Q1. Explain five differences between priority slots and time slots.

Priority Slot When data packets are sent over a network, they are broken into equal-size pieces. The message and header are attached to each packet which tells the size of the packet. When network equipment routes the packets from the source (server) to the destination (client), headers include three priority slots based on bits. The three priority bits enable eight levels of priority but sometimes only four are used. Real-time files such as video are given high priority and non-real time data is given low priority. Network equipments (switches and routers) use various techniques to deliver high priority data over low priority. Priority QoS (Quality of Service) prioritizes the type of information when two similar types of data streams are sent together. Time Slots The transmission time of a fixed-length physical frame is defined and prioritized as a time slot and is used for multiplexing of user data switching over WAN. The maximum length of an Ethernet MAC frame is exactly fixed into a physical frame time slot. It is sent to a time-critical user data stream followed by the required QoS parameters such as throughput and time delay. For example, the DS0 (Digital Signal 0) time slot is used for WAN interface. All are checked by default and arranged as slot priority. In the T1/E1 carrier, T1 provides 24 time slots of 64 Kbps for each which in total is 1536 Kbps. For E1, there are 31 time slots of 64 Kbps each for a total of 1984 Kbps.

Q2. What do you understand by binary synchronous control?

Binary Synchronous Control (BSC)

Binary Synchronous Communication (BSC) is known as BISYNC. It is a character oriented protocol developed by IBM in 1967. It was announced in 1967, after the introduction of system/360. BSC replaced the Synchronous Transmit Receive (STR) protocol. It is used in second-generation computers. BSC is a data communication line protocol that uses a standard set of transmission control characters and control character sequence which is sent to binary-coded data over the communication control line.

Functions of Binary Synchronous Communication

BSC follows half-duplex communication. It synchronizes and works with the transmitter which sends a SYN character. The receiver receives the message and starts finding the SYN character. The two stations handshake confirms the synchronization message. Then they exchange data and information which are kept in character blocks. The block first finds the SYN character. Then, the Start Of Header (SOH) marks the starting header which contains the sequence number and the address of the transmitter and receiver. STX (Start of TeXt) and End of TeXt (ETX) indicate the starting and ending of user data. They are in an arbitrary sequence of characters. In BSC, the redundancy check impacts a block. Control characters are used in user data, and Data Link Escape (DLE) is used to avoid interpreting the control codes. If control character occurs in the user data, it is preceded by DLE character which means that BSC is now ready to accept the next character. In the error handling method, the receiver receives a corrupted block which returns the NAK (Negative AcKnowledge) block sequence number. This sequence number is used to offend the block and then the transmitter retransmits that block. Individual characters are used by parity checking.

Q3. How is a communication channel shared?

Channel Sharing
A communication channel is shared by the way of multiplexing, i.e., putting several information on the same channel. In the context of telecommunications and computer networks, the technique for combining either digital data streams or multiple analog message signals into a single signal through a shared medium is termed as multiplexing or mixing. The basic objective behind this is sharing an exclusive resource. In telecommunications, only one wire may get used for transferring the numerous phone calls. The signals multiplexed are sent through a communication channel that can become a medium for physical transmission. Through multiplexing, the low-level communication channels can be broken down into a number of higher-level logical channels so that there can be one for every message signal or data stream for transfer of data. Another process that is exactly the opposite of multiplexing, called as de multiplexing, is the process of deriving all genuine channels and shifting them to the receiver end. Similarly, for performing the multiplexing task the device used is called as a multiplexer (MUX) and the device used for performing the reverse process is termed as a de multiplexer (DEMUX). Multiplexing can be basically divided into two types for both analog as well as digital form namely Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) and Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) out of which the FDM demands modulation of every signal. In context of optical communications, FDM has been renamed as the Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM). Through the use of statistical multiplexing, such as the packet mode communication, variable bit rate digital bit streams can be efficiently transferred through a fixed bandwidth channel. Packet mode communication is a time domain multiplexing that is a little but not entirely the same as time division multiplexing. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) methods can help in transferring the digital bit streams through an analog channel. The two types of CDM are Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) and Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). Multiplexing, in wireless communications, can be done with the use of irregular polarization in different forms, such as horizontal/vertical or clockwise/counterclockwise on every adjacent channel as well as satellite, or by the means of a phased multi-antenna array linked to a Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) communications scheme.

Types of Communications Channels

There are various types of communication channels present in different fields. Some of them can be stated as below: Simplex communication, duplex communication or half duplex communication channel Computer network virtual channel Digital or analog channel Baseband and pass band channel Multiplexed channel Transmission medium Return channel Broadcast channel, uncast channel or multicast channel Uplink or downlink (upstream or downstream channel)

Q4. Why client and server are considered as most powerful component for constructing networks?

Client and Servers

In general, a computer network is composed of one or more servers, workstations, network interface cards, active and passive hub, routers, bridges, gateways, modem, software components like network operating systems and other application software. The following components are widely used to construct networks.

Client
A client is an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server. The server is often on another computer system and the client accesses the service by way of a network. The client-server model is still used today. Client and server can run on the same machine and connect via other interposes communication techniques such as shared memory. Using the Internet sockets a user may connect to a service operating on a possibly remote system through the Internet protocol suite. A client-server network involves multiple clients connecting to a single, central server. The file server on a client server network is a high capacity, high speed computer with a large hard disk capacity.

Server
It is the most powerful computer of the network. In a local area network, usually a powerful microcomputer or a super-microcomputer with the power of a minicomputer is used as a server. There are two types of servers normally employed in a local area network: In a dedicated server, the server computer performs functions and services of the whole network. It helps to efficiently run user applications and increases the overall system cost. Users cannot run their applications directly in a dedicated server. It provides e-mail service, sharing of multiple hard disks, and sharing of other resources and faster response time. For larger networks with heavy load, dedicated servers are usually employed. In a non-dedicated server, apart from the role of a network controller, a server also acts as an individual workstation. The server is equipped with a large memory. Network operations demand only a portion of server memory. The remaining portion of the memory may be used for the user applications. Under light-load conditions, it is advisable to use a non dedicated server. Some servers can operate on both modes, according to the requirement of the user.

Q5. Try to identify the areas where computer is used. Also mention the name of application software for each type.

Categories of Software
Computer software can be broadly classified into two categories Application software System software Application Software Application software is developed so that computers can be applied to everyday tasks and problems. Personal productivity programming, engineering and science applications, and business applications can avail of computers to simplify their tasks. Personal productivity application programs are categorized on the basis of the nature of their use in maintaining databases, presenting graphics, generating spreadsheets and word processing. Application software is available as a package or as a collection of programs. Software Packages The general purpose application software is called a software package. Since the development of dedicated software for a specific application is very expensive, software packages are developed to fulfill the needs of general computer users. The important categories of software packages are given below. a) Word processor b) Electronic spreadsheets c) Graphic, multimedia, presentation software d) Database software. The important features of this software are given below: Word Processor: We use word processing software to prepare a document such as a letter, memo or report. The document may be stored, edited, formatted or printed. Electronic Spreadsheets: A spreadsheet is a simple worksheet comprising rows and columns of data. The data kept in a spreadsheet is similar to the data written in a ledger book of a bank or the mark sheet of a student. Graphic Software: Graphic software helps us to prepare automated drawings using the computer and peripheral devices. The drawings may be stored, edited or printed. Database Software: Database refers to a collection of data sorted in a desired order. For example, the names of students stored in alphabetical order is a database. The data in the database can also be modified or indexed using key fields like Name, ID Number and others. Personal Assistance: Much software is available to store personal diary information or keep records of schedules and contacts. Even an inventory of items can be maintained using a computer. Education and Entertainment: Computers play a major role in education and entertainment. A Computer Based Tutor (CBT) makes learning easy and enjoyable. Today, the Web makes it possible to conduct tests online. Software for video games is also available as software package. Customized Software The customized software is developed for a specific user. Larger organizations like insurance companies, banks and universities can develop and use customized software as per their requirements. Customized software developed for one organization cannot be used by other organizations. However, it can be modified for other users.

Q6. Identify the various threats from the public internet to users.

Threats to Users
Protection of data is of paramount importance not only to business users, but also other casual users. For example, even a student or housewife using a computer for e-mailing needs adequate data security so that their e-mails are accessible only to themselves or to those with whom they wish to share their e-mail account. Data security is of paramount importance for all business users. Virtually all business data, such as clients list, suppliers lists, inventory and sales information, information about employees, products and services, financial information, etc., is confidential. Any of this information, if accidentally or fraudulently shared with people who are not supposed to have access to these, can prove to be catastrophic for the business. Forget about outsiders, wrongful access of data even within the business can prove to be disastrous. For example, imagine the consequences of a situation where personal information of the employees is made available to each other. With the proliferation of the Internet, data security has become a real issue and a challenge for all Internet users worldwide. Awareness regarding the ways to avoid and protect against such security threats needs to be spread among all the Internet users. Generally, the various threats over the Internet can be classified into four categories: Interruption: Making online services or connections of an organization unusable. Interception: Accessing protected data during transmission at its source. Modification: Altering the data for the purposes of disruption. Fabrication: Inserting spurious data or information into an organizations system to disrupt or overload services. All the Internet users face some kind of security threat, though the relative importance of each of these threats may vary from user to user. Some of the most serious threats are: Information theft Identity theft Spear-phishing Financial fraud Loss of data from malicious software Trojan, viruses and worms Censoring data for children Threats from the Internet gatekeepers and government agencies