9.

4 Ideas to Implementation
Jonathan Zhu June 10, 2013
Abstract By the beginning of the twentieth century, many of the pieces of the physics puzzle seemed to be falling into place. The wave model of light had successfully explained interference and diraction, and wavelengths at the extremes of the visible spectrum had been estimated. The invention of a pump that would evacuate tubes to 104 atmospheres allowed the investigation of cathode rays. X-rays would soon be conrmed as electromagnetic radiation and patterns in the Periodic Table appeared to be nearly complete. The nature of cathode rays was resolved with the measurement of the charge on the electron soon to follow. There was a small number of experimental observations still unexplained but this, apparently complete, understanding of the world of the atom was about to be challenged. explain why the apparent inconsistent behaviour of cathode rays caused debate as to whether they were charged particles or electromagnetic waves

At that time in history scientists had little understanding of the basic atomic as we know today. Electrons was not discovered back then, so once cathode rays had being discovered, its composition was a mystery. Various range of experiments (such as: Maltese cross experiment, paddle wheel experiment) produced conicting results about the nature of cathode rays. The investigations of cathode ray started in 1875, twenty years after their discovery, William Crookes (18321919) designed a series of dierent cathode ray tube, each aimed at testing various properties of the cathode rays.

Figure 1: Various Cathode Ray Tubes

After William Cookes completed his experiments, he made the following conclusions on the nature of the cathode rays:1 Cathode rays were waves Cathode rays were particles Rays were blocked by the metal in the cross Defected by magnetic elds Rays travelled in straight lines Transferring momentum to a paddle wheel Didnt appear to be deected by electric elds Cause chemical reactions Produce orescence Cookes initially thought that cathode ray were electromagnetic waves because of their similarity in their behaviour to light. This hypothesis was rejected when he discovered that cathode rays could be deected by magnetic elds, an eect that did not occur with light. In a paper read to the Paris Academy of Science in 1885, Jean Perrin (18701942) described the two main hypotheses concerning the nature of cathode rays: Some physicists think, with Goldstein, Hertz and Lenard, that this phenomenon is like light of very short wavelength. Others think, with Crookes and J. J. Thomson, that these rays are formed by matter which is negatively charged and moving with great velocity, and on this hypothesis their mechanical properties, as well as the manner in which they curve in a magnetic eld, are readily explicable.

Other experiments with cathode rays produced even more interesting results: they could pass through thin metal foils without damaging them. they travelled considerably more slowly than light. the rays left the cathode at right angles to the surface cause ionisation of gas molecules The main restriction for the charged particle theory was that in 1883 Heinrich Hertz showed (incorrectly) that cathode rays are not deected by electric elds. This claim, along with other evidence supporting the wave nature of cathode rays led to the idea that cathode rays were waves and not particles. This led to the wide belief by German scientists that cathode rays were waves. On the other hand, English scientists strongly supported the particle nature of the cathode rays. Experiments showed that the cathode rays were able to negatively charge objects, and the paddle wheel experiment demonstrated the cathode rays ability to transfer momentum. All suggesting that they were particles. This debate eventually settled in 1897 when British scientist J. J. Thomson conducted his famous experiment to measure the charge to mass ratio for cathode rays,proving the particle nature of cathode rays. In this classic experiment, Thomson managed to calculate the charge to mass ratio of the cathode ray tube. His experiment was split into two parts: The rst part was to emit a beam of cathode rays through a multi-anode collimator before entering the main tube, this ensured that the cathode ray are focused and ne. The electric eld is then switched on by using two parallel electric plates, the beam was then noted to have deected towards the positive plate. The magnetic eld is then turned on by supplying a current to an Helmholtz coil, the direction of the current is directed so that the magnetic eld produced by the coil deects the
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Note: Although the modern particle theory could account for the wave observations, you have consider the historical context of which Thomson based his conclusions from .

cathode ray in the opposite direction. The forces generated by the two elds were then adjusted so that they remained in an equilibrium, this consequently meant that the beam will travel to the end of the tube deected.

Figure 2: A CRT used by Thomson to measure the q/m of cathode rays

Since the forces are now in equilibrium the following mathematical procedure can be performed to determine the velocity of the cathode ray. FE = FB FE = qE FB = qvB qE=qvB E = vB Hence v = E B

The second part the electric eld is simply turned o and the magnetic eld is left on. Therefore the cathode ray is deected by the magnetic eld only, and thus curves down in an arc of a circle. This observation allowed Thompson to equate together the centripetal force and the force produced from the electric eld to produce an equation to calculate the charge to mass ratio. FC = FB FC = mv 2 r

FB = qvB mv 2 r mv qB = r v q = m rB E Since v = , B q E = m rB 2 qvB = Since the variables of E, B, and r are known, therefore it was possible to calculate the charge to mass ratio of the cathode ray. This experiment gave way to several conclusions about the nature of the cathode ray. It proved that cathode ray are indeed negatively charged particles, and since the charge to mass ratio could be measured indicated that the rays had measurable mass. The large negative charge and tiny mass, contributed to the discovery of the electron and the famous plum pudding model of the atom. Explain that cathode ray tubes allowed the manipulation of a stream of charged particles

When the cathode ray tube (CRT) was rst created, it allowed a new way to manipulate a stream of charged particles. The fact that the CRT produced a stream of charged particles, allowed many physicists to conduct research on the nature of the cathode rays. Since glass allowed the penetration of electric and magnetic elds, scientists was able to determine various properties of the cathode ray. Obstructions such as thin metal foils or a paddle wheel, could be placed inside the CRT allowing physicists to determine certain properties of the cathode ray. All these possibilities gave way to a new method of particle manipulation. Describe Hertzs observation of the eect of a radio wave on a receiver and the photoelectric eect he produced but failed to investigate

The photoelectric eect was rst observed in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz, during his experiments with the spark gap generator. He rst conducted the experiments in an attempt to prove Maxwells theoretical calculations that: the electric and magnetic elds propagate through space in the form of an electromagnetic wave, and that the varying magnetic eld then similarly produces a varying electric eld in its neighbourhood. Maxwells theory was the rst to get a direct connection between light and electricity, and in his paper titled A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic eld, his equations predicted that light and electromagnetic waves must be transverse waves and that the waves must all travel at the speed of light. This also meant that a range of frequencies of electromagnetic wave could exist. Hertz started of by using a induction coil-driven spark gap, connected to large plates separated by a small gap. Once the current was fed into the primary loop in the induction coil, it oscillated back and forth. This oscillation of charges in the primary loop is what generates a electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic radiation is when emitted at the gap, where the spark was created. The scattering EMR is then reected by the parabolic plates which were focused at the receiving coil. The EMR caused the electrons in the receiving coil to oscillate, thus regenerating 4

the electric signal that was that was used in the primary loop. This also caused an oscillation of charges in the receiving coil which generated a spark.

Figure 3: The experimental setup of Hertzs apparatus Through this observation he hypothesised that the sparks set up changing electric and magnetic elds, that propagated perpendicular to each other as an electromagnetic wave, as explained by Maxwells equations.

Figure 4: Propagation of an electromagnetic wave consisting of cojoined electrical and magnetic waves In 1887 he made observations of the photoelectric eect whereby an charged object loses its charge more readily when immersed in ultraviolet light, this eect he later named photoelectric eect. He published his observations of the photoelectric eect, production and reception of EM waves, in a journal Annalen der Physik. He rst noticed the photoelectric eect when he placed the apparatus in a darkened box to see the spark better. He observed that the maximum spark length was reduced when in the box. He then placed a glass panel between the source of EM waves and the receiver, as it absorbed ultraviolet radiation. When removed, the spark length would increase. He observed no decrease in spark length when he replaced glass with quartz, as it does not absorb UV radiation. Hertz concluded his investigation and reported 5

the results, but he did not pursue investigation of this eect, nor did he make an attempt at explaining how the photoelectric eect worked. When asked why, he said the following: "Its of no use whatsoever this is just an experiment that proves Maestro Maxwell was rightwe just have these mysterious electromagnetic waves that we cannot see with the naked eye. But they are there." identify qualitatively Hertzs experiments in measuring the speed of radio waves and how they relate to light waves

Hertz was able to identify the speed of the radio waves he was producing by setting up an experiment in which he allowed the waves to reect from a metal sheet and interfere with themselves to produce standing waves of electromagnetic radiation. He then moved his receiver coil along this wave, and record the positions where he observed a spark. He knew that in order for a spark to produced it must be at the anti-nodes of the standing wave not at the nodes. The distance travelled between the nodes or anti-nodes is only a half of a wavelength, therefore he just needed to double his distance to nd the wavelength. Using the formula: v = f he calculated the speeds to be 3 108 which was the speed predicted by Maxwell. Hertzs also varied the wavelength of the waves, and repeated the experiment to get the same value. identify Plancks hypothesis that radiation emitted and absorbed by the walls of a body body cavity is quantized

A blackbody is a idealised physical body, that when in thermal equilibrium (constant temperature), is an perfect emitter, and absorber of energy. When a black body is heated to a certain temperature (1000C) in an evacuated space, it begins to perfectly emit radiation called black body radiation, this radiation is composed of anything in the EM spectrum. The black body radiation will be forced to bounce around the furnace until it eventually gets absorbed. Once it does the walls will increase in energy and emit dierent wavelengths, until it reaches an equilibrium.

Figure 5: A black body If the individual wavelengths of the radiation was detected, and corresponding intensities were measured and graphed in an intensity versus wavelength graph, then according to classical theory the intensity of the emitted radiation should approach innity as the wavelength approaches zero. This cannot happen as it violates the conservation of energy.

Figure 6: The prediction of the classical theory. When tested experimentally and at dierent temperatures the black body radiation curve looked rather dierent. The curve followed one major trend: As the wavelength approaches zero the black body radiation curve will hit a maximum intensity (known as peak wavelength) before dying down exponentially.

Figure 7: Experimental black body radiation curve This result created what is known as the ultraviolet catastrophe. Max Planck eventually solved the problem by assuming EM energy could only be emitted in discrete packets of energy 7

proportional to the frequency. E f He also assumed that oscillating atoms or molecules that emit radiation could only occupy discrete energy levels, known as quantum states. His assumptions is what led to the development of Plancks law, which is an equation that could explain the black body radiation curve: B (T ) = 2hc2 1 hc 5 e kB T 1

where B is the intensity of the surface of the black body, T is its absolute temperature, is the frequency of the emitted radiation, is its wavelength, kB is the Boltzmann constant, h is the Planck constant, and c is the speed of light. It was from his assumptions that gave the development of E = hf . describe the dierence between conductors, insulators and semiconductors in terms of band structures and relative electrical resistance