The Cellular Concept

Wireless Communication
www.ee.ui.ac.id/wasp
Review
Last lecture we discussed about:
Small-scale fading or simply (multipath) fading that is caused by
multipath signal
Small-scale fading is determined by some parameters, such as
coherence bandwidth, Doppler spread, etc.
Today we will discuss about the most common wireless
system, that is cellular system.
We will emphasize on the design concept of the system.
Introduction
The former radio system was designed by using a single,
high-powered transmitter that yielded large coverage
However, it was limited in capacity.
Bell mobile system only could serve 12 users
simultaneously!!
It was impossible to have frequency reuse because it
would have interference
The solution is given by cellular system
The cellular concept is by replacing a single, high-powered
transmitter into many low power transmitters
Introduction
First mobile radio telephone, 1924
Courtesy of Rich Howard
Introduction
Evolution of cellular system
CDMA
GSM
TDMA
PHS
(IP-Based)
64 Kbps
GPRS
115 Kbps
CDMA 1xRTT
144 Kbps
EDGE
384 Kbps
cdma2000
1X-EV-DV
Over 2.4 Mbps
W-CDMA
(UMTS)
Up to 2 Mbps
2G
2.5G
2.75G
3G
1992 - 2000+
2001+
2003+
1G
1984 - 1996+
2003 - 2004+
TACS
NMT
AMPS
GSM/
GPRS
(Overlay)
115 Kbps
9.6 Kbps
9.6 Kbps
14.4 Kbps
/ 64 Kbps
9.6 Kbps
PDC
Analog Voice
Digital Voice
Packet Data
Intermediate
Multimedia
Multimedia
PHS

TD-SCDMA
2 Mbps?
9.6 Kbps
iDEN
(Overlay)
iDEN
Source: U.S. Bancorp Piper Jaffray
Introduction
The 1 G cellular phone
Frequency Reuse
Cellular concept relies on an intelligent allocation and
reuse of channels throughout a coverage region
The system that use frequency reuse is sometimes called
narrowband system
Each cellular base station (BTS) is allocated a group of
radio channels to be used within a small geographic area
called a cell
The design process of selecting and allocating channel
groups for all of the cellular BTS within a system is called
frequency reuse/frequency planning
Frequency Reuse
cluster
Frequency Reuse
Consider a cellular system has a total of S duplex
channels available for use
If each cell is allocated a group of k channel, where k < S,
and if the S channels are divided among N cells into
unique and disjoint channel groups which each have the
same number of channels, the total number of available
radio channels can be expressed as
The N cells which collectively use the complete set of
available frequencies is called a cluster
S kN =
Frequency Reuse
If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the
total number of duplex channels C, can be used as a
measure of capacity and is given by
The factor N is called cluster size and is typically equal to
4, 7, or 12
The value of N is a function of how much interference a
mobile or BTS can tolerate while maintaining a sufficient
quality of communications
C MkN MS = =
Frequency Reuse
The frequency reuse factor is given by , since each
cell within a cluster is only assigned of the total
available channels in the systems
The number of cell, N can be related to the geometry of
the hexagons as follow
It means that you have to move i cells along any chain of
hexagons and the turn 60 counter-clockwise and move j
cells
1 N
1 N
2 2
N i ij j = + +
Frequency Reuse
This is an example with i = 3 and j = 2 or N = 19
Example
If a total of 33 MHz of bandwidth is allocated to a
particular FDD cellular telepohone system which uses
two 25 kHz simplex channels to provide full duplex voice
and control channels, compute the number of channels
available per cell if a system uses
Four-cell reuse
Seven-cell reuse
12-cell reuse
If 1 MHz of the allocated spectrum is dedicated to
control channels, determine the theoritically distribution
of control and voice channels
Solution
Total bandwidth = 33 MHz
1 channel bandwidth = 25 kHz simplex or 50 kHz duplex
Total available channels = 33000/50 = 660 channels
For N = 4, then the number of channel per cell = 660/4 =
165
For N = 7, then the number of channel per cell = 660/7 =
95
For N = 12, then the number of channel per cell = 660/12
= 55
Solution
If 1 MHz is used for control channels, it means that there
are 1000/50 = 20 control channels out of 660 channels
In other words, it has 640 voice channels
For N = 4, we have 640/4 = 160 voice channels and 20/4
= 5 control channels per cell
For N = 7, we have 640/7 = 92 voice channels and 20/7 =
3 control channels per cell
For N = 12, we have 640/12 = 54 voice channels and
20/12 = 1.5 control channels per cell
In practice, each cell only need 1 control channel and
equitable distribution should apply
Channel Assignment Strategies
Channel assignment strategies can be classified as either
fixed or dynamic
The choice of channel assignment strategy impacts the
performance of the system, particularly as to how calls
are managed when a mobile user is handed off from one
cell to another
In a fixed channel assignment strategy, each cell is
allocated a predetermined set of voice channels
Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the
unused channels in that particular cell
Channel Assignment Strategies
If all the channels in that cell are occupied, the call is
blocked and the subscriber does not receive service
How to solve the problem? One approach called
borrowing strategy is applied
A cell is allowed to borrow channels from a neighboring
cell if all of its own channels are already occupied
The MSC supervises such borrowing procedures and
ensures that the borrowing of a channel does not disrupt
or interfere with any of the calls
Channel Assignment Strategies
In dynamic channel assignment strategy, voice channels
are not allocated to different cell permanently
Each time a call request is made, the serving BTS requests
a channel from the MSC
The MSC then allocates a channel to the requested cell
following an algorithm that takes into account
thelikelihood of future blocking within the cell, the
frequency of use of the candidate channel, the reuse
distance of the channel, and other cost functions
Handoff Strategies
When a mobile moves into a different cell while a
conversation is in a progress, the MSC automatically
transfers the call to a new channel belonging to the new
BTS
Handoffs must be performed successfully and as
infrequently as possible, and be imperceptible to the users
In order to meet the requirements, system designers
must specify an optimum level at which to initiate a
handoff
The time over which a call may be maintained within a
cell, without handoff, is called dwell time
Handoff Strategies
Interference and System Capacity
Interference is the major limiting factor in the
performance of cellular radio systems
Sources of interference: another mobile in the same cell, a
call in progress in a neighboring cell, other BTS operating
in the same frequency band, any noncellular system
leaking energy into cellular frequency band
The two major types of system-generated cellular
interference: co-channel interference and adjacent
channel interference
Co-channel Interference
Frequency reuse implies that in a given coverage area
there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies
These cells are called co-channel cells and the
interference between signal from these cells is called co-
channel intereference
The co-channel interference cannot be combated by
increasing the carrier power of a transmitter
To reduce this interference, co-channel cell must be
separated by a minimum distance to provide sufficient
isolation due to propagation
Co-channel Interference
The co-channel interference ratio depends on radius of
the cell, R, and distance between centers of the nearest
co-channel cells, D
The parameter Q, called co-channel reuse ratio is given by
A small value of Q provides larger capacity since the
cluster size, N is small
A large value of Q improves the transmission quality, due
to a smaller level of co-channel interference
A trade-off must be made between the two objectives
3
D
Q N
R
= =
Co-channel Interference
Co-channel reuse ratio for some N
If is the number of co-channel interfering cells, then the
signal-to-interference ratio (S/I or SIR) is
where S is the desired signal power and is the interference
power caused by i-th interfering co-channel cell BTS
0
i
0
1
i
i
i
S S
I
I
=
=

i
I
Co-channel Interference
The averaged received power at distance d from the
transmitting antenna is
where is the power received at a close-in reference
point in the far field region of the antenna at a small
distance from the transmitting antenna and n is the
path loss component
0
0
n
r
d
P P
d

| |
=
|
\ .
( ) ( )
0
0
10 log
r
d
P dBm P dBm n
d
| |
=
|
\ .
0
P
0
d
Co-channel Interference
When the transmit power of each BTS is equal and the
path loss exponent is the same throughout the coverage
area, then S/I can be approximated by
Considering only the first layer of interfering cells, if all
the interfering BTS are equidistant from the desired BTS
and if this distance is equal to the distance D between cell
centers, then the above equation can be simplified
( )
0
1
n
i
n
i
i
S R
I
D

=
=

( )
( )
0 0
3
n
n
N
D R
S
I i i
= =
Example
If a signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB is required for
satisfactory forward channel performance of a cellular
system, what is the frequency reuse factor and cluster
size that should be used for maximum capacity if the path
loss exponent is 3?
Assume that there are six co-channel cells in the first tier
and all of them are at the same distance from the mobile
Solution
Given n = 3
First we assume that N = 7, then
The SIR can be calculated as
Thus, N = 7 can be used since it yields the SIR above the
minimum requirement
3 21 4.58 Q N = = =
( )
( )
4
0
3
4.58
73.3 18.65
6
n
N
SIR dB
i
= = = =
Adjacent Channel Interference
Interference resulting from signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal is called adjacent channel
interference
It results from imperfect receiver filters which allow
nearby frequencies to leak into the passband
It can result a near-far effect, where a nearby transmitter
captures the receiver of the subcriber
Trunking and Grade of Service
Cellular radio systems rely on trunking to accomodate a
large number of users in a limited radio spectrum
In a trunked readio system, each user is allocated a
channel on a per call basis and upon termination of the
call, the previously occupied channel is immediately
returned to the pool of available channels
The fundamentals of trunking theory were developed by
Erlang
One Erlang represents the amount of traffic intensity
carried by a channel that is completely occupied (i.e. one
call-hour per hour or one call-minute per minute)
Trunking and Grade of Service
For example, a radio channel that is occupied for thirty
minutes during an hour carries 0.5 Erlangs of traffic
The GOS is a measure of the ability of a user to access a
trunked system during the busiest hour
GOS is typically given as the likelihood that a call is
blocked or the likelihood of a call experiencing a delay
greater than a certain queuing time
Trunking and Grade of Service
Some definitions:
Trunking and Grade of Service
The traffic intensity offered by each user is equal to the
call request rate multiplied by the holding time
Each user generates a traffic intensity of Erlangs given
by
For a system containing U user and an unspecified
number of channels, the total offered traffic intensity is
In a C channel trunked system, if the traffic is equally
distributed among the channels, then the traffic intensity
per channel is
u
A
u
A H =
u
A UA =
c u
A UA C =
Trunking and Grade of Service
The offered traffic is not necessarily the traffic which is
carried by the trunked system, only that which is offered
to the trunked system
When the offered traffic exceeds the maximum capacity
of the system, the carried traffic becomes limited due to
the limited capacity
For example, the AMPS cellular system is designed for a
GOS of 2% blocking
That implies that 2 out of 100 calls will be blocked due to
channel occupancy during the busiest hour
Trunking and Grade of Service
There are two types of trunked systems: blocked calls
cleared and blocked calls delayed
In blocked calls cleared: for every user who requests
service, it is assumed there is no setup time and the user
is given immediate access to a channel if one is available
If no channels are available, the requesting user is blocked
without access and is free to try again later
This scenario uses Erlang B formula
| |
0
!
Pr
!
C
k C
k
A
C
blocking GOS
A
k
=
= =

Trunking and Grade of Service

Capacity for an Erlang B system
Trunking and Grade of Service
In block calls delayed, if a channel is not available
immediately, the call request may be delayed until a
channel becomes available
The likelihood of a call not having immediate access to a
channel is formulated by Erlang C
The GOS of a trunked system where blocked calls are
delayed is
| |
1
0
Pr 0
! 1
!
C
k C
C
k
A
delay
A A
A C
C k

=
> =
| |
+
|
\ .

| | | | | |
| | ( ) ( )
Pr Pr 0 Pr | 0
Pr 0 exp
delay t delay delay t delay
delay C A t H
> = > > >
= >
Trunking and Grade of Service
The average delay for all calls in a queued system is given
by
| |
Pr 0
H
D delay
C A
= >

Trunking and Grade of Service

Trunking and Grade of Service
Example
How many users can be supported for 0.5% blocking
probability for the number of trunked channels in a
blocked calls cleared system:
1 channel
5 channels
10 channels
20 channels
100 channels
Assume that each user generates 0.1 Erlangs of traffic
Solution
Given and
For , from the table we get , so the number
of users are . But basically it can support
1 user only.
For , from the table we get , so the number
of users are
For , from the table we get , so the number
of users are
For , from the table we get , so the number
of users are
For , from the table we get , so the number
of users are
1 C =
5 C =
10 C =
0.1
u
A =
0.005 GOS =
0.005 A=
0.005 0.1 0.05
u
U A A = = =
1.13 A=
1.13 0.1 11.3 11
u
U A A = = = ~
3.96 A=
3.96 0.1 39.6 39
u
U A A = = = ~
20 C = 11.09 A=
11.09 0.1 110.9 110
u
U A A = = = ~
20 C = 80.91 A=
80.91 0.1 809.1 809
u
U A A = = = ~
Example
An urban area has a population of 2 million residents.
Three competing trunked mobile networks (system A, B,
and C) provide cellular service in this area. System A has
394 cells with 19 channel each, system B has 98 cells with
57 channels each, and system C has 49 cells, each with
100 channels
Find the number of users that can be supported at 2%
blocking if each user averages 2 calls per hour at an
average call duartion of 3 minutes
Assuming that all three trunked system are operated at
maximum capacity, compute the percentage market
penetration of each cellular provider
Solution
System A:
GOS: 0.002, number of channels per cell = 19
Traffic intensity per user:
From table:
Thus, the number of users per cell:
There are 394 cells, so the total users:
System B:
GOS: 0.002, number of channels per cell = 57
Traffic intensity per user:
From table:
Thus, the number of users per cell:
There are 98 cells, so the total users:
( )
2 3 60 0.1 Erlang
u
A H = = =
12.33 A=
12.33 0.1 123.3 123
u
U A A = = = ~
123 394 48462 =
( )
2 3 60 0.1 Erlang
u
A H = = =
46.82 A=
46.82 0.1 468.2 468
u
U A A = = = ~
98 468 45864 =
Solution
System C:
GOS: 0.002, number of channels per cell = 100
Traffic intensity per user:
From table:
Thus, the number of users per cell:
There are 49 cells, so the total users:
Penetration:
System A:
System B:
System C:
( )
2 3 60 0.1 Erlang
u
A H = = =
87.97 A=
87.97 0.1 879.7 879
u
U A A = = = ~
49 879 43071 =
48462 2000000 2.42% =
45864 2000000 2.29% =
43071 2000000 2.15% =
Example
A certain city has an area of 1300 sqmiles and is covered by a
cellular system using a 7-cell reuse pattern. Each cell has a
radius of 4 miles and the city is allocated 40 MHz of spectrum
with a full duplex channel bandwidth of 60 kHz. Assume a GOS
of 2% for an Erlang B system is specified. The offered traffic per
user is 0.03 Erlangs
Compute:
The number of cells in the service area
The number of channels per cell
Traffic intensity of each cell
The maximum carried traffic
The total number of users
The number of mobiles per channel
Theoretical maximum number of users that could be served at one
time by the system
Solution
Total coverage: 1300 sqmi, cell radius = 4 miles
The area of a cell:
The number of cells:
The total number of channels =
The total number of channels per cell =
For C = 95 and GOS = 2%, from table we get
Maximum carried traffic =
Total number of users:
Number of mobiles per channel:
Theoretical maximum number of served mobiles:
( )
2
2
2.5981 2.5981 4 41.5696 R = =
1300 41.5696 31.27 31 = ~
666 7 95 =
40000 60 666 =
83.13 A=
83.13 31 2577.03 =
2577.03 0.03 85901 =
85901 666 128 =
95 31 2945 =
Example
A hexagonal cell within a 4-cell system has a radius of
1.387 km. A total of 60 channels are used within the
entire system. The load per user is 0.029 Erlangs, and =
1 call/hour
Compute the following for an Erlang C system that has a
5% probability of delayed call:
How many users per square kilometer will this system
support?
What is the probability that a delayed call will have to wait for
more than 10 s?
What is the probability that a call will be delayed for more than
10 seconds?
Solution
Cell radius = 1.387 km
Cell area =
N = 4 and total number of channel = 60
The number of channel per cell:
From Erlang C table:
The number of users:
The number of user per sq km:
The holding time:
The probability that a delayed call will have to wait for
more than 10 s is
( )
2
2.598 1.387 5 =
60 4 15 =
9.044 A=
9.044 0.029 311.86 311 = ~
311 5 62 =
0.029 hour 104.4 s
u
H A = = =
| | ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Pr 10| exp
exp 15 9 10 104.4 56.29%
delay delay C A t H > =
= =
Solution
Probability that a call is delayed more than 10 seconds is
| | | | | |
Pr 10 Pr 0 Pr 10|
0.05 0.5629 2.81%
delay delay delay delay > = > >
= =
Improving Capacity
As the demand for wireless service increases, the number
of channels assigned to a cell eventually becomes
insufficient to support the required number of users
The techniques:
Cell splitting
Sectoring
Coverage zone approaches
Cell Splitting
Cell splitting is the process of subdividing a congested cell
into smaller cells, each with its own BTS and a
corresponding reduction in antenna height and
transmitter power
By installing these smaller cells (called microcells)
between the existing cells, capacity increases due to the
additional number of channels per unit area
Sectoring
The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and
thus increasing system capacity by using directional
antennas is called sectoring
The factor by which the co-channel interference is
reduced depends on the amount of sectoring used
A cell is normally partitioned into three 120 sectors or
six 60 sectors
Sectoring
Conclusions
The cellular system design depends on:
Bandwidth
The number of cells
Trunking parameters: GOS, traffic intensity, etc.