth, 155.

Sterilization, 295.
Stoneware, 311. Stove gas, 74. Sublimation, 82.

Sugar, beet, 230. boiling of, 232. cane, 225. invert, 228.
maple, 231.
refilling,
227.
sorghum, 232.
Sulphur, 360.
dioxide, 301, 361. trioxide, 361.
Sodium and
its
compounds (Chapter
XIII), 137.
Sodium, action on water, 138.

bicarbonate, 142. carbonate, 141.
chloride, 138.
Sulphuric acid, 362. Suspension defined, 28.

explained, 28.
hydroxide, 132.
nitrate, 143.
Tannic
acid, 373.
Tartaric acid, 373.
properties of, 137. salts, 143. silicates, 143. stearate, 219. Solids defined, 80.
Solio, 173.
TextUes (Chapter XXVI), 316.

Theine, 248.
Theobromine, 248. Theory, atomic, 51. Thermit, 356. Thermometers, Centigrade, 79.
Fahrenheit, 79. TUe, 311.
Tin, 158.
Solute, 31.
Solution (Chapter III), 27. Solution, concentrated, 30.
INDEX
Tincture, 30. Topaz, 305. Trypsin, 288.
385
Water, glass, 143. ground, 19.

hard, 343.
maximum
Valence, 115. Vaporization, 82. Vegetables, cooking, 334.
Ventilation, 106.
,
density
of, 14.
of, 15.
measuring hardness
occurrence
of,
344.
Vinegar, 291.
Volatilization, 82.
permanent hard, 344. properties of, 14. purifying, 22. sources of impurities, 20. synthesis of, 25.
table, 19.
Washing powders, 329. Washing soda, 141. Water (Chapter II), 14. Water, composition by volume, composition by weight, 25.
crystallization, 34.
cycle, 19.
temporary hard, 344. Welsbach burner, 70.

22.
Whiting, 337.
Wool, 320.
Work
,
defined, 76.
disadvantages of hard, 344.

distilling, 21.
electrolysis of, 22.
YeaSt, 287, 288. alcohol production, 289. raising bread, 288.

Zero, absolute, 79.
evaporation of, 18. expansion of, 15.

gas, 192.
Zinc white, 366.
Zymase, 287.

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Cornell Xllntvetstt^

IRewj^orli State College of Hgrlculture

uomeii universiiy uorary

3 1924 003 623 521

Cornell University Library

Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright

the United States on the use of the

CHEMISTRY IN THE HOME

HEAD OP SCIENCE DEl'ARTMENT MANUAL TRAINING HIGH SCHOOL

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY

OHEMISTET IN THE HOME

the product of an effort to meet the needs

elect chemistry in their high school course.

to high school chemistries

has been omitted, because

has been found to be unnec-

essary, in fulfilling the purpose of this text.

to keep the language

to select subject matter suitable for boys

represents the result

many trials and much

elimination from an overcrowded

field of subject matter.

the preparation of the chapter.

Jenness, of the Girls

used the notes in

Physical and Chemical Changes

Oxygen and Hydrogen Peroxide Hydrogen Atomic Theory

Heat The Atmosphere

166 175 188 195

XXIV. XXV. XXVI.

Food Preservation Silicon, Silica, and Silicates

283 304 816

336 346 354

Metric Measurements Physical Constants of Common Elements

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

of not understanding, or of disobeying,

these natural laws cannot be evaded.

a law ordering us to pay a tax upon bonds which

may make we may

unscrupulous person might evade the payment of

tax and thus prevent the carrying out of the law.

not so with the laws of nature.

Nature never employs

courts and officers to carry out her decrees.

her laws, the penalty

certain to follow, hence the import-

ance of understanding and obeying these laws.

man-made laws, never change, so them in our study of chemistry, will

must not think

useful only to those

expect to engage in technical purwill help us to live

but as everyday studies that

satisfactory lives, because they help us to understand the

reasons for the numerous things that

expect to secure .the greatest amount of health and

CHE.MISTRY IN THE HOINIE

As we consider our most striking things

everywhere continual change.

wear out, iron

rocks that seem so e^erlasting crumble and change to

not an unalterable mass, but