54.

Wisdom as Expert Knowledge System: A Critical Review of a Contemporary Operationalization of an Ancient Concept (EJ735902)

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Author(s): Ardelt, Monika Human Development, v47 n5 p257-285 Source: 2004

Paul B. Baltes and his colleagues, who are among the most prominent contemporary wisdom researchers, define wisdom as "expert knowledge in the domain fundamental pragmatics of life." By contrast, this article argues that the definition, operationalization, and measurement of wisdom should not be reduced to expertise and that the term wisdom should be reserved for wise persons rather than expert knowledge. In fact, evidence from their research confirms that Baltes et al. primarily assess expert or intellectual knowledge in the wisdom domain "fundamental pragmatics of life" rather than how wise people are. As an alternative, a model of wisdom is presented that defines, operationalizes, and measures wisdom as an integration of cognitive, reflective, and affective personality characteristics. 55. WICS as a Model of Giftedness (EJ770863)

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Author(s): Sternberg, Robert J. Source: High Ability Studies, v14 n2 p109-137 Dec 2003

This article presents WICS as a model of giftedness. WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Synthesized. The article considers the relation between giftedness and expertise, and argues that giftedness is, ultimately, expertise in development. One cannot clearly distinguish between giftedness and expertise, because all measures of giftedness assess some kind of expertise, at least to an extent. The article then considers intelligence, creativity, and wisdom as elements of giftedness. It then draws some conclusions. 56. The Constructs of Wisdom in Human Development and Consciousness. (ED475466)

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Author(s): Prewitt, Vana R. Source: N/A

Classical and contemporary research studies were examined to develop a definition of wisdom and explore its constructs in human development and consciousness. First, wisdom was defined as an emergent characteristic of mature adults that is built upon intelligence, experience, and reflection and includes metaphysical and cognitive components. Particular attention was paid to the writings of classical scholars (including Piaget, Kohlberg, Erikson, and Maslow) and modern wisdom theorists (including Baltes, Staudinger, and Sternberg). Particular attention was paid to the concepts of postformal thought and fluid and crystallizedintelligence. The following behavioral competencies were identified as desirable among employees and within organizations' cultures: emotional intelligence, maturity, and impulse control; reflective and thoughtful judgment; concern for the organization's social fabric; empathy, compassion, and caring; humility; significant life experience upon which to draw; and social intelligence. The following elements were identified as desired components of a development plan for workplace wisdom: (1) emotional control techniques and expectations for using them; (2) reflective decision-making skills; (3) partnering wise employees as mentors to the unwise; (4) structured opportunities to experiment, learn, and integrate new knowledge; and (5) skills in active listening, flexible thinking, tolerating

ambiguity, and systems thinking. 57. WICS: A Model of Educational Leadership (EJ724874)

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Author(s): Sternberg, Robert J. Source: Educational Forum, The, v68 n2 p108114 Win 2004

What are the ingredients of successful educational leadership? One possible answer is the WICS model. According to this paradigm, to be a highly effective leader, an individual must possess three key attributes:Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity--working in harmony or Synthesized. (Sternberg 2003; Sternberg and Vroom 2002). The skills necessary for successful leadership are not innate, but may be developed. Wisdom,intelligence, and creativity, with intelligence at the base, to some extent, are forms of developing expertise (Sternberg 1998; 1999a). This article describes what factors make educational leadership successful. 58. WICS--A Prototype of Synthetic Approaches to Giftedness in the New Century?(EJ770317)

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Author(s): Heller, Kurt A. Source: High Ability Studies, v14 n2 p147-148 Dec 2003

Giftedness models published in the last two decades are mostly characterized by multi-dimensional or typological ability constructs. Prominent examples of multifactorial models of giftedness have been developed by Robert Sternberg in the form of the "Triarchic Theory of Intelligence" and his recent synthetic approaches to "Giftedness as Developing Expertise" and the "WICS Model of Giftedness," to name a few. In this article, the author discusses the reasons why complex models of giftedness seem to be en vogue at the start of this new millennium, and addresses two aspects of the WICS model which he finds to be of substantial significance: (1) By conceptualizing "giftedness as developing expertise" Sternberg has been able to bridge the gap between the prospective approach (in giftedness research oriented on traditional psychometrics) and the retrospective approach (in expertise research oriented on cognitive psychology) in an elegant and convincing manner; and (2) Hardly less fascinating-when possibly not yet fully developed--appears to be the effort to promote the "mesh work of relationships" among intelligence, creativity, and wisdom as elements of giftedness. 59. The Making of the Gifted: Implications of Sternberg's WICS Model of Giftedness(EJ770896)

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Author(s): Dai, David Yun High Ability Studies, v14 n2 p141-142 Source: Dec 2003
Robert Sternberg's WICS (Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Syntehsized) model of giftedness provides a novel and valuable meaning to the construct of giftedness. First, instead of conceptualizing giftedness as inherited static traits, WICS is distinctly a dynamic, developmental model of giftedness. The second valuable feature of the model is that it deviates from the traditional ability-centric conceptions of giftedness. The third valuable feature of the

model is that it can readily serve as a template for framing the goals and objectives of a gifted program. However, WICS falls short of specificity because it operates on an abstract, generalizable level, and the author takes issue with some of his arguments for the model. 61. Reaching for the Stars in Gifted Education: A Critique of the WICS Model (EJ770847)
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Author(s): Feldhusen, John F. High Ability Studies, v14 n2 p143-143 Source: Dec 2003
This paper is, in one sense, a Sternberg review. It references 36 papers first authored by him and three coauthored or 42% of all the papers cited. Most of it deals with what should be viewed as goals of gifted education, very little of it with practical aspects of the process of identifying/selecting youth for specific programmes. The paper is really a report of very promising theory and research concerning goals or outcomes of ideal, excellent programmes for youth who initially show promise for developing high levels of knowledge, creativity, and wisdom. As such it is really a creative guide for curriculum development in gifted education. In this paper, the author discusses three components in order to find/select the youth who have the potential for achieving the lofty goals Sternberg envisions: (1) consortia of schools pooling their resources; (2) a high-powered theoretical researcher who will come and work with the consortia; and (3) a super complex curriculum. 62. A Conceptual Critique of Sternberg's WICS Model (EJ770809)

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Author(s): Koro-Ljungberg, Mirka High Ability Studies, v14 n2 p151-152 Source: Dec 2003
Robert Sternberg's model of giftedness brings together interesting and very important elements of giftedness by synthesizing wisdom, intelligence, and creativity in novel ways. While his model is based on extensive research and utilizes a variety of sources and expertise, the epistemological consistency of Sternberg's model is, in the author's opinion, cause for concern. In this paper, the author argues for a model that is conceptually coherent, a trait Sternberg also recognizes as important. First, all concepts used in the construction of a model should be conceptually equal attributes, e.g. all nouns, verbs, in order to produce a balanced model. Secondly, the author believes it is difficult to conceptualize a model that utilizes epistemologically diverse concepts, while at the same time attempting to create a generalizable model (a generalizable model should include only objectively constructed concepts and terms). Therefore, any epistemological inconsistency and conceptual confusion have methodological implications that complicate any further use of the model, whether qualitative or quantitative. Researchers, using either subjective or objective ways of producing knowledge, face epistemological problems and conceptual uncertainty when attempting to plan for future study or testing of this model. 63. Personal Talent. (EJ678654)

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Author(s): Moon, Sidney M. High Ability Studies, v14 n1 p5-21 Jun Source: 2003
This article describes the knowledge and skills that comprise personal talent and distinguish it from personal

competence and several related psychological constructs, such as social intelligence, motivation, and wisdom. Finally, the usefulness of the theory of personal talent for research in high ability studies is discussed. 64. What Is the Common Thread of Creativity? Its Dialectical Relation to Intelligence andWisdom. (EJ627477)

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Author(s): Sternberg, Robert J. American Psychologist, v56 n4 p360-62 Source: Apr 2001
Discusses the role of creativity in the dialectical process of ideas, suggesting that all cultures, including cultures compromising fields of knowledge, generate a dialectical process in which: intelligence represents a thesis, advancing societal agendas; creativity represents an antithesis, questioning societal agendas and proposing new ones; and wisdom represents a synthesis of the dialectic, balancing the old with the new. 66. Wisdom as a Form of Giftedness. (EJ616398)

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Author(s): Sternberg, Robert J. Source: Gifted Child Quarterly, v44 n4 p252-60 Fall 2000

This article discusses how giftedness is currently defined and presents an alternative view based on a balance theory of wisdom. The theory is described as a useful way of conceptualizing wisdom. Sources of differences in wisdom and the need for development of wisdom as a form of giftedness are addressed. 68. Intellectual versus Wisdom-Related Knowledge: The Case for a Different Kind of Learning in the Later Years of Life. (EJ617431)

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Author(s): Ardelt, Monika Educational Gerontology, v26 n8 p771Source: 89 Dec 2000

Intellectual knowledge and wisdom-related knowledge differ in goals, approach, range, method of acquisition, and effects on the knower. Intellectual knowledge tends to decrease with age. The relationship betweenwisdom and aging is potentially positive if not impeded by cognitive deterioration. 80. Facets of Wisdom: A Theoretical Synthesis. (EJ400122)
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Author(s): Taranto, Maria A. Source: International Journal of Aging and Human Development, v29 n1 p1-21 1989

Compares and synthesizes past decade of research into facets of wisdom, searching for a unified definition.

Concludes that factors relating to wisdom (age, experience, intelligence, knowledge, intuition, common sense, and personality) can be unified theoretically if wisdom is viewed as the recognition of and response to human limitation.

The Wisdom of Many in One Mind: Improving Individual Judgments with Dialectical Bootstrapping
Stefan M. Herzog and Ralph Hertwig Psychological Science Vol. 20, No. 2 (Feb., 2009), pp. 231-237 The "wisdom of crowds" in making judgments about the future or other unknown events is well established. The average quantitative estimate of a group of individuals is consistently more accurate than the typical estimate, and is sometimes even the best estimate. Although individuals' estimates may be riddled with errors, averaging them boosts accuracy because both systematic and random errors tend to cancel out across individuals. We propose exploiting the power of averaging to improve estimates generated by a single person by using an approach we call dialectical bootstrapping. Specifically, it should be possible to reduce a person's error by averaging his or her first estimate with a second one that harks back to somewhat different knowledge. We derive conditions under which dialectical bootstrapping fosters accuracy and provide an empirical demonstration that its benefits go beyond reliability gains. A single mind can thus simulate the wisdom of many. 81. The Study of Life Review. An Approach to the Investigation of Intellectual Development across the Life Span. Studien und Berichte 47. (ED322403)
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Author(s): Staudinger, Ursula M. Source: N/A

A study looked for age differences in the quality of responses to the Life Review Task (LRT), studied the LRT itself as a tool for exploring wisdom and intellectual functioning in adulthood, and considered personality characteristics and life experience as alternative predictors of response quality. Sixty-three West German women of different ages were asked to think aloud as they constructed the life review for a fictitious woman who was either young, middle aged, or old. The women were aged 25-35, 45-55, and 65-75. Verbatim transcriptions of the protocols were rated on six theorized indicators of a "wise" response: (1) good, insightful judgment and advice about difficult life problems; (2) rich knowledge about life; (3) rich knowledge about life review; (4) contextual thinking; (5) relativistic thinking; and (6) thinking that acknowledges the uncertainties of life. Twelve raters were trained to evaluate the quality of responses against an ideal "wise" person. Overall, only a small number of wise protocols (responses given a top rating on all six scales) were present in the sample. Age differences were minimal, with old subjects not rated significantly lower than middle-aged and young subjects on any of the wisdom-related scales. Old subjects were rated significantly higher than young subjects on the scale for "thinking that acknowledges the uncertainties of life." The study suggests that there is some empirical ground for the adoption of a more balanced view of aging than the one currently prevalent. (Includes 14 pages of references, 21 tables, 8 figures, and appendices in German on the life review interview, rater training, and rating tools.) 82. Judgment, Probability, and Aristotle's Rhetoric. (EJ396360)

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Author(s): Warnick, Barbara Source: Quarterly Journal of Speech, v75 n3 p299-311 Aug 1989

Discusses Aristotle's five means of making judgments: intelligence, "episteme" (scientific knowledge), "sophia"

(theoretical wisdom), "techne" (art), and "phronesis" (practical wisdom). Sets Aristotle's theory of rhetorical argument within the context of his overall view of human judgment. Notes that attempts to assimilate Aristotelian rhetoric into forms of proof in other fields are erroneous. 84. Wisdom and Logic. (ED282099)

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Author(s): Taranto, Maria A. Source: N/A

This paper examines the relationship between wisdom and logic as found in adult reasoning. Material is from the current and growing literature in this area. The proposal that adult reasoning is dialectical and, therefore, beyond formal operations is scrutinized in light of popular definitions of wisdom, since wisdom is generally considered to be the most enviable and advanced form of human cognition. Furthermore, the question as to whether wisdom exceeds formal logic is analyzed in relation to the possible dialectical character of the content on which wisdom operates. 85. Alternative Conceptions of Wisdom: An Onion-Peeling Exercise. (EJ367017)

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Author(s): Blanchard-Fields, Fredda; And Others Source: Educational Gerontology, v13 n6 p497503 1987

Discusses contextualistic and integrative approaches to the concept of wisdom, and the evolution of the concept from an independent construct of intelligence to a component of intelligence, i.e., practical intelligence. Suggests operationalization of wisdom as the ability to integrate cognition and affect. Illustrates the integrative approach with an investigation of real-world problem solving in adolescents and adults.

The measurement of wisdom: A commentary on Taylor, Bates, and Websters comparison of the SAWS and 3D-WS

Ardelt, M. (2011). The measurement of wisdom: A commentary on Taylor, Bates, and Websters comparison of the SAWS and 3D-WS. Experimental Aging Research, 37(2), 241-255. In my reply to Taylor, Bates, and Websters article, I (a) clarify the development and assessment of the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale (3DWS), (b) describe the difference between the essential components of wisdom and its predictors, correlates, and consequences, and (c) conduct additional bivariate correlation analyses between the components of the 3D-WS and Websters Self-Administered Wisdom Scale (SAWS) and all the forgiveness and psychological well-being subscales. Results show that the cognitive, reflective, and affective dimensions of the 3D-WS were significantly and positively correlated with all the forgiveness and psychological well-being

subscales. By contrast, only the emotional regulation and humor components of the SAWS were consistently positively associated with those subscales. It appears that the 3D-WS measures the essential cognitive, reflective, and affective components of wisdom, whereas the SAWS contains a reflective wisdom component, a wisdom predictor, a consequence of wisdom, and two necessary but not sufficient wisdom components.
Age, experience, and the beginning of wisdom

Ardelt, M. (2010). Age, experience, and the beginning of wisdom. In D. Dannefer & C. Phillipson (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of social gerontology (pp. 306-316). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. What wisdom is and what it encompasses has been variously defined across the ages, starting with the earliest wisdom literature' among the ancient Sumerians in 3000 B.C. (Birren and Svensson, 2005). Distinctions between wisdom as knowledge of the material and social world (episteme or scientia), as the pursuit of timeless, universal truths (sophia or sapientia), or as good and prudent behavior (phronesis or practical wisdom) can be found, for example, in the wisdom writings of the Ancient Greek philosophers, the 4th century philosopher and theologian St. Augustine, and the French Renaissance statesman and scholar Montaigne (Birren and Svensson, 2005; Robinson, 1990). The discussion of whether wisdom consists of intellectual knowledge of the world and the human condition or is a quality that transcends the intellect' (Naranjo, 1972: 225) and whose characteristics are timeless and universal (Ardelt, 2000b) continues until this day. In this chapter, I first distinguish between Western and Eastern approaches to wisdom before I introduce culturally inclusive definitions of wisdom. I then discuss the hypothetical and empirical relation between wisdom and age and address the role of crises and hardships in the development of wisdom. The chapter concludes with speculations about the promotion of wisdom in everyday life and the benefits of wisdom, particularly for older adults.
Wisdom, age, and well-being

Ardelt, M. (2011). Wisdom, age, and well-being. In K. W. Schaie & S. L. Willis (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (7th ed., pp. 279-291 ). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier.

After giving an overview of Western, Eastern, and culturally inclusive theories of wisdom, this chapter summarizes the theoretical and empirical research on the association between aging and wisdom and the effect of wisdom on wellbeing. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies show that wisdom characteristics tend to increase in adolescence and early adulthood. Yet in adulthood, the development of wisdom appears to be facilitated by favorable social conditions and a strong motivation for psychosocial growth. Empirical research also indicates that wisdom is positively related to subjective and psychological well-being in the later years of life, particularly in less privileged populations. Future research should explore in greater detail how wisdom develops over the life course and what possible roles schools, universities, and religious/spiritual institutions might play in the cultivation of wisdom. Future studies should also investigate the impact wise elders have on society and the well-being of present and future generations.