Scientific skills are the skills that we need to do science.

Scientific skills consist of two categories _ science process skills and manipulative skills.

Teaching students scientific facts is important, but it is even better to help them develop their scientific skills as it will help them learn science on their own. Young students who are taught and equipped with sound scientific skills are able to retain them for future use. This is crucial because as any science person, scientist or science teacher would know, the best way to learn science is by "doing" science. When we teach our students these skills, we are actually providing them skills that they will use in their future lives.

1.3.1 Science Process Skills

- defined as a set of broadly transferable abilities, appropriate to many science disciplines and reflective of the behaviour of a scientist (Padilla, 1990). - used to gather information about the world

1.3.2 Manipulative Skills

Science manipulative skills are psychomotor skills that enable pupils to do science activities more effectively.

OBSERVING

Observations usually lead to further investigation. Why? This is because we will often have questions after observations and we will then try to find explanations for these questions.

QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE OBSERVATION

Qualitative observations are observations on the details that we can see, hear, smell, touch and taste. This type of observation gives us information on the colours, smells, textures, sounds, tastes and what is happening. Qualitative observations are made without using specific tools and the descriptions do not involve numbers.

Quantitative observations on the other hand uses math, or in other words, include numbers in the descriptions. It is a numerical measurement of a value or quantity. In this type of observation, we usually use tools to count or measure with standard units.

SKILL OF CLASSIFYING
to arrange or organise according to class or category.

2.4.1 Binary Classification System

Binary or binomial classification is the task of classifying the members of a given set into two groups. The basis of classification is whether each member has or does not have a particular property. So, to do this, we have to identify a common property that only some of the members have and group them in one group and those without the property in another group. The classification can also be carried out using more than one property at once, where objects in one group must have all the specified properties to be grouped in the same group.

2.4.2 Multi-stage Binary Classification System

The same system used in binary classification system is used to develop a multistage classification scheme. The difference is that in a multi-stage binary classification, the subsets in the first layer will be divided again and again, resulting in a hierarchy of sets and subsets.

2.4.3 Serial Ordering

Serial ordering is a very simple classification. Objects are placed or ordered according to the extent to which they display a particular property.

MEASURING AND USING NUMBERS

When we measure, we use numbers. We ask how much, how many, what size and how long and we need the answers to be in numbers. Measuring is a skill for quantitative observation. Measuring also helps us in classifying and communicating effectively. Measuring and using numbers is part of what we do almost every day. (a) Measuring Length Length is the distance between two points. The fundamental unit of distance, length or displacement is metre (m). Distances shorter or longer than one metre can be described by using the metre prefixes. (b) How to Read a Metre Ruler

Let us look at the metre rule. The metre is divided into 100 equal parts. Each is called a centimetre (cm). So, a hundred centimetres make one metre (100cm = 1 m). (c) Measuring Masses When someone asks us what is your weight?, we always answer in kilograms (example: My weight is 67kg) and not in Newton. It is very obvious that mass and weight are being treated as if they were the same. (d) Measuring Volumes Have you bought bottles of mineral water before? Can you compare the different amount of water for different sizes of bottles, say 500ml, 1.5L or 2L? (e) Measuring Temperature

You must be very familiar with these thermometers (see Figure 2.14). The digital thermometer is the easiest to read, as it shows directly the temperature measured. Yet for thermometers B and C, we have to carefully examine the scale, whether they are calibrated in one degree interval or two degrees or five degrees. Both thermometers work using a liquid which will expand when heated, and contract when cooled. (f) Measuring Forces You must be familiar with these scales. What are they for?

Weight is a force and a force is measured in Newton (N). But what is a force In everyday language, a force is either a pull or a push. When we pull a chair, we exert a force on it. When we push a grocery cart in a supermarket, we exert a force on it.

COMMUNICATING
Communicating means changing data or information gathered through observation into a form that can be understood by other people. Thus communicating goes hand in hand with observing. When we communicate to someone about what we observed, we are actually sharing our observation with that person. Communication is the process of sharing our ideas to create shared understanding or shared meaning.

(a) Data Tables and Graphs Data tables and graphs are the tools that we always use almost every time we write a report for an experiment. A data table will help to organise the data, and a graph illustrates the correlation between dependent and independent variables. (b) Diagrams Diagrams support written text. They make the abstract become concrete. Diagrams also reinforce key messages. (c) Symbols Symbols are used to synthesise information, communicate scientific findings or establish research priorities. Science communication products such as posters, papers, newsletters usually have symbols. Can you imagine science without symbols? (d) Map A map is a visual representation of an area. A good map has a title, symbols, a key and a scale. (e) Mind maps You must be familiar with mind maps. A mind map is a tool to visually outline information. (f) Charts Graphic organisers like charts are found to be effective with students who are struggling with learning content. A chart is a sheet of information in the form of a table, graph or diagram. A chart can be used to introduce a topic, to activate students prior knowledge, to analyse concepts and to synthesise what has been learnt.

(g) Concept Map A concept map of a science concept explains the author concept of the particular science concept. Figure 3.3 shows the concept of plants based on an author understanding. Through the concept map the author is communicating to us his concept of plants. Can you understand the author meaning of plants? Do you agree with him?

MAKING AN INFERENCE
Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw conclusions and explain events.

Difference between Observations and Inferences

Do you remember what an observation is? Yes, an observation is using one or more senses to identify the characteristics, changes, similarities and differences in objects. An inference is an explanation or interpretation of an observation. We make inferences based on a recognised pattern that we observe. Study Figure 3.6 below. What is the observation and inference here?

Observation: Dead fish Inference: No one fed the fish

PREDICTING
A prediction is a forecast of what a future observation might be. Scientists make predictions almost all the time. However, scientists are not fortune tellers. A prediction is a statement about what will happen in the future. It is a forecast of what a future observation would be. Therefore a good prediction will help us to plan possible actions to take.

WHAT ARE INTEGRATED SCIENCE PROCESS SKILLS?

The integrated science process skills are space-time relationships, interpreting data, defining operationally, identifying and controlling variables, formulating hypotheses and experimenting. Space-time relationship involves the ability to discern and describe directions, spatial arrangements, motion and speed, symmetry, and rate of change. It is a process to describe changes in parameter with time. Interpreting data is a skill whereby you make sense of the information, look for patterns or trends in the data and try to find the relationship between the variables. An operational definition tells you what is observed and how it is measured. Operational definitions are important because you will know exactly what and how to observe and measure the variable. You will then be able to collect the relevant data needed to answer your questions. IDENTIFYING AND CONTROLLING VARIABLES In science, variables refer to factors or conditions that can change or vary during the course of an experiment. There are three types of variables in an experiment manipulated, responding and controlled variables. The manipulated variable is the variable that you change or vary. The responding variable is the variable that you observe or measure. Controlled variables are the variables that you keep the same throughout the experiment. A variable is something that can change or vary. Variables are the components of an experiment that change or could be changed.

The manipulated variable is the variable that you are testing or manipulating while the responding variable is the variable you are measuring.

FORMULATING HYPOTHESES
A hypothesis is a tentative statement that proposes a possible explanation to some phenomenon or event which then can be proved by doing an investigation. Hypotheses are predictions about the relationships between variables. So if you start the experiment with the hypothesis, it will guide you about what data to collect.

What is a Testable Hypothesis?

When you do an experiment you want to test an idea or prove something. A hypothesis is a statement that you formulate before you start to investigate as it helps you to plan how to carry out the investigation. In order to obtain data the hypothesis must be testable. In other words, you would be able to prove whether the hypothesis that you have formulated can be accepted by carrying out tests or experiments.

EXPERIMENTING
Experimenting is the activity that puts together all of the other science process skills that we have discussed earlier. An experiment may begin as a question. Then, the steps in answering the question may include stating a hypothesis, identifying and controlling variables, operationally defining those variables, designing a fair experiment, conducting the experiment, and interpreting the results of the experiment. Most of the science process skills are involved whether before, during or after experimenting. When you are confronted with a problem to solve, you identify all variables, formulate a hypothesis and make an operational definition. During the experiment, you observe, classify, make inferences, predict, measure and use numbers and communicate. After completing the experiment, you interpret data and communicate your results to others. In conclusion, experimenting means knowing what problem to solve, how to solve it (designing the experiment), conducting the experiment, analysing the data collected and coming to a conclusion or getting the answer to the problem.

Write a report. Identify all the science process skills as well as the manipulative skills that are involved during planning, carrying out, analysing and writing up the report. 1. Identifying the problem What is the problem that you are going to investigate? 2. Form a hypothesis A hypothesis is based on observations that you have made. A hypothesis is a possible explanation based on previous knowledge and observations. It is a prediction that can be tested. 3. Test your hypothesis To test a hypothesis you need a procedure. A procedure is the plan you follow in your experiment. A procedure tells you what materials to use, as well as how and in what order to use them. 4. Record and analyse your data The data you collected must be recorded carefully. Accuracy is the key. A well thought out experiment includes a way to record procedures. Data tables are one way to organise and record results. 5. Conclusions After analysing the data collected, recheck for accuracy. You are now ready to draw inclusions about what the data means. These conclusions are usually stated using words similar to those in the hypothesis formed earlier.

Thinking Skills
What are thinking skills? A thinking skill is a practical ability to think in ways that are judged to be more or less effective or skilled. Hence, thinking skills are the habits of intelligent behaviour learned through practice (Robert Fisher in Arthur, J., Grainger, T. & Wray D (eds.), 2006). These skills refer to the human capacity to think in conscious ways in order to achieve certain purposes. In schools, teachers need to help develop students capacity to think in every subject of the curriculum. Bloom's taxonomy of thinking skills, also called "the cognitive goals of education" has been widely used by teachers in Malaysia. We use these goals in planning our teaching. Bloom identifies three basic or lower order cognitive skills and three higher order cognitive skills as shown in Figure 6.1.

Critical thinking skills

Creative thinking skills

WHAT ARE MANIPULATIVE SKILLS?

Manipulative skills are psychomotor skills that enable you to carry out the practical work in science. It involves the development of hand-eye coordination, such as focusing a microscope, sketching specimens, measuring angles and cutting glass. Pupils must be able to use and handle equipment in order to do investigation in the science laboratory. You may need to use special equipment in some investigation. You need to follow certain techniques when handling this special equipment. Therefore, it is important to develop manipulative skills in the laboratory. The science manipulative skills as stated in the Malaysian school science curriculu are given below: _ Using and handling science apparatus and materials properly. _ Handling living and non living specimens properly and carefully. _ Drawing specimens, apparatus and materials accurately. _ Cleaning science apparatus in the correct manner. _ Storing science apparatus and materials accurately.

USING AND HANDLING SCIENCE APPARATUS AND MATERIALS PROPERLY

Using Science Apparatus Properly
Using science apparatus means you know which appropriate instrument to use in a certain situation and know how to read the scale on the instrument that you are using.

Using Science Materials Properly

As a science teacher, you must have adequate knowledge of the materials that you are going to use in the laboratory. This is important because you might cause injury to you and your pupils if you do not use the materials properly. Some materials are flammable, corrosive or produce harmful gas when heated. Thus, make sure you find out more about the materials before you use them in the laboratory.

Handling Apparatus or Materials Properly

Handling apparatus or materials properly means following certain procedures or considering certain things when using them.

HANDLING LIVING AND NON-LIVING SPECIMENS PROPERLY AND CORRECTLY

What is a specimen? If you look it up in a dictionary, it refers to "an individual animal, plant, piece of a mineral, etc., used as an example of its species or type for scientific study or display". So if you are observing animals in an investigation, then animals are the specimen. If you are examining types of rock, then rock is the specimen. Thus specimen could be a living or non-living specimen.

CLEANING SCIENCE APPARATUS CORRECTLY

Science apparatus are made up of different materials. As you know, cleaning glassware is not the same as cleaning plastic apparatus. Rinse apparatus with water if they are not so dirty. You could also use mild detergent to clean them if they are quite dirty. Soak them overnight in soapy water if necessary. It is still best that you check the cleaning instructions in the packaging.

DRAWING SCIENCE APPARATUS AND SPECIMENS CORRECTLY

Here are some guidelines in drawing specimens and science apparatus: (a) Draw using a pencil and a sheet of unlined paper. (b) Make the drawing large enough so that important details are easily seen. (c) Place the drawing near the left side of the sheet so that the labels can be placed on the right side. (d) Write the labels, one under the other. (e) Use a ruler to draw lines from the labels to the drawing, and do not cross lines. (f) Do not shade or colour the drawing. (g) Write a title for the drawing at the top of the page.

STORING SCIENCE APPARATUS CORRECTLY

AND MATERIAL

There should be a system to store science equipment and materials so that they are easily located when you need them. For example, organise material alphabetically, use a thematic approach or use the topic of the science curriculum. - Tote tray, small boxes or stand racks can be used to store small items. The boxes or trays should be labelled. - Heavy items should be placed on a lower shelf. - The apparatus should be cleaned before it is stored. - Magnets should be stored at room temperature, should be handled with care, stored in a dry place and stored with a magnet keeper. - Glassware should be dried. Check for any sign of breakage before storing them. - Glassware should be stored in cabinet. - Chemicals must be stored at an appropriate temperature and humidity level. It should be dated so that it could be disposed when expired. - It should also be labelled properly if stored in bottles. Different types of chemicals should not be stored in the same place.