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December 16, 2009

Abstract 1) The 1930 Nikuradse and the similar 2004 Hof symmetric rotational transverse flow pat terns in turbulent flow, in triangular pipes and cylinders, respectively, contradict chaos 2) The musical notes of edge tones that appear in transition and persist at turbulent flow rates deny underlying chaos. 3) Simple harmonic (SH) long crested sand waves that develop at transition and persist in turbulent air or water flow rates deny chaos. 4) SH arteriographic standing waves, occurring at turbulent flow rates in arteries during the injection of Xray contrast agents (Xray dyes), deny chaos. 5) Boundary layer oscillations (BLO)s of transition are proposed as being SH boundary lay er flutter and these waves create the SH velocity fluctuations described by Schubauer and Skramstad (S and S) in transition. These are not the form of the BL waves proposed by S and S and must be accompanied by slowly moving subBLO boundary waves. 6) Transition and turbulence may be mediated by boundary layer (BL) coherent sound en ergy (ultrasonic and sonic), with laminae interlocked (frozen in longitudinal position by transverse sound) in turbulent flow, creating Prandtls plastic flow pattern. This may explain coherent sounds ability to amplify or to damp transitions BLOs. 7) Boundary layer transverse sound (predominantly ultrasonic) is proposed as the cause of the symmetric HofDelft SPIV transverse flow patterns in turbulence in cylinders and the cause of steady rifled rotation of cylinders turbulent fluid columns. 8) Brownian Movement is proposed as being caused by momentum transfer from multidi rectional bombardment of colloid particles by coordinated waves of molecules, convey ing the many components of environmental sound, striking them continually on all sides, at the speed of sound. This may change ideas of molecular kinesis (Kinetic The ory) and may allow laminar flow to exist at small multiples of molecular dimensions. Key words Arteriographic standing waves, Bagnold, Batchelor, Benjamin, birds, boundary layer, boundary layer flutter, boundary layer oscillations (BLOs), boundary layer velocity oscilla tions (BLVOs), Brownian Movement, candy cane, Carpenter, chaos, characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI), clear air turbulence (CAT), cloud waves, coherent sound, colloid, compli ant boundary, compliant panels, Crombie, Davenport, dolphin, Dowd, edge tones, Fahraeus Lindqvist Effect, feathers, ferromagnetic ribbon, flute, flutter, Gaines, Hof, HofDelft, Kinetic Theory, Kramer, Kundts tube, laminar discs, laminar flow, laminar interlocking, Landahl, Liebermann, mixing chambers, vibrational molecular kinesis (temperature related Mexican jumping bean type), musical notes, musical string, Newton, Newtonian fluid, nodal plate, Nikuradse, oil films flattening (calming) wind induced water waves, oil film lubrication, os cillations, Perlschnurarterie, plastic flow, RayleighSchlichting flows, Reynolds, reflectivity, rifling, rotation, saltation, sand waves, Schubauer and Skramstad, seesaw, shear waves, shock waves, silicone, sound, sound sensitivity, spiral waves, standing waves, stationary waves, streaming flows, subBLOs, transition, Thomas, traveling waves, triangular pipes, turbulence, Tyndall, ultrasound, viscosity, wind tunnel, zigzag.

TRANSITION TO TURBULENCE Dynamic Standing Waves

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This is a theory of the Physics of transition from laminar to turbulent flow in Fluid Dynam ics. Turbulence is considered to represent a state of chaos in the fluid flow. In spite of this chaos, long crested simple harmonic waves develop in the sand of beaches and riverbeds, along stretches of snow and on water in the wind waves created only as transition occurs and which persist and grow in turbulent flow. The musical notes that develop as a jet flows past a sharp edge (edge tones, similar to the notes of a flute) appear only at, and above, transition to turbulent jet flow rates.1 2 The delicate wing tip feathers of soaring birds, re main steady and unfluttering at speeds that should result in buffeting in the chaos of turbu lent air flow over the feathers. These examples suggest order, not chaos, and are consistent with the theory presented, explainable by fundamental Physics. The only mathematics re quired is v = n (velocity equals frequency times the wavelength). Steady laminar flow in cylinders shows a build up of velocity from zero at the boundary to the maximum velocity in the mid axial stream, with a parabolic isovelocity profile. (Figure 1a.) Once transition is exceeded, the turbulent flow profile becomes flattened, with the fluid flowing with high resistance, almost like a plug of plastic3 (Figure 1b). Zigzag transverse paths of suspended sawdust were deemed evidence of chaos in the flow of turbulence.4 The FahraeusLindqvist Effect, in small caliber tubes, such as blood capillaries, shows small suspended particles (such as blood cells) displaced away from the walls, accumulating in a plug of particles centrally, with a peripheral zone of laminar fluid. The core laminae, inter locked mechanically by the particles, create a flattened isovelocity profile similar to that of turbulent flow in cylinders (Figure 1c), while displaying a lower flow resistance because there is peripheral laminar flow.5 6 7

TRANSITION TO TURBULENCE Dynamic Standing Waves

Krger F: Theorie der Schneidentne. Annalen der Physik (1920); 62: pp. 672-690 Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme, London, Ontario, University of Western Ontario Graphic Services (1980). Chapter 5, Sound sensitive jets and flames: pp. 29-34 3 Prandtl L and Tietjens OG: Applied hydro- and Aeromechanics. Dover Publications, New York (1957), (reprint of 1934 edition): p 30-36 4 Hagen GHL: ber den Einfluss der Temperatur auf die Bewegung des Wassers in Rhren. Zeitschrift fur Bauwesen (1854); 6: pp. 357-379. 5 Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow. Submission as work of original research in a gold medal competition for young researchers - Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (September 1, 1974). 6 Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow. Unpublished submission to JFM (rejection September 19, 1975) 7 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): Copy of personal letter from Dr. G.K. Batchelor, Editor, JFM (April 9, 1990): p. 7
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Figure 1a Laminar flow in a cylinder showing a parabolic isovelocity profile Figure 1b Turbulent flow in a cyl inder with a flattened isovelocity profile Figure 1c Flattened isovelocity profile of the FahraeusLindqvist Effect with the laminae of the core fluid interlocked by suspended particles (blood cells) in a capillary or arteriole, with peripheral laminar flow As turbulence onsets, with the sudden marked increase in flow resistance, the resultant flattened velocity profile in Figure 1b is similar to what would occur if the laminae had be come interlocked (frozen in relative position) shifting the flow resistance to the immedi ate boundary8, the fluid flowing now like Prandtls plug of plastic9 (somewhat similar to 1c). Simple harmonic arteriographic standing waves (AGSWs, Figure 2), were first reported by Ratschow, in 1955, comparing their periodicity to a string of pearls10 (Perlschnurarterie, Figure 3). Ratschow incorrectly stated that these waves had wavelengths of the arterys di ameter. Being standing waves, the wavelengths were twice the arteries diameters. 11
Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 9, An amplification crescendo at transition: pp. 58-68 9 Prandtl L and Tietjens OG: Applied hydro- and Aeromechanics. Dover Publications, New York (1957), (reprint of 1934 edition): p 30-36 10 Ratschow M von: Die Perlschnurarterie. Zentralblatt fr Neurochirurgie (1955); 15: page 2 11 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services, London, Ontario (1980); Chapter 3, The enigma of arteriographic standing waves: pp. 17-21
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Figure 2 Arteriographic standing waves

AGSWs can develop in arteries during the injection of a radio opaque dye (in 7% of arte riograms in one series12), displaying a simple harmonic pattern at arterial flow rates that should exhibit the chaos of turbulence. In the string of pearls analogy, two pearls represent one wavelength, while a single pearl would represent one half of a wavelength.

Figure 3: String of unknotted pearls within an artery showing AGSWs If AGSWs manifest longitudinal standing sound waves in the artery, the wavelengths would equate to sound frequencies high in the ultrasound range (150,000 v.p.s., or higher).13 Such longitudinally transmitted, flow induced standing wave ultrasound, with a wavelength of twice the diameter would be identical to the wavelength of standing wave sound rever berating transversely within the artery, being focussed and propagated along the artery as AGSWs. Such ultrasound would have high reflectivity; the high density of the injected radio opaque dye would enhance the sound reflection from the arterial wall, causing entrapment. Gaines showed that a streaming flow was created directly away from a submerged coher ent audible sound source (Figure 4a)14 and Liebermann showed that an ultrasound trans ducer created similar streaming flows (Figure 4b)15, each showing counter rotating en trained eddies on each side of the flow induced by the sound beam. Zigzag (trochoidal) paths were described by Liebermann in the paths of suspended aluminum particles as they were propelled in the direction of the sound beam.
12

Ishikawa K, Mishima Y, Morioka Y and Hara K: Accordion-like shadows observed on the Arteriogram. Angiology (1973); 24: pp. 398-410 13 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 8, Stationary wave movement - a shear paradox: pp. 46-57. 14 Gaines N: A magnetostriction oscillator producing intense audible sound and some effects obtained. Physics (1932); 3: pp. 209-229 15 Liebermann LN: The second viscosity of liquids. Physical Review. (1949); 75: pp. 1415-1422.

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Figure 4a: Gaines sonic flows 4b: Liebermann ultrasound flows Blue represents higher pressure zones while red represents lower pressure areas. Nikuradse, experimenting following a suggestion by Prandtl, showed transverse streaming flows directly away from the walls in turbulence in tubes with quadrilateral and triangular cross sections. These transverse flows were accompanied by counter rotating eddies adja cent to the flows,16 17 identical to the flow and eddy patterns showed later by Gaines and Liebermann (displayed in Figures 4a and 4b). Nikuradse, using 1930 technology, was un able to show expected similar transverse flow patterns in turbulent flow in cylinders. The symmetric transverse flows in turbulence in equilateral triangular tubes (Nikuradse, 1930) and, similarly, in depictions of turbulent flows in cylinders (Hof et al., 200418), deny that a state of chaos exists. Based on the theory as it was developing, turbulent flow pat terns were suggested in cylinders in sketches done in 1980, extrapolated from Nikuradses flow patterns in turbulent flow in tubes with equilateral triangular cross sections. A photo copy of one of these 1980 diagrams was documented in a 2008 publication.19
Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332. 17 Schlichting H: Boundary-Layer Theory. McGraw Hill Book Company (1968); (Pipes of non-circular cross-section): pp. 575-578 18 Hof B, van Doorne CWH, Westerweel J, Nieuwstadt FTM, Faisst H, Eckhardt B, Kerswell RR, Waleffe F; Experimental observation during slow flow of non linear traveling waves in turbulent pipe flow. Science (2004); 305:1594-1598 19 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 2
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5a: Nikuradse 1930 5b: Hamilton 1980 5c: Hof et al. 2004 Figure 5a turbulent transverse flow patterns in Nikuradses 1930 equilateral triangular tube, 5b the proposed transverse turbulent flows in cylinders (Hamilton, 1980), and 5c a rendition of Hofs 2004 transverse flows in turbulence in cylinders. Using stereoscopic particle image velocimetry (SPIV) and computerized imaging tech niques, Hof, van Doorne, Westerweel et al., at the Delft University of Technology, demon strated transverse flow patterns in cylinders that were similar to the turbulent transverse flow patterns in Nikuradses tubes with triangular and quadrilateral cross sections. These transverse flow patterns in Nikuradses tubes with equilateral triangular cross section (Figure 5a), are compared with Hofs transverse flows in a cylinder in turbulence when there are three similar flow divisions (Figure 5c). Like Nikuradse, the HofDelft group showed highly organized periodic symmetric transverse flow patterns in turbulent flow in cylinders, streaming directly away from the walls, directly towards the stream axis with counterrotating flows adjacent to this streaming. Longitudinal traveling waves accompanied the Hof transverse flow patterns. The completely unexpected rifling pattern developing in fluid columns (as revealed in the simple harmonic spiral wave pattern in the exit jets of cylinders as shown in Figure 6), cre ated as turbulence onsets20, would make it impossible to demonstrate transverse flow pat terns in cylinders with Nikuradses 1930 experimental method.21 In Nikuradses tubes, the rifling effect that developed in turbulent columns of fluid in cylinders would be inhibited by the triangular shaped fluid column in tubes with triangular cross sections.

Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); An amplification crescendo at transition, pp. 60-61 (Figure 16b) 21 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 9, An amplification crescendo at transition: pp. 58-68

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Figure 6: Spiral wave pattern revealed in the exit jet from a cylinder in early turbulence The flowinduced shear waves simple harmonic boundary layer oscillations (BLOs) that can be initiated, amplified, or damped, by pumping certain coherent transverse sound en ergy into the boundary layer through a transverse ferromagnetic ribbon activated by an electromagnet progress through transition to become amplified, triggering turbulence.22 It is suggested that, in cylinders, the transverse sound generated with simple harmonic os cillations in the boundary layer, is entrapped in transverse resonance, suddenly becoming amplified as standing waves appear. This transverse oscillation of molecules perpendicu larly through the laminae, induces interlocking of the laminae at transition to turbulence. The major resistance factors become shifted to the high resistance along the boundary as the interlocked laminae of turbulent fluid flow through a cylinder almost like a plug of plas tic.23 Turbulenceinduced rifling further increases the flow resistance in cylinders. With longitudinal laminae interlocked (frozen in relative positions), oscillating molecules in a transverse standing wave field could still sustain transverse streaming flows in the plane of the transverse sound, within steadily rotating laminar discs.24 If these discs did not rotate then, in cylinders with only two similar flow divisions, the conventional coloring of the transverse flow patterns would yield two equally spaced horizontal red (low pressure) columnar eddies counter rotating on each side of a blue (high pressure) band (Figure 7a). However, there is rifled rotation of turbulent fluid columns, shown in Figures 6, 7b, 7c, and 7d, with five representative periodic fluid laminar discs rotating steadily. Figure 7d shows the external candy cane appearance. Each disc displays HofDelft transverse flow patterns.
Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70 23 Prandtl L and Tietjens OG: Applied hydro- and Aeromechanics. Dover Publications, New York (1957)(reprint of 1934 edition): p 30-36 24 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2005); Laminar discs in torsional rotational patterns in fluid flow: pp. 58-62
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Figure 7a 7b 7c 7d Figure 7a shows symmetric counter rotating eddy columns in turbulent flow in a cylinder with two symmetrical flow divisions when there is no rifled flow rotation. Figures 7b, c and d show rifled steady rotation in laminar discs, when longitudinal laminae are frozen lon gitudinally by reflected reverberating transverse standing wave boundary layer sound. When two incoming laminar flows in a silicone micro tube of rectangular cross section, separated by a vertical partition, are subjected to a vertical standing wave ultrasound field as they enter a tube section without a partition, this sound field can be used to mix two in coming reagents thoroughly. The height of the tube in which the ultrasound standing wave field is produced is one wavelength of the ultrasound. This tube section is called the mixing chamber, where RayleighSchlichting flows develop in the vertical transverse ultrasound field25 (Figure 8a). Similar RayleighSchlichting transverse flows (Figure 8b) will be in duced by a vertical ultrasonic standing wave reverberating between the ultrasound producing quartz crystal and the Pyrex roof of a square silicone tube with a height of one half a wavelength of the ultrasound. For this discussion, the tubes width is also a half wavelength of the ultrasound standing wave field.
Bengtsson M, Laurell T: Ultrasonic agitation in microchannels. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry (2004); 378: pp. 1716-1721
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8a 8b Figure 8a: RaleighSchlichting transverse flows in a mixing chamber, created by a vertical standing wave between a quartz disc and a reflective Pyrex top in a silicone walled tube, when the ultrasound wavelength is the height of the tube. Figure 8b shows a mixing cham ber when the tube height is one half a wavelength of the sound. Figure 8c shows how entrapped transverse standing waves would form both horizontally and vertically when the tube is both square and rigid (sound reflective). If, in Figure 8d, the corners of this square tube are rounded off to form a cylinder, the transverse flows in a similar standing wave sound field would be identical to Hofs transverse flows found in turbulence in cylinders when there are four similar flow divisions (Figure 8e). These Ray leighSchlichting transverse flow patterns are identical to the transverse flows away from the walls shown by Nikuradse in 1930 in turbulent flow in tubes of square cross section26. Figure 8c Figure 8d Figure 8e (Hof, 2004) Figure 8c: vertical and horizontal standing waves form with rigid reflective side walls, cre ating mixing chamber RaleighSchlichting flows, similar to the transverse flows shown by Nikuradse in turbulence in a square pipe.27 Figure 8d: transverse flows in a cylindrical mix ing chamber. Figure 8e: HofDelft type of transverse flows with four similar flow divisions.
Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332. 27 Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332.
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Glass or metal cylinders have high reflectivity for the transverse sound generated in the boundary layer, with a natural transverse standing wave wavelength of two diameters, a recurrent ratio of wavelength to the cylinders diameter. Reflectivity is pronounced in high frequency ultrasound. The reflectivity would focus and transmit the transverse standing wave sound longitudinally along the cylinder, with a wavelength of two diameters. This is the wavelength of arteriographic standing waves. It is the wavelength of the waves that de velop from a layer of tiny glass beads layered along the bottom of glass cylinders in water flow at transition and which persist in turbulence.28 There is a striking similarity between the glass bead waves and the dust figures developing in a standing sound wave field in the Kundts tube experiment29 30 of pre university Physics but the glass bead standing waves are pushed slowly along the shiny smooth glass cylin der under the influence of the flowing fluids viscosity. Thomas related the glass bead waves to Bagnalls similar stationary sand waves in the wind and on stream beds in water flows.31 As the laminar air flow rate is increased gradually along a shiny flat plate, coherent trans verse sound energy is generated in the boundary layer (coproduced with simple harmonic boundary layer oscillations,32 33 34 or BLOs). The transverse sound energy reaches a critical point at which there is sufficient laminar interlocking to cause shearing off of rolls of fluid (more like rolls of carpets than balls of fluid like snowballs). The depth of the fluid laminae that are linked perpendicularly is related to the degree of penetration of the sound energy causing laminar interlocking. Also, the fluid is linked transversely by viscosity forces, re sulting in the long crested nature of the simple harmonic BLOs that progress to coordinated rolls of fluid vortices that are sheared off. Leonardo da Vinci showed somewhat similar rolls of vortices resembling carpet rolls in his drawing of turbulent flow in The Deluge (Figure 9).
Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536 29 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 9, An amplification crescendo at transition: pp. 62-63 30 Kundt AAEE: ber eine neue Art, akustischer Straubfiguren, und ber die Anwendung der Selben zur Bestimmung der Schallgeschwindigkeit in festen Krpern und Gassen. Annalen der Physik, volume 127: pp. 497-523 31 Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971), reprint of 1941 edition 32 Tollmien W: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz. 1. Mitteilung, Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenshaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch - Physikalische Klasse (Report I of the Gttingen Scientific Society) (1929): pp. 21-44 33 Schlichting H: ber die Enstehung der Turbulenz bei der Plattenstrmung; from Nachrichten der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse (1933): pp. 181-208 34 Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70
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Figure 9: Vortices as rolls in da Vincis drawing of turbulent flow in The Deluge

Consider how simple harmonic BLOs develop as air flow rates increase along a flat plate. A single brick shaped solid block sliding along a resistant boundary would tend to oscillate about its mid axis, like a seesaw in simple harmonic rhythmicity because of frictional grab bing and releasing. A single point on the trailing edge of the block would trace a simple harmonic wave (Figure 10a). The oscillation axis would be unwavering along a flat plane. Consider an outermost thick layer in the boundary fluid in laminar flow to be made up of these brickshaped solid blocks, arranged in straight rows transversely and longitudinally (Figure 10b). As a single transverse row of these ideal blocks slides along the boundary, the resistance would cause the row to dip anteriorly and raise up posteriorly around each oscillation axis, like a braking automobile. Viscid mortar would link adjacent block surfaces laterally, anteriorly and posteriorly, creating long crested block waves in a seesaw motion. The boundary resistance (grabbing) would reach a point where it would be released, with a rebounding upwards anteriorly, and downwards posteriorly. This grabbing and releasing would tend to continue with a simple harmonic rhythmicity, like a bowed violin string, chalk drawn across a slate, or braking tires on tarmac, creating longitudinal simple har monic long crested waves in the block layer sliding along the boundary. The transverse ver tical vibrations from the anterior and posterior ends of the oscillating blocks would be 180 degrees out of phase. The long crested block waves would be integral parts of these trans verse vibrations. The oscillation axes would remain in a flat plane above the boundary. Now convert the solid blocks to fluid (air in this wind tunnel experiment). There would be a thick fluid block lamina, comprising multiple laminae, with simple harmonic long crested waves (Figure 10c), adjacent to the boundary. Viscosity forces would link the blocks trans versely, maintaining the long crested BLOs, while all other block surfaces would link their motions to the adjacent laminar fluid. The up and down oscillation of the fronts and backs of the blocks would create transverse vibrations (coherent sound energy) perpendicular to the flow, similar to the coherent transverse vibrations in a ferromagnetic ribbon that Schu bauer and Skramstad used to reproduce, amplify, or damp the BLOs.35
Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): pp. 1-70
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Now reduce the fluid blocks to laminar thickness.36 There would now be a boundary layer lamina exhibiting simple harmonic BLOs. These BLOs would be impressed upon adjacent laminae. The longitudinal BLOs and transverse vibrations (sound waves) are inseparable. In this way, long crested simple harmonic waves would appear along a flat plate. Simulta neously, BLOs and coherent transverse sound waves develop, similar to those which Schu bauer and Skramstad created, using a vibrating transverse ferromagnetic ribbon, vibrating like a section of a long bowed musical string with only two nodes, one at each end.

Figure 10a: a single block oscillating steadily, moving in a straight line along a boundary, creating coherent transverse vibrations and longitudinal simple harmonic waves. Figure 10b A peripheral lamina made up of brick shaped blocks

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Hamilton G. Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services (2008): pp. 21-23

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Figure 10c: Simple harmonic oscillations in a boundary layer composed of fluid blocks 10d 10e 10d: Motion in a longitudinal slice of a BLO, the width of a musical strings thickness 10e: A musical string with standing wave harmonic: see Figure 10d (identical) Musical string notes are standing waves. The multiple nodes in the harmonics of a moving vibrating musical string reflect the steadily moving standing wave nature of BLOs, as if each lamina were made up of many abutting musical strings vibrating synchronously in a verti cal plane in long crested standing wave mode, like loops and nodes in standing waves in a carpet. The nodes are the axes of oscillations unwavering transverse lines traveling at velocities much less than the flow rate. In fact, a thin longitudinal slice of a BLO the thick ness of a string (Figure 10c) would look exactly like a musical string with a series of har monic loops and nodes (10e). In a cylinder, these BLOs are the ultimate in being long crested, being continuous circum ferentially. BLOs are sources of transverse sound, generated by, and moving with the flow, reverberating within the sound reflective cylinder wall, creating transverse standing wave sound with a natural wavelength of twice the internal diameter of the cylinder, and which would be sliding steadily along the cylinders boundary layer at the speed of the BLOs. The reflectivity would focus and propagate the entrapped sound longitudinally throughout the cylinder a traveling standing wave train, with a wavelength of two diameters. Artery walls are compliant, not rigid. Static periodic high pressure zones will tend to cause the wall to bulge, while static low pressure bands will cause retraction of the wall. During

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arteriography any wall irregularity (atheromatous plaque or raised arterial exit site37) may lock the boundary waves into a stationary position (just like a stone does in a shallow part of a stream), revealing an underlying standing wave nature. Arteriographic standing waves (Figure 2 and Figure 11) were found in 7% of Ishikawas arteriograms.38 As is predictable by the theory, the wavelength of AGSWs will be twice the internal diameter of the artery, equating to a very reflection prone sound frequency of 150,000 v.p.s., or higher.39

Figure 11: The dynamic waves in a compliant walled tube (BLOs in an artery) are locked into a stationary position by a wall irregularity, creating arteriographic standing waves. Thus, Bagnolds sand saltation mechanism in air or water, in the formation of long crested sand waves from ejected sand grains, conforms to the Physics of the Kundts tube particle deposition in a standing wave sound field in a glass tube containing air, or water. 40 The inseparability of dynamic standing waves shear waves and sound waves Figure 12a shows a longitudinal linkage of a single line of blocks, similar to those in Figures 10a, b and c, representing a strip of a thick lamina (made up of multiple laminae), with fric tion induced simple harmonic oscillations along the boundary layer. They move with the flow, but more slowly (at the speed of Schubauer and Skramstad BLOs). Now if we were to move at the speed of the grabbing and releasing blocks, the linked blocks would be dupli cating the motion of a musical string with multiple harmonic standing waves (Figure 12b) with crests and troughs of maximum displacement and nodal points (seesaw fulcra).
Burton AC: Physiology and Biophysics of the Circulation (second edition). Year Book Medical Publishers (1975); pp. 43-44. 38 Ishikawa K, Mishima Y, Morioka Y and Hara K: Accordion-like shadows observed on the Arteriogram. Angiology (1973); 24: pp. 398-410 39 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980) 40 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 9, An amplification crescendo at transition: p. 65
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12a 12b Figure 12a: A single longitudinal line of blocks forming a wave train oscillating along a flat plate. Figure 12b: A musical string with standing waves in a harmonic with multiple nodal points and moving at the speed of the 12a blocks. Furthermore, Thomas, while noting the sudden development of simple harmonic waves in a layer of tiny glass beads as transition appeared (persisting at turbulent flow rates) in wa ter flowing in a glass tube,41 compared them to Bagnalls stationary sand waves in the wind and in water flows. We see now how the waves in each of these cases can be related to the waves in a layer of particles in a standing wave sound field in a glass tube in the Kundts tube experiment of preuniversity Physics. These standing shear waves / standing sound waves are long crested in Figure 10c. Initia tion, amplification and damping of these waves can be reproduced by electromagnetic induced vibrations in a long ferromagnetic ribbon in the boundary layer (like a long musi cal string vibrating without harmonics), aligned with the long crested waves. Simple harmonic cloud waves that are seen commonly in the air shear layers in the sky are similar. A layer of mist forms between air strata in the sky, when the temperature and wa ter content differences are sufficient to cause condensation into fine droplets or ice crystal sublimates. Long crested bands of clouds (cloud waves) form along the mist layer (water or ice crystals) during transition in the shear flow between these air strata. Often, in a wind swept sky, several layers of these long crested simple harmonic cloud waves may be seen, with different angles consistent with the differing velocities, wind directions and water content of various air strata, with the cloud waves being aligned perpendicularly to the re sultant shear (Figure 13). Similar air waves are present when no cloud waves are visible. Similar invisible multiple layers of shear flows in different air strata must influence weath er patterns and is one factor in explaining why weather forecasting is still an inexact sci ence.
Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536
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It appears now that Schubauer and Skramstad, while taking a giant leap forward in the un derstanding of transition, by showing the development of simple harmonic boundary layer velocity oscillations (BLVOs) along a series of points on a line perpendicular to the bound ary during transition, could have been misled about the Physics behind the simple har monic shear waves creating them. By taking hot wire anemometer velocity measurements at these points they were measuring periodic variations of the velocities of the boundary layer oscillations (BLOs), but these would have been a simple harmonic sinusoidal wave train composed of many laminae that crisscrossed a baseline, passing the sensors not the long crested simple harmonic waves in each of the many individual laminae that remained on each side of the baseline, as they described. A thin longitudinal section of the true BLOs would describe a sine wave that fluttered up and down along a flat axial plane, like har monics in a musical string. A traveling train of simple harmonic BLOs is like the thick fluid block layer (made up of multiple compliant laminae in equal numbers above and below the axis of oscillation) illus trated in Figures 10a, b and c, oscillating along a baseline plane in the boundary layer. Each block is one half a wavelength of an oscillation. Applying the principles of laminar flow, during transition, the laminae comprising these idealized thick fluid blocks will have differ ent velocities; the peripheral (boundary) surface will have the slowest velocity, with each lamina above it having a greater velocity than the one below. However fluid at all points

Figure 13: Looking straight up at cloud waves in multiple shear planes (flowing air strata)

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along the oscillation axis (axial plane) will have a constant unwavering velocity (zero veloc ity oscillations) in the direction of flow, just as Schubauer and Skramstad demonstrated. The apices of the wave crests and the bases of the troughs passing a vertical line of sensors (hot wire anemometers) will register the maximum velocity fluctuations, but will be 180 degrees out of phase, in keeping with the sine curve shape of the boundary layer oscilla tions. As described by Schubauer and Skramstad, the velocity of the boundary layer oscilla tions will be significantly lower than the average velocity of flow. The amplitudes of the ve locity oscillations, measured by the sensors, will increase incrementally as one moves up, or down, from the baseline to maximum velocity fluctuations at the apices of the crests of the sine waves and at the bottoms of the troughs. Fluttering BLOs produce musical notes while flowing past an edge (e.g., whistling wind with a pitch that rises and falls with wind velocity changes), and can induce sympathetic fluttering of any compliant trailing edges as the wave train slides over the wings of aircraft. However, similar sympathetic fluttering instability of the trailing edges of the compliant wings of birds is inhibited; the tendency to fluttering may be damped selectively by sensory nerve feedback allowing flight muscles to adjust the feather angles for optimum sound wave and shear wave damping by their compliant delicate wing tip feathers as they soar. This may be the Physics behind the effectiveness of Carpenters turbulence damping com pliant panels, explaining how his panels could vary in effectiveness with varying flow con ditions (e.g. specific settings for panel spacing and damping for specific velocities of fluid flow), something that birds may have evolved to accomplish actively during flight. This is the Physics behind the vertical waves sliding along the compliant boundary of a vertical flag on a flagpole, causing it to flap rhythmically in the wind as the BLOs flutter off its trail ing edge. In Figures 14a, b and c, a boundary layer oscillation is like two seesaws in tandem, with a compliant stretchable linkage joining the anterior end of one seesaw to the posterior of the other. Because they form a moving standing wave, two linked seesaws will represent one wavelength. The boundary layer laminae, represented by these seesaws, are sliding at a steady velocity along the resistance of the boundary, grabbing and releasing, oscillating rhythmically about their axes which move along the baseline at a steady velocity that is substantially less than the average velocity of the flow inducing the oscillations. The ends of these linked seesaws will conform to the paths of the BLOs as they slide along at a constant axial velocity while oscillating at a steady rate. Thus, the ends of the linked seesaws trace the sinusoidal curve defining the BLOs longitudinal cross section. In reality, these ideal oscillating compliant fluid seesaws conform to the BLO contours while sliding along them. The oscillation axes remain in a flat plane. Figures 14a, 14b and 14c show three steps in the tracing of the BLOs as the oscillations ad vance, with the axes of oscillations remaining in a plane of zero oscillations. The seesaws are horizontal on the plane of oscillation along which there is no velocity fluctuation.

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Figure 14a, b, c: Consecutive phases of the BLOs, represented by two tandem seesaw (one wavelength), red and green, joined by a compliant, stretchable linkage. Intuitively, to explore the Physics of shear waves, Benjamin chose a boundary with fixed simple harmonic waves a corrugated sheet 42 43 to study the pressures in the shear waves in the air flowing along this boundary. The corrugated waves were similar to static subBLOs (resembling the simple harmonic sand waves in the wind, or in water flows). In the shear waves on water in the wind, the air waves are BLOs modified by a compliant boundary and the water waves are substitutes, in a laminar boundary, for air subBLOs; the laminar water waves are being pushed along slowly with the flow, through the interaction of air and water viscosity forces. The concept of subBLOs in shear wave development is of great significance in Fluid Dy namics. It is only when they are replaced by simple harmonic waves in previously flat com pliant boundaries (e.g.; water waves in the wind, cloud waves in the sky, Bagnolds sand waves, Thomass glass bead waves and arteriographic standing waves) that we become aware of their potential existence. The compliant solid boundary waves (substitutes for subBLOs) are static. The compliant laminar boundary waves (e.g.: water waves in the wind) are slowly moving. The air subBLOs in Schubauers and Skramstads wind tunnel flat plate experiments would be moving more slowly than the BLOs which snake over them.
42 43

Benjamin TB: Shearing flow over a wavy boundary. Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1959); Vol. 6: 161-205 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 2, Waves on water in the wind: pp. 13-16

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Thus, there are three flow velocities along a flat plate in transition the average velocity of flow, the slower velocity of the BLOs and the even slower velocity of the subBLOs that abut the boundary and over which the BLOs slither in a snaking motion. Boundary layer sensors (hot wire anemometers), along a line perpendicular to a shiny flat plate, will show the greatest amplitude of boundary flutter waves at the heights and depths of the BLOs. Progressively less amplitude of velocity oscillations will be found as the base line is approached from below, or from above, just as recorded by Schubauer and Skram stad. The zero amplitude baseline plane will be exactly as described in their BLO studies along a flat plate. The sole purpose of their experiments was to determine if the theory of boundary layer oscillations proposed by Tollmien and Schlichting could be validated. Thus, when they found simple harmonic boundary velocity oscillations (BLVOs), they explained them as being due to those of the theory long crested waves in each lamina that remained either above, or below, the baseline of zero fluctuations.. It is suggested, however, that the waves producing these readings were sinusoidal and of significantly greater amplitude, os cillating back and forth across a baseline (Figures 14a, b, c) flat plane a form of boundary layer simple harmonic flutter. Their analysis (perhaps subconsciously made to fit the ear lier theory) was so elegant that it took them along a path that all have followed since. Thus, in transition, a significant, seemingly unrecognized feature of BLOs, is the presence of simple harmonic boundary wave formations, the subBLOs, that must exist under the BLOs (Figure 15). SubBLOs slide along a flat plate boundary at a velocity significantly less than that of the BLOs and much less than the average rate of the fluid flow. On the plane of the axes of oscillations, the baseline of zero amplitude, the two seesaws become horizontal.

Figure 15: Two seesaws trace the path of one BLO along a boundary, revealing subBLOs. The vertical line of sensors register Schubauers and Skramstads oscillations. Thus, BLOs trace a path along the boundary, snaking over the simple harmonic waves (sub BLOs) that develop in the fluid immediately adjacent to the boundary, with the height of the subBLOs limited by the plane of the axes of oscillation of the BLOs. Similarly, the shear waves on water in the wind, which replace air subBLOs (that would be present in the air along a rigid boundary), acquire increased wavelengths with strengthening wind speed. This would allow their higher amplitudes. Therefore, the air wave oscillation axes must be raised to accommodate these increased amplitudes, to clear the wave crest apices.

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In the case of laminar interfaces (water in the wind, cloud waves in the sky, water waves on automobile windshields in the rain and Benjamins syrup, or water waves on a flat rigid surface as turbulence onsets44), the subBLOs are replaced by simple harmonic boundary undulations. The laminar subBLOs are pushed along on smooth flat rigid boundaries, through viscosity interactions along the fluid shear interface. When the boundary is a com pliant solid, the subBLOs would be replaced by stationary boundary undulations (dolphin epidermal speedinduced waves and arteriographic standing waves), but the simple har monic BLOs (coherent boundary layer flutter) still snake over them, in the direction of the flow, at a velocity much less than the average rate of main stream flow, while maintaining a flat oscillation free plane along the oscillation axes. When a laminar boundary is very vis cous like the layer of syrup in Benjamins experiments,45 the syrup waves (subBLO coun terparts) appear to be stationary, but are moving very slowly in the direction of flow. Another Physics of Sound mechanism may be incorporated into the formation of the plane of zero amplitude BLOs. It is natural for standing wave sound, that has been developing longitudinally in the boundary layer through fluid shear forces, to be propagated vertically, away from the sound reflective flat plate boundary. One can see how a transverse standing wave sound field could create a nodal plate by turning a standing wave harmonic series in a musical string (e.g.: Figure 10e) perpendicular to the flow, with the loop at the boundary (maximum amplitude swings of the BLO / transverse sound wave generation). The plane of zero velocity fluctuation would correspond to the first node of this standing wave harmonic series in a musical string along the plane of the axes of oscillation of the BLOs. A longitudinal standing wave train sliding along the boundary is a dynamic paradox a traveling standing wave. A standing wave nature is revealed when subBLOs become locked into a stationary position when a boundary irregularity is present, or which devel ops along the boundary, similar to stationary simple harmonic waves along sand, or snow, or in glass beads in a glass cylinder46 waves that only develop as transition is reached and exceeded. (Glass bead waves actually slide slowly along the shiny glass tube from viscosity effects.) With standing waves on a dolphin, or arteriographic standing waves, the compliant boundary is molded into the form of subBLO static boundary waves, which replace them. The simple harmonic subBLOs, between two shearing air strata in the sky, become visible only when the air temperature differences form long crested simple harmonic cloud waves along the interface,47 with velocities less than the BLOs which snake over them. In other cloudless wind shear states in the atmosphere, air waves along air shear strata are invisi ble. These air stratum interface shear waves, encountered by aircraft in cloudless skies,

Benjamin TB: Shearing flow over a wavy boundary: The Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1959); 6: pp. 161205. 45 ibid 46 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 8, Stationary wave motion - a shear paradox: pp. 46-67 47 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 2, Waves on the water, waves in the wind: pp. 13-16

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gave Captain P.T. (Terry) Dowd the feeling of flying over a washboard 48 49 when his jum bo jet encountered this form of clear air turbulence (CAT). The theory that all shear waves are BLOs, modified by the nature of the interface50 must be changed now to say they represent subBLOs, or the compliant interface counterparts of subBLOs. Landahl 51 used the term surface admittance to describe the ability of shear waves to penetrate compliant boundaries with their pressure effects. Pertinently, the term previously referred only to sound waves. A flat plate is unyielding, creating BLOs and sub BLOs of short wavelength. Water offers moderate surface admittance to the air BLOs, which impress their much longer wavelengths on the water surface, creating subBLO counter parts as water waves. The degree of water admittance gained by the much less dense air waves that puzzled Lock 52 is due to their standing wave nature 53 which is much amplified by feeding on the energy of the flow. The BLOs snake over the subBLOs at velocities much greater than the velocities of the subBLOs, but much slower than the shear flows creating them. Reynoldss Utube interface shear waves, that appear between immiscible water and car bon bisulfide, are stationary subBLOs,54 55 but the water BLOs above and the carbon bi sulfide BLOs below move at equal, and opposite directions. The water BLOs are snaking over the interface waves (subBLOs), while the carbon bisulfide BLOs are snaking along under them. The water and carbon bisulfide BLOs are similar continuous sine curves weav ing back and forth along their respective baselines one on each side of the stationary in terface waves. The wavelength and amplitude of the shear waves are limited by the tubes diameter. Reynolds incorrectly considered the wavelength of the stationary waves as the distance from crest to crest, rather than the standing wave relationship of twice that dis tance (two diameters). The ultimate surface admittance occurs in the BLOs between two air strata involved in sig nificant shear interaction in the sky. The air to air interface waves can exhibit very long wavelengths that become apparent only when cloud waves reveal them. Standing shear waves along laminar interfaces move relatively slowly, under the influence of their viscos
Dowd PT, retired Chief Pilot for Sky Services and currently jumbo jet flight simulator commercial pilot instructor: personal communication 49 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services: p. 32 (2005) 50 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 8; Stationary wave motion - a shear paradox: pp. 46-57 51 Landahl MT: On the stability of a laminar incompressible boundary layer over a flexible surface. JFM (1962); 13: pp. 609-632 52 Lock RC: Hydrodynamic stability of the flow in the laminar boundary layer between parallel streams. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society (1954); 50: pp. 105-124. 53 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 2; Waves on the water, waves in the wind: pp. 13-16 54 Reynolds O. An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998 55 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Chapter 2; Waves on the water, waves in the wind: pp. 13-16
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ity interaction and in the direction of the average resultant shear force between them. Just as in the Reynolds Utube experiment, if cloud waves are created between two adjacent air strata flowing in equal and exactly opposite directions, the waves will be stationary. In Figure 16a, the exit jet shows the rifling effect imposed on the cylinders (arteriogram needles) fluid column by the onset of turbulence. 16b shows spiral waves in the exit jet (blue coloring for the crests higher pressure zones, and red for troughs lower pressure zones). The spiral surface waves in 16a suggest two similar HofDelft type of flow divisions on cross section. Using this coloring, Figure 16c shows an external candy cane appearance of the cylinders fluid column, with two flow divisions and 16d shows a thin vertical mid axial slice through such a turbulent column, with periodic high and low pressure zones above and below (in phase) in all cylinder columns with symmetric flow divisions that are even numbered (2, 4, 6, etc.). Figure 16e is a threedivision turbulent flow cylindrical col umn. The mid axial slice (Figure 16f), depicts cylinder flows with an odd number of equal flow divisions periodic high / low pressure zones superiorly, with low / high pressure zones inferiorly. Figure 16a: Rifling imposed on fluid column by turbulent flow pattern Figure 16b: Coloring of 16a, with blue for high pressure (crests) and red for low pressure zones under the troughs Figure 16c: Candy cane with two flow divisions. blue high pressure red low pressure

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Figure 16d: Mid axial slice through cylinder flows with even number of flow divisions Figure 16e: Candy cane with three similar flow divisions Figure 16f: Mid axial slice showing pressure zones with three (odd number) flow divisions Such periodic pressure variations may reveal how edge tones emerge when a sharp edge dissects them out of the turbulent fluid jet. The bilobed low pressure areas can create a notch on the low pressure component of an oscillo scope tracing of such an edge tone, forming a more complex waveform (manifested per haps in the haunting timbre of flute music). Krger, in 1920, suggested that each jet had a natural tone, traveling up the jet, even without an edge to reveal it.56 57 This analysis con forms to Krgers proposal. The HofDelft group showed that variable versions of the symmetrical transverse flow divi sions can occur in turbulence in cylinders (2, 3, 4, 5 etc., similar flow divisions). The inser tion of an edge may impose a two division flow pattern, similar to 16c and 16d, with a note being dissected out by the edge cutting into the stream. The longitudinal periodic high pressure zones, along with the bilobed low pressure zones would create a note correspond ing to these periodic pressures as they emerge from the tube during transition and are cut into by the edge. Once an edge tone develops during transition, this note may become enhanced by positive feedback from the stream.58 Burniston Brown proved that, by using a suitable loud pure note, it was possible to force periodic vortex formation on otherwise apparently com
56 57

Krger F: Theorie der Schneidentne. Annalen der Physik (1920); 62: pp. 672-690 Brown GB: The mechanism of edge tone production. Proc Phys Soc (1937): pp. 508-521. 58 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 26

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pletely irregular turbulence. Now it is proposed that an edge tone may be able to force its own feedback enhanced note on the stream waves, forcing a steady pitch to persist as the flow rate increases, or decreases, within a limited flow range; this may be a significant mechanism, acting to maintain a notes steady pitch in flute and organ music. During the last stage of transition along rigid boundaries, sheared off rolls of vortices are patchy at first, seen in the Reynolds flashes of turbulence in a glass cylinder 59 and in the Emmons turbulent sources along a glass plate.60 Thus, transition to turbulence produces disorderly flow, resembling chaos, based on disruptive foci of harmonic transverse sound, which cause patchy areas of laminar interlocking. Compliant boundaries 61 (dolphin epi dermis, laminar interfaces, and particulate boundaries) may damp the patchy sound sources, similar to placing ones finger on a ringing bell,62 allowing the characteristic long crested static simple harmonic waves, associated with their standing wave origins, to emerge and compliant boundaries damp also the fluid waves (BLOs) creating them. The idealized transverse rows of blocks in 10b resemble Carpenters turbulencedamping panels. Carpenter et al. suggested that a series of periodic boundary panels, transverse to the flow and with damping (a form of induced compliance), adapted to the flow conditions, might suppress transition to indefinitely high Reynolds numbers.63 One can understand how damping the fluttering of Figure 10c panels (as the compliant dolphin epidermis ap parently does) might do the same. Birds flight feathers are evolutionary compliant panels that may be adjusted actively in flight to suit the air flow conditions. Significantly, each feather has many fine compliant micro panels that are related to feathers being excellent sound deadeners. The wing tip feather angles selected for fluttering BLO / sound wave damping, may be related to flight shock wave patterns with these Vwave formations (conforming to coalesced shock waves of the other birds) creating the invisible air wake of migrating geese and ducks. Somewhat like dolphins (which act like live surf boards), they are probably conserving energy by benefiting from boosting effects from the wakes created in the air by other members in the Vshaped flight formation. It is fascinating that Carpenter et al., while accepting Schubauers and Skramstads inter pretation of TollmienSchlicting boundary layer oscillations, described a flowinduced sur face instability traveling wave flutter, suggesting the role of Kramers coatings was to control this traveling wave flutter. Notice that Carpenter introduced also a traveling

Reynolds O. An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998 60 Emmons HW: The laminar-turbulent transition in a boundary layer. Part I. Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences (1951); 18: pp. 490-498 61 Gad-el-Hak M; Compliant coatings: a decade of progress. Applied Mechanical Reviews(1996); 49: pp. 147-157 62 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 48 63 Carpenter P.W and Garrad AD: The hydrodynamic stability of flow over Kramer-type compliant surfaces. Part 1 - Tollmien-Schlichting instabilities. J. Fluid Mech (1985);155: 465-516

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wave term,64 that became a part of the 2004 HofDelft landmark paper65 on turbulence in pipes. Einstein used the zigzag random Brownian Movement of colloidal particles suspended in fluids to explain molecular chaos in the Kinetic Theory,66 but fundamental Physics suggests that the bombardment of the relatively huge surface area of these particles, not by single molecules, but by coordinated waves of vast numbers of the fluids molecules, as omnipres ent, multifocal, omnidirectional, multifrequency environmental sound strikes them at the speed of sound, must explain Brownian Movement, at least partly (and likely entirely).67 68 The human eardrum, which can be broken down into a very large number of colloidal size particles, manifests this effect as molecules in waves of focussed sound strike it at Mach I. A similar Physics analogy is a very low amplitude water wave (a ripple) striking a canoe broadside. It would have an almost negligible effect but if that ripple struck the canoe at the speed of sound it would propel it sideways (if not destroy it) at impact. Modification of the current conception of the Kinetic Theory of fluids to suit this idea could allow consider ing laminar flow of Newtonian fluids to extend down to small multiples of molecular di mensions. Molecular kinesis could be related to a random walk69 type of Mexican jumpingbean molecular movement caused by temperaturerelated vibration of relatively quite heavy atomic nuclei within force fields defined by low mass atomic electron rings.70 Characteristic acoustic impedance (CAI) differences relate to interface reflectivity. Colloid particles, colored with soluble, non particulate dye and made from particlefree, bubble free polyethylene with the same CAI as the suspending liquid, should eliminate any Brown ian Movement activity that is due to the reflection, or refraction of environmental sound. Similarly, modifications in the Hof / Delft SPIV experiments (computer assisted stereo scopic particle image velocimetry) should result in displaying the waves and transverse flows in turbulence in a cylinder in a much purer form, without interference in the flow pat terns by flow generated coherent sound energy effects on the particles.71 The faint spiral waves that appear in late transition (Figure 17) should be studied carefully in steady state
Carpenter PW, Davies C and Lucey.: Hydrodynamics and compliant walls: Does the dolphin have a secret. Current Science (2000); 6: 758-764 65 Hof B, van Doorne CWH, Westerweel J, Nieuwstadt FTM, Faisst H, Eckhardt B, Kerswell RR, Waleffe F; Experimental observation during slow flow of non linear traveling waves in turbulent pipe flow. Science (2004); 305:1594-1598 66 Einstein A: ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der wrme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen. Annalen der Physik (1905); 17: pp 549-560. 67 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980) 68 Hamilton G. Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services (2008): pp. 65-66 69 Einstein A: ber die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der wrme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen. Annalen der Physik (1905); 17: pp 549-560. 70 Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services (2008): pp. 65-66 71 Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. University of Western Ontario Graphic Services (2008): pp. 65-66 p. 30
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transition using the HofDelft SPIA method before actual turbulence is triggered as well as in steady flow turbulence. Suggested modifications to the experimental method are 1) Select a pure polyethylene that is free from inclusions (bubbles, globules, or particulate matter) to manufacture the cylinder. 2) The fluid chosen for the flow studies should be a Newtonian fluid (particle, bubble and globule free), with the same CAI (characteristic acoustic impedance) as in 1). 3) The SPIV colloidal particles should be made from the polyethylene in 1) and should be as small and as few as possible, to minimize mechanical interference with the laminae. 4) SPIV particles should be dyed with a soluble (not colloidal) dye that maintains the same CAI in the polyethylene particles as in 1). 5) The cylinder should be submerged in a large bath of the fluid used in 2), to prevent re flection of flow generated sound from the outer margins of the tube back into the flow. Figure 17: Nascent spiral waves in late transition72.

The specifications in 1) to 5) are to eliminate any interference in the flow patterns that is due to sound energy generated by the flow and reflected back into the flow. A bar of the polyethylene in 1), suspended in the fluid in 2) and 5), would be invisible to diagnostic ul trasound because sound waves would pass through without reflection, or refraction and, similarly, sound energy should not alter the paths of the SPIV particles by causing sound propulsion of them something that must have occurred in the HofDelft SPIV studies. A long polyethylene sheet, similar to a flag, with the same CAI as the flowing fluid, anchored at one end by a thin taut horizontal wire transverse to the flow, attached across one end, would drift weightlessly horizontally in slowly flowing fluid. Long crested sinusoidal waves should develop in the sheet in transition as the flow rate increases and the sheet, like a flag in the wind should flap (flutter rhythmically), but silently, as BLOs slide off its trailing edge, causing classical trailing edge flutter. Next, select a Newtonian liquid, dyed by a soluble (Newtonian liquid) dye, and a thin flat polyethylene plate, all with the same CAI as specified above and perform a liquid flow ex periment in a model simulating the Schubauer and Skramstad wind tunnel experiments. Use an array of these fine dye streamlines instead of hot wire anemometers. The dye streams, now integral components of the flow, should reveal the true nature of the BLOs as
Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); An amplification crescendo at transition: pp. 60-61 (Figure 16b)
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they develop and progress, with no soundinduced particle movement. Study the dye streams 1) in steady transition, 2) in early established constant velocity turbulent flow and 3) during transition to turbulence as the flow rate increases incrementally. Similar dye streamline studies should be done in polyethylene cylinders, using the modified HofDelft SPIV experimental model just discussed in 1) to 5), above. It was my understanding, from 1957, that arteriographic standing waves manifested Kundts tube type of stationary sound waves that were created in the flow dynamics of an injection of Xray dyes into patients arteries. These simple harmonic waves developing and persisting at turbulent flow rates, introduced me to the turbulent flow aspect of Fluid Dy namics. Researching the Fluid Dynamics of this phenomenon when I encountered it again in 1972, after becoming a diagnostic radiologist I found that early fluid flow researchers repeatedly showed specific coherent sounds triggering turbulence and that coherent sound and fluid waves were produced in both transition and, paradoxically, in the chaos of tur bulent flow. Thus, my understanding of the Physics of transition to turbulence was driven by coherent sound energy effects without chaos and none of my subsequent research into fundamental Fluid Dynamics turned up anything that wasnt explainable in those terms. In 2004, in my retirement years, when I decided to investigate what was new in research into transition and turbulence, the diagrammatic representation of HofDelft type of trans verse flow patterns displayed in Fitzgeralds February 2004 article in Physics Today, as tounded me because I saw, replicated in color, a diagram I had drawn a quarter of a century earlier of imagined transverse turbulent flow patterns in cylinders, extrapolated from Ni kuradses drawings of transverse turbulent flow patterns in tubes with an equilateral tri angular cross section73 (Figures 5a, 5b and 5c). If, as suggested, laminar flow exists at small multiples of molecular dimensions, one might suggest how and where shearinduced transition originates. Even the most highly polished surfaces show marked irregularities at the microscopic and ultramicroscopic level. Ultra microscopically thin laminae flowing along such a surface would initiate ultra microscopic fluid waves with the obligatory simultaneous creation of transverse vibrations (see Fig ures 10a, b, c and d) in the extreme ultrasound range. The higher the frequency of ultra sound, the shorter is the distance over which it dissipates its energy energy that should be capable of creating micro plaques of interlocked laminae on the boundary. Each boundary plaque of interlocked micro laminae now would act as a boundary micro bump creating larger waves (still microscopic) as the unaffected laminae flow over it, with transverse ul trasound of lower frequency but still extremely high. This ultrasound would create a thick er microscopic plaque of interlocked fluid laminae on the boundary. This progressive plaque and wave buildup would continue until the macro wave limit is reached, the level at which Emmons found turbulent sources and Schubauer and Skramstad found simple harmonic boundary layer velocity oscillations (BLVOs). Long crested standing waves de velop over the plaques. Schubauer and Skramstad may have offered a clue to this BLVO se quence of events in noting that ....the frequency remained the same ..... except very near the
73

Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 2

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surface where there was a suggestion of frequency doubling ...74 This suggests that studies should be done in transition to look for sound frequencies in the ultrasound range (extend ing to extremely high frequency ultrasound) in the micro layers of the very peripheral boundary layer. The microscopic boundaryabutting subBLOs and BLOs with the associ ated transverse ultra high frequency ultrasound may be the long sought primary sources of transition.75 Schubauer and Skramstad type of studies should be repeated using ultrasensitive fre quency sensors and current computer technology and the data be analyzed by supercom puters, with Fluid Dynamics computer programming specialists factoring in the evidence laid out in this document. SPIV studies should be able to analyze liquid BLO development along a flat plate when the fluid and particles have identical CAI. Using the suggestions in this document, computerized analysis may even predict the results of such studies. It is predicted that a thin layer of sand or fine glass beads on a long flat plate in a wind tun nel will form simple harmonic particulate subBLOs waves which will slide slowly along the shiny plate, like Thomass tiny glass bead waves76. If a thin sheet of sandpaper is glued to such a plate, and the experiment is repeated, the waves will be locked into a relatively stationary position as they are on sand surfaces in the desert and the beds of flowing water. Thus, there are three velocities of longitudinal flow occurring in transition 1) the average flow velocity of the fluid, 2) the velocity of the BLOs and 3) the velocity of the subBLOs that may be pushed along by viscosity forces. In turbulence, there are the superimposed sound induced transverse flows, with the addition of a torsional component in cylinders (ex plained by Tyndall showing transverse sounds rotational effect on flat flames in 1867.77) Arteriographic standing waves formed the nidus around which this theory crystalized. If one examines the waves along the lower half of Figure 2, one can see the similarity be tween the speedinduced standing waves in the dolphins skin, in Bagnolds waves in stretches of sand, and in the interface waves between water and carbon bisulphide, in Os borne Reynolds classic tilted Utube experiment, all of which are planar shear waves. AG SWs, however, develop circumferentially along a boundary that is cylindrical, accounting for their circumferential nature in the arterial wall, waves which are compliant boundary counterparts of subBLOs. Conclusion The components of this theory were integrated over an academic lifetime starting with the recognition of stationary sound waves in the phenomenon of arteriographic standing waves in 1957. The idea of transverse standing wave sound inducing the laminar interlock
Schubauer GB and Skramstad HK: Laminar-boundary-layer-oscillations and transition on a flat plate. Advance Confidential Report. National Advisory Committee to Aeronautics (1943): p.18 75 Gad-el-Hak M: The last conundrum. Applied Mechanics Reviews (1997); 50, no.12, Part 1: pp. 1-3 76 Thomas DG: Periodic phenomena observed with spherical particles in horizontal pipes. Science (1964); 144: pp. 534-536 77 Tyndall J: On the action of sonorous vibrations on gaseous and liquid jets. Philosophical Magazine (1867); 33: p. 380.
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ing of turbulent flow arose in 1973,78 and was first submitted for publication in 197579 (justifiably rejected by the Journal of Fluid Mechanics). Tyndalls 1867 very significant dis covery that coherent sound, perpendicular to the flow, caused axial rotation of the fluid column as turbulence was triggered in a flat flame,80 suggested boundary layer coherent transverse sound as the cause of the axial rotation in cylinder flow as turbulence on sets. The compliant boundary component was introduced through a fellow physician, my cousin, Dr. Donald L. Crombie of Birmingham, England,81 who, in 1972 (while he was in London, Ontario as a UWO visiting Professor of Family Medicine), suggested that the epidermal pe riodic standing waves developing on speeding dolphins might preserve laminar flow at high swimming speeds, and might be related to arteriographic standing waves. After a game of squash, my friend, Professor Alan G. Davenport,82 in the 1970s, suggested correctly that Bagnolds simple harmonic waves that develop along stretches of sand on beaches in the wind and in river beds might be related to AGSWs, stimulating me to read Bagnolds 1941 monumental monograph: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. 83 A keystone was laid in 2004, by the Hof / Delft SPIV studies showing highly organized, non chaotic, symmetric transverse flow patterns in turbulent flow in cylinders, accompanied by traveling waves. A major piece was very recent (April 5, 2009), with the idea that the oscillations developing in transition on a flat plate in a wind tunnel were in the form of simple harmonic boundary layer flutter. The sinusoidal nature of the simple harmonic boundary layer flutter may explain why the velocity fluctuations are 180 degrees out of phase on each side of a base line along which there are no velocity fluctuations. Also at this time, the idea of boundary layer oscillations demanded the coexistence of subboundary layer waves abutting the boundary. When Schubauer and Skramstad showed simple harmonic boundary layer velocity oscillations along a line perpendicular to the flow, they expected the underlying boundary layer oscillations would be the theoretical waves pre dicted by Tollmien and Schlichting, rather than the true waves simple harmonic boundary layer flutter demanding the existence of subBLOs on or incorporated into the boundary. The idea of transitions BLOs originating as simple harmonic boundary layer flutter, with subBLOs, was a revelation, buttressing parts of the theory and integrating arteriographic standing waves, waves on particulate and laminar boundaries, sympathetic trailing edge flutter and the vertical oscillations sliding along both sides of a compliant flag in the wind. Furthermore, thinning, restricting and thus flattening these boundary layer flutter waves
Hamilton G: Patterns in fluid flow. Submission as work of original research in a gold medal competition for young researchers - Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (September 1, 1974). 79 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow. Rejected submission to the Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1975). 80 Tyndall J: On the action of sonorous vibrations on gaseous and liquid jets. Philosophical Magazine (1867); 33: p. 380. 81 Crombie DL, Birmingham, England: Suggestion of dolphin standing waves being related to arteriographic standing waves (1972), while a visiting professor at UWO (Family Practice) 82 Davenport AG: Emeritus Professor of Engineering, Director of the Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel, UWO 83 Bagnold RA: The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes. Butler and Tanner, Frome and London (1971), reprint of 1941 edition
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by thin oil films explains the calming effect of oil films on water in the wind84 and explains, similarly, the suppression of turbulence (and soundinduced heating effects) in oil film lu brication85. The understanding of dynamic standing waves, that integrate sound waves and shear waves, illustrates the harmony of effects and their causes that are fundamental to Physics. Benjamins studies of turbulent air flow over syrup, proved that the BLOs arising in transition, persist into turbulent air flow rates,86 just as the musical notes of edge tones do. The conception of even to the extent of a dominant role being played by the Physics of boundary layer ultrasound opens up large areas for exploratory research and for the en gineering of practical applications in flow control in Fluid Dynamics. This document is a prism through which is displayed a spectrum of shear waves and shear flows and flow induced coherent sound. When its ideas are added to the bank of knowledge now available, and fed into supercomputers by expert Fluid Dynamics computer program mers, perhaps answers will be produced in only a few moments that could help lay a new foundation for transition and turbulence. It shouldnt take another lifetime. If much, or all, of the Physics of Brownian Movement is due to the momentum transfer of waves of minute density differences in environmental sound transmission, impinging on suspended colloid particles from all directions at the speed of sound, this permits consider ing laminar flow to exist down to small multiples of molecular dimensions where transition may originate and questions the accepted explanation of molecular kinesis in fluids.87 88 PICTORIAL SUMMARY (Figures 18a to 18m)

Reynolds O: An experimental observation of the circumstances which determine whether the motion in water shall be direct or sinuous, and the law of resistance in parallel channels. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, London (1883); 174: pp. 935-998 85 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): pp. 51, 52 (Calming the waters with a thin film of oil) 86 Benjamin TB: Shearing flow over a wavy boundary. Journal of Fluid Mechanics (1959); Vol. 6: 161-205 87 Hamilton G: Patterns in Fluid Flow Paradoxes - Variations on a Theme. UWO Graphic Services (1980); Postscript: Just making waves, 2. Molecular kinesis in fluids: p.74 88 Hamilton G: Coherent Sound Energy in Transition to Turbulence. UWO Graphic Services (2008): p. 69

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18a: Kundts tube with standing wave sound dust figures 18b: Kundts tube standing wave sound water 18c: arteriographic standing waves, string of pearls 18d: Thomass glass bead waves in transition and turbulence 18e Bagnolds sand waves in turbulent flow in wind, water In the above diagrams, blue bands are high pressure areas; red are low pressure zones.

18f Figure 18f: Boundary layer waves (simple harmonic flutter), with boundaryabutting simple harmonic ripples (subBLOs).

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18g 18h 18i 18j Figure 18g: Nikuradse transverse flows in turbulence in a square tube89, 18h: Vertical ul trasound standing wave in a mixing chamber with rigid (sound reflective) walls creating vertical and horizontal RayleighSchlichting flows in a square tube, 18i: Similar Rayleigh Schlichting ultrasoundinduced transverse flows in a cylinder, 18j: HofDelft type of trans verse flows appearing in turbulence in cylinders, with four similar flow divisions. 18k 18l 18m Figure 18k: rifling induced by turbulence in a cylinder (arteriogram needle). Figure 18l: conventional coloring of this turbulent column (blue high pressure, red for lower pres sure). 18m: proposed colored transverse flow pattern of 18l, as turbulent fluid column exits needle tip, with the symmetry of two similar HofDelft type of transverse flow divi sions.
Nikuradse J: Untersuchungen ber turbulente Strmungen in nicht kreisformigen Rhren. Ingenieur Archiv, VI (1930): pp. 306-332.
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