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Ship Design (5.11.

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Objectives
Economics Cost effectiveness Availability Reliability Maintainability

Creativity Parametric study Feasibility study Design for use Design for production Design for support Design for modernization

Objectives
It is not sufficient to say that a ship must be designed to meet the requirements of the owner. The fundamental aim of an owner is to make a profit on the investment. To borrow money to buy the ship, pay taxes, pay crews, meet bunkering costs and to arrange the flow of cashes to maximize profit. There will be constraints of regulation, social pressures and competition affecting the choices so that there will be a limit to profit which a budget will reveal.

Economics
Potential owner decides on the sort of trading in which to indulge. The most important element of economics is freight rate . It means that the rate payable in the free markets of the world for transport of units of specific goods. Freight rate determines the flow of cash into the company. There may also be inward cash flow through government subsidies and loans. Outward cash flow caused by down payment and installments on building costs, loan repayments and interests , port charges, maintenance and repair , profit, corporation and taxes. Depreciation is calculated for tax purposes. The component interest that would be earned by an investment Po at an interest rate r after a period of year

The higher the positive net present value gives the better the investment. The correct discount rate r are difficult but are based upon either the assessment of alternative opportunities when it is called the opportunity cost rate. There are several important variations upon net present value preferred by some economics. Required rate of return is that discount rate r which gives a zero NPV. Required freight rate is the minimum cargo rate which the ship owner has to charge the customer just to break even.

Cost effectiveness
The basics objectives of a warship designer is to provide an advantage to a government in military action against a potential enemy. There are three elements to the value or effectiveness of a warship Capability Availability Military worth Capability is a measure of the offensive ability of the ship. There are many parts to such an ability-speed, detection, range of sensors, reaction time to a threat. The measure of capability can therefore be expressed as a matrix of probabilities based upon different assumptions. Availability depends on the intrinsic likelihood that a device will work when called upon to do so called the reliability and the likelihood that should it break down it can be repaired in a acceptable timescale called maintainability. Military worth is an assessement of the military advantage over a potential enemy which the possession of the warship confers. System effectiveness S.E.

S.E.=C A W
Cost effectiveness =S.E./Cost=C A W/F This represents an expression of value for money. Military worth is also likely to degrade with time as a potential enemys technology advances. Capability is a measure of transport capacity while military worth is replaced by utility. Utility is a measure of correctness of the predicted assessment of market forces or the owner is prepared to accept. Utility is an important aspect of the study of economics. Trade-offs or compromises are many and complex and occupy a great deal of effort in the design stages. The trade-offs would be related to such issuces as choice of flag, variability of terminal facilities, bunkering positions, insurance rates. Availability dependent on reliability and maintainability. These terms possess a range of meanings the vernacular no less important than the mathematically presently described. Let us consider the time taken for a large population of

similar devices tested in identical conditions to fail.

Small intervals of time the number of failures divided by the total population may be represented by a smooth curve f(t) called the probability density function. The probability of failure up to time t is

Because the total area of curve must be unity the probability of failing is

F(t) cumulative failure distribution and R(t) reliability distribution function and z(t) instantaneous hazard rate Z(t)=f(t)/R(t)

Creativity
We create a design which will satisfy the owner. Attributes of a ship-stability, strength, seaworthiness so on. Now it is necessary to consider the ship as a whole, possessing these attributes to an agreed standard and able to meet the needs of its owner. That owner is concerned the ship must be capable of doing various things. It must possess a number of capabilities within agreed operational scenarios. In a single-shafted ship the shaft supports the ships capability to move. In a multi-shaft ship it will also support its ability to maneuver. A radar system will support an ability to navigate safely. In warships it will also support a number of fighting capabilities such as detecting and destroying enemy aircraft. An air conditioning system will be necessary to support most of ships capabilities. Most systems will include equipments, piping, cabling and some supporting structure. Capability or sub-capability a diagram can be produced showing how individual ship elements contribute to that capability. Such diagrams are called dependency diagram.

Dependency diagrams

Parametric studies
The stage at which the dimensions and their ratios will be considered depends much up on nature of investigation and the requirements of the owners. 1. Ship length is controlled normally by the space available at the quayside. 2. Ship breadth is controlled by stability or canal width. 3. Ship depth is controlled by a combination of draft and freeboard. 4. Ship draft is controlled by the depth of water at the Ports where the ship will be visiting. Exceptions to this are the ULCCs and the Supertankers. They off-load their cargo at single point moorings located at the approaches to Ports.

Prismatic and block coefficients: These coefficients give an idea of the fineness of the ends relative to the middle part of the ship . Prismatic coefficient has an important effect upon residuary resistance and optimum values. Low prismatic coefficients mean fine ends which can give the ships lines bulky fittings, like diesel generators, sonar arrays or weapon systems.

Dimensional ratios : Beam to draught ratio is of major importance to initial transverse stability and natural period of roll. There is slight increase in resistance as B/T increases. Draught/Depth ratio is T/D is extremely important to large angle stability since it determines the point of deck edge immersion. It also determines freeboard and is therefore a measure of deck wetness and it indicates the reserve of buoyancy for survivability.

General ranges of principal dimensions

Ship form: Flare of the ships side at the waterline of some 15 degrees can be very beneficial in keeping KM constant with increasing displacement so that adequate stability can be maintained with variable payload. Large flat bottom areas especially in the first 20 per cent of the length could well invite excessive slamming. Vee sections forward are beneficial to sea keeping. High sheer at the forecastle often helps to keep a dry fore-deck. Water plane coefficients: A high water plane coefficient Cw has a beneficial effect on seakeeping to effects of length. A fine angle of entrance at bow gives a good start to the hydrodynamic flow over the ship and can be beneficial to resistance and to noise reduction. A good relationship for stability purposes between Cw and Cp for small warships is Cw=.44+0.52Cp Longitudinal centres and bulbs: The effects of LCB position are relatively small on resistance but the addition of a buib forward can be important to resistance especially at high Fn for cargo ships with block coefficients. The centre of lateral resistance below water is important to manoeuvrability . Propeller: Slow revving large diameter propellers tend to be favored wherever possible because they enable higher QPS to be achieved, they are less noisy and they should cause less excitation to the hull. Speed of propeller rotation below which an additional reduction gear train will be required causing a step change in gearbox costs. Well-designed fixedpitch helical propeller is difficult to better for efficiency.

Feasibility studies
A change to any one parameter will affect many factors and in turn , require change to other parameters , it is virtually impossible to change one dimension or parameter without significant effects upon many dependent variables. There are many ways of representing this convergent process but one of the most evocative is the design spiral.

Design spiral

This conveys both the interactive and the iterative nature of the whole ship design..

Design for use

It is important that systems and equipments should be easy to use. Equally important they are more likely to be used effectively when operators are under the stress of an emergency or in action. Where a human being is involved a designer must take account of the way people function physically and mentally. Ergonomics-The size and layout of the console must be such that all dials can be read, all controls must be readily reached and so on. Design philosophy-The design of layout must help the operator in understanding the results of actions. Machinery control console a control panel which represents diagrammatically actions within the machinery is useful. Training-The need to train for routine tasks is obvious. The training for emergency conditions is also vital because of their importance .The different levels of experience and ability of the designer and user are too often reflected in the operating instructions and handbook issued so making it difficult for the user. A common finding is that people tend to see what is expected and ignore what is not expected. Machine is good at repetitive calculation whereas a human may make errors, particularly when tired or under stress. The human is better at pattern recognition than a machine. In some cases the division between the human and the machine is fixed but increasingly the ship it may be desirable to give total task when conditions are quiet. Scope for the development of systems with artificial intelligence, with the human and the machine effectively having a dialogue and supporting each other. This may be for training purposes using part-task simulators .In multi-variant problems the best method of presenting data for human decisions is by no means clear, although in general terms it has been shown that graphical rather than alpha-numeric displays are preferable.

Design for production

A good designer will have a feel for feature which are likely to prove difficult to build and which will be expensive of time and money. Without that feel it will not be possible to arrive at sound compromises so necessary in ship design. Ideally designers will have had some experience of production. As an example plating curved in two dimension is much cheaper to produce than plating curved in two dimensions, but for the hull there may be a resistance or radar signature penalty. Warships have dispensed with sheer and camber on decks other than weather decks. In steel structures the more welding that can be done by machine, the cheaper and more reliable . The longer the straight runs of welding the less time will be absorbed in setting up the machines. Using stiffeners in one direction only, avoiding intersection of welds and intercostals members will help as will the use of steels which do not need special pre-heating procedures and the use of standard sections. Using corrugated bulkheads can avoid the need to weld to weld stiffeners to plating. Confined areas must be large enough to provide access for fabrication and application of protective coatings. Grouping system components to reduce the length of cable and piping runs will reduce cost and weight. Some design features will be universally advantageous. Others will depend upon the production methods used and equipment available in building yard. The more pre-outfitting that can be done before the main sections of the ship are joined together, the better.

Design for support

This is not a major influence on merchant ship design but for the dense warships it is extremely importance important. Reliability and maintainability studies, identify those equipments which may require removal during the to be replaced at a specified life and occasionally need replacement at unexpected moments. The requirement is to change them within 48hours and removal routes have to be designed into the ship. Diesels usually need portable plates through which they may be unshipped. Access around to withdraw rotors and maintenance envelopes are usually shown dotted on detailed layout drawings. Propeller shaft withdrawal and rudder removal in dry dock have to be thought about. Room has to be left in the layouts for spares close to where they may be needed if they are bulky. Impending failure can be predicted by various health monitoring devices based for example on spectroscopic examination of oil or vibration measurement. This monitoring equipment is often designed into the control consoles for the machines.

Design for modernization

A warship may last up to 30 years during which time its weapons become obsolete. Taking a warship to pieces to replace whole weapons systems is time consuming and expensive when the system depends on elements scattered throughout the ship. This type of isolation has appeared under the general heading of modularity. One specific example is known as the MEKO system. While principle is simple namely to provide a self-contained module housing a weapon system practice has been bedeviled by the need for that system to draw upon information from the gyro compass the surveillance radar the command system and many other parts of the ship. Modularized ships do tend to be somewhat larger and initially more expensive for the modules like chilled water and electrical supplies may still be drawn from a central source to avoid the expense of duplication. Zoning of warships also aims, as far as is practicable to keep functions of a ship within zones that can be sealed off. They form not only fire, smoke and watertight subdivision but sections of the ship which are independent of others to reduce vulnerability to action damage and to case modernization. It is not , of course possible to make them totally independent because some systems like electrical power are almost certainly to be distributed ship-wide. Nevertheless it is worthwhile where it can be done economically.

VIDEOS http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwYPaxg6pN0

Reference
Basic Ship Theory Vol-2, Rawson & Tupper.pdf

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