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ETHNOBOTANY AND ENDOGENOUS CONSERVATION OF IRVINGIA GABONENSIS (AUBRY-LECOMTE) BAILL. IN TRADITIONAL AGROFORESTRY SYSTEMS IN BENIN
Vihotogb, Codjia Jean T. Claude, Houessou G. Laurent Romaric
Agricultural Sciences Faculty University of Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou rvihotogbel@yahoo.fr

Ponette Quentin
Faculty of Biological, Agronomic and Environmental Engineering, Forestry and Water Unit Catholic University of Leuven (UCL), Belgium

Le Bouleng Eric
Faculty of Sciences Catholic University of Leuven (UCL), Belgium

Vihotogb, Romaric
rvihotogbel@yahoo.fr

ABSTRACT
The bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis) is a multipurpose species Dahomey gap. Its fruits (even nonmatured) are systematically gathered for consumption and marketing. Few studies have been done on the ethnobotany and endogenous practices determining its conservation of the species in Benin. This study aims to produce a database on those aspects in Benin. Two hundred and sixty-three people from the six major socio-cultural groups were interviewed for ethnobotanical knowledge capitalization. Moreover, six hundred and twenty-six hectares of farmland belonging to two hundred and ten peasants were explored to characterize three hundred and thirty-three trees of I. gabonensis for potential endogenous conservation factors. Twenty-five various uses were identified in rural construction (four per cent), in food (eight per cent), energetic (eight per cent), socio-cultural (twelve per cent) and therapeutic (sixty-eight per cent) ways. Global knowledges levels vary significantly between socio-cultural groups (P < 0,0001). Global knowledges uses also vary significantly (P < 0,0001) and knowledge of the socio-cultural groups varies significantly according to uses (P < 0,0001). In Benin, 49,25% of I gabonensis trees are well protected in the traditional agroforestry systems after their first fructification. Moreover, four factors influence significantly their conservation: (i) the parasitism level of fruits and trees ( = 116,57; P < 0,0001), (ii) the dpartement, origin of peasants ( = 78,92; P < 0,0001), (iii) the principal agriculture of the peasant ( = 54,73; P < 0,0001) and (iv) the endogenous perception on the fruits 'ideotypes' produced by the trees ( = 4,48; P = 0,0343).

Keywords: Irvingia gabonensis, ethnobotanic knowledge, endogenous conservation.

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INTRODUCTION Irvingia gabonensis is a highly valuable and extensively utilized tropical African tree. It was identified as high priority species for state of knowledge reports at the Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) workshop held in Limbe in May 1998, funded by the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (Ainge and Brown 2004), Word Agroforestry Center and his partners (Leakey and Tchoundjeu 2001). It is classified among the Sub-Saharans key Non Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) present on local, regional and international markets (Tabuna 2000). It produces a nut that is widely traded (Tabuna 2000) and consumed regionally as a food thickening agent for traditional soups and stews (Leakey, et al, 2005; Ngondi, et al, 2005; Tchoundjeu, et al, 2005). It also has therapeutic potentials related by Ndoye and Tchamou (1994) and of Okolo, et al, (1995) in Ainge and Brown (2004). Owing to those, it becomes abundant in land use systems through all the Central and West Africa (Okafor 1983; Okafor and Fernandes, 1987; Shiembo, et al, 1996). Despite the wide use of I. gabonensis in food way in Benin, and the evidence of economic relations between Benin and its neighbouring countries, no significant studies have been done to understand the conservation statue of this species in Benin. While local communities make efforts for its conservation, a lot of juveniles and trees after the first fructification are daily eradicated. This reaction from local communities arent explained and assessed, while I. gabonensis kernel becomes more and more expensive in this country, and this, mostly during years of rainfall disturbance (Vihotogb, et al, 2005). If domestication process led by ICRAF and partners, based on accessions from Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon and Gabon have to date progressed a lot, no similar initiative is carried out in the Dahomey gap, where nothing is known about I. gabonensis agroforestry /conservation statue, local uses, ascensions diversity, capacity of production, etc This work, carried out in 20042005, aims to recapitulate ethnobotanic knowledge on this species, in order to analyse the potential factors determining its endogenous conservation in Traditional Agroforestry Systems by rural farmers Benin. METHODOLOGY Study Area This study was carried out within the various socio-cultural groups of the South of Benin, the sub-humid Guinean zone (Dahomey Gap), located between 625730 N (White 1983). In this zone, I. gabonensis naturally occurs or is (mostly) protected within Traditional Agroforestry Systems. The South of Benin is characterized by a multiplicity of social groups, culturally gathered around 6 principal socio-cultural ones focused in this study: Holli, Nagot, Goun, Fon, Azo and Adja. Those populations practice diverse agricultural systems, and the predominated cultures are: maize, cassava, pineapple, palm oil tree, exogenous trees plantations, and cotton. The division of Benin into constituencies had been done gathering homogenous socio-cultural groups. Ethnobotanic Study Four villages were randomly sampled in each of departments predominantly populated by each socio-cultural group. Thirty to fifty individuals were sampled

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per socio-cultural group. On the whole, two hundred and sixty-three people, from every socio-professional categories (youths, women, men/households responsible, traditional priests and practitioners), were interviewed with a structured questionnaire (Table 1). The data collected are the various types of uses with different organs (roots, stems, bark, leaves, fruits, nuts, kernels) of I. gabonensis. Agroforestry Study The endogenous conservation of this species was studied considering the homogeneity of large land use systems combined with socio-cultural aspect of those systems management. Then, this agroforestry study had a departmental base. The distribution of the socio-cultural groups within departments in the South Benin appears in table 1. Then, six hundred and twenty-six hectares of farmland/TAGFS belonging to two hundred and ten peasants in the whole of these departments have been prospected. Together with peasants in each of department, it had been made an inventory of all factors suspected to influence the decision-making in I gabonensis trees preserving after the first fructification in TAGFS. There are: farmland size, the nature of the proprietorship between this TAGFS and the peasant, its principal agriculture, the total number of I gabonensis trees and their origin (spontaneous, transplanted or planted), the characterization of fruits 'ideotypes' produced by trees according to local communities appreciations, the parasitism level of trees and fruits (which express their economical value), the origin of juveniles. Those factors justify the treatments applied to trees by peasant. Then, trees can be ordinarily well preserved, without additional input, or well protected with addition of organic or mineral manure (NPK) as fertilizer, or at last eradicated after first fructification. In each departements, those TAGFS with all the 337 I. gabonensis mature trees have been characterised with different levels of those factors.

STATISTIC ANALYSIS ETHNOBOTANIC DATA Two types of ethnobotanic knowledge level have been defined:

Socio-cultural groups' knowledge The level of their ethnobotanic knowledge noted the formula: Cj = (1/vj)6(1-vj) Cjk = (1/vj)6(k=1-vj) [(1/njk)6(i=1-njk) Cijk] (1); with Cjk = (1/njk)6(c = 1-njk)Cijk = individual knowledge level; C ijk = average individual knowledge level in the sociocultural group j (cj = 1 r) in the village k (k = 1 to vJ and vj = 4, j); Cjik = proportion of the total number of types of uses recognized by the individual in the South of Benin. njk = total number of interviewed individual in the socio-cultural group j in the village k.

Cj

was calculated according to

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An analysis of Variance (ANOVA II) was performed with software SAS 9.1, on the logit transformed values of Cuij advice by Cox (1964) in Baillargeon (2005) to assess the influence of socio-cultural group, use and their interaction on the level of ethnobotanic knowledge. The test of Newman and Keuls is associated with this ANOVA II, to gather socio-cultural groups or uses with equal level of knowledge. Knowledge of types of use It is the percentage of individual who still recognizes this type of use: Cuij = (mijk/nijk) x 100 (2); mijk = total number of individual in the socio-cultural group j in the village k knowing the type of use i, nijk = a total number of individual interviewed in the socio-cultural group j in the village k. Safeguarding of ethnobotanic knowledge The preservation of endogenous knowledge is expressed by their coefficient of variance. For each socio-cultural group, the coefficient of variation is CVej = [Sej / Cmj] x 100 (3), with Sej = standard deviation of the level of knowledge for the socio-cultural group j, Cmj = average level of knowledge within the socio-cultural group j For each type use, the coefficient of variation is CVuI = [Sui / Cui] x 100 (4), with Sui = standard deviation of the level of knowledge for the type of use i, Cui = mean level of knowledge for the type of use i. AGROFORESTRY STUDY: ENDOGENOUS CONSERVATION FACTORS In this step, the conservation has been seen as the decision-making of tree protection after its first fructification, with or without organic/mineral manure additionning. The statistical analysis consisted to model of the probability of conservation decision-making by a binary logiqtic regression carried out with software SAS 9.1. Its the probability to preserve a tree being in a specified combinaison of the different levels of cofacteurs identified as significant during the procedure of the analysis. With those significant factors, the Odds Ratio performed allow to compare the likelihood for a tree to be preserved among different specified combinaison of the different levels of different cofactors; this can be used to describe the better conditions for I. gabonensis conservation. RESULTS ETHNOBOTANIC KNOWLEDGE: DIVERSITY AND LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE For all the socio-cultural groups, twenty-five types of use were recapitulated for every organ in rural construction (4%), in food (8%), energetic, (8%) sociocultural (12%) and in majority in therapeutic (68%) purposes (Table 2). The levels of ethnobotanic knowledge differ very significantly according to these socio-cultural groups (Figure 1a: ddl = 5; F = 359, 14; P < 0,0001). Letters indicate Newman and Keuls analysis results. The Holli and Nagot peoples have

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the greatest levels of knowledge respectively of 31,6% and 25,4%. Moreover, the levels of knowledge vary very significantly according use (figure 1b: ddl = 24; F = 1834,31; P < 0,0001). Letters have the same meaning as previously. The food uses are still very well known by all the populations. The uses socio-cultural and therapeutic uses which constituted 82% of all the uses have low levels of knowledge (lower than 10 %). Finally, endogenous knowledge levels of the socioculturels groups vary very significantly according to use (ddl = 120; F = 55,24; P < 0,0001). ETHNOBOTANIC KNOWLEDGE SAFEGUARD It is expressed by the coefficients of variation of the levels of ethnobotanic knowledge (Table 3a and 3b). While the levels of knowledge are globally low, they still vary very strongly among people within socio-cultural groups, and among uses, except the food uses (A1, and A2), which are null coefficient of variation. Socio-therapeutic uses with low level of knowledge also have very strong coefficients of variation. Endogenous conservation of I gabonensis in Benin The logistic regression indicated that 49,25 % of I. gabonensis trees are preserving after the first fructification. Four of all the suspected factors are found to be significant in the additive model performed. Thus, the parasitism level of the fruits and the tree, the department (origin of peasant), the principal agriculture and the fruits characteristics in this order, influence, in descending order, the decision-making in I. gabonensis conservation by peasants (Table 4a). The parameters associated to significant factors taken to account in the model are performed in the table 4b. The modes of factors associated with probabilities higher than 0,05 are not significant compared to the reference mode. This is the case of cotton/pineapple fields (P = 0,123), of yam (P = 0,129) and the orchard (P = 0,294). But they are in this case necessary since they are used in together with significant modes (P-value < 0,05), of which they are undissociable. The Odds Ratio (Point Estimate) evaluated in Table 4c specify that the parasitic attacks decrease by 1/0,045 = 22,2 times the likelihood of the trees conservation of Trees plantations (teak, palm oil tree, Acacia, etc...) also strongly decrease the chances of conservation compared to the other types of agriculture. Thus, maize/cassava fields, give 30,56 times more chance to the tree to be preserved than under plantations. In the department of the Plateau, the species has twice more chance to be preserved than in Mono-Couffo, where it has largely more chance of conservation than in all the other departments. The department of Atlantique presents the weakest chance (1/0,052 = 19,23 times less) of conservation. Compared to the pasty fruit ideotype (with low water and fibres levels), the trees which produce fruits said to be fibrous have 1/0,294 = 3,4 times less chance to be preserved. Finally, highest probability of conservation are obtained for maize/cassava fields in the Plateau department, for trees producing healthy and pasty fruits.

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Except the food and economic values discussed by Ladipo (1999), Tabuna (2000), Leakey, et al, (2005), this study confirms the endogenous use of I. gabonensis on the therapeutic fields as showed by Okolo, et al, (1995). The term of Cinderella species developed by Leakey, et al, (2005), is adapted to indicate I gabonensis a species with multi-use. The regressive evolution of pluviometry in area soudano-sahlienne (Fall, et al, 2000), and of the vegetable carpet is then a growth factor in the role of wild trees, through the multiple types of use. I gabonensis contribute like many of other wild species to solve the crucial problems that restraint the socioeconomic development in Sub-Saharan Africa (Sidib and William 2002). This case gives proof that for Cinderella species, it is quasi impossible to dissociate local food resources from therapeutic ones in African rural areas. The paradox is that to date, there is no development policy taken account for those resources. Levingston and Zamora (1983) underlined that the suppression of natural vegetation substituted by exotic trees modifies ecology, and consequently lead to the disappearance many forest trees. That is the case in the south of Benin where high disturbance rate compromises the availability of I. gabonensis, which becomes strictly agroforestry species. Consequently there is no transmission of endogenous knowledge, and this justifies the global weakness of socio-cultural knowledge levels. This disturbance is so great in the department of Atlantique, and there is a logic relationship between this and the chance of conservation of the species, on which populations (Fon) have very few knowledge. The difference between groups proves cultural aptitude for people in wild resources management through food and therapeutic uses. Therapeutic socio-cultural uses are more numerous with very weak levels of knowledge, whereas the two food uses are known by all the populations. This can be seen as erosion of endogenous knowledge (Hft, et al, 1999) as attested by highest coefficients of variation (Tables 2a and b). But owing to the frequent appearance of I. gabonensis organs in traditional priests and practitioners potions, those weak knowledge levels and highest coefficients of variation could also be interpreted as a specialization of population in wild vegetable resources management/use on socio-therapeutic ways (Pictures 1 and 2). It will be just like that as log as the collaboration between pharmaceutical firms, food industries and traditional potential users for domestication programme doesnt become reality in West and Central Africa. Anyway the erosion of local knowledge could not completely be ignored, since that knowledge still being the privilege of restricted users group. I. gabonensis is abundant in TAGFS where peasants are owner (in the departments of Plateau and Mono-Couffo). It virtually gives a feeling of security to land for owners. Then, in those departments, all small land users, owners of TAGFS protect I. gabonensis even if it occurs spontaneously on their land use systems. Alas, the more TAGFS size increases, the more option to industrial crops (palm oil trees, pineapple, cotton and orchard) (for export) is taken by the peasants. This new vocation to lands contributes to the regression of bush mangoes population in the South Benin. Consequently, maize/cassava field are more favourable to the endogenous conservation and the small farmers are more suited to this decision-making to supplement their incomes.

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This option to industrial crop is easily justify by recurrence of parasitism and none desired fruits ideotypes. In Benin, wild tree domestication is still being marginal programme. In this way, parasites arent studied. Fruits quality is always damaged and this demoralizes peasants in the conservation decisionmaking. As for the appreciation of the quality of the fruits in Benin ideotypes definition, this appreciation is done with marginalization of kernels, which are more economically valuable (Ladipo 1999; Salid 2003, Ainge and Brown 2004). Scientists actions are urgent for the best solution searching to those major two problems, as the general agroforestry statue of this species is being known.

Table 1: Socio-cultural and socio-professional groups and sampling distribution within departments
Departments Sociocultural groups People sampling and socio-professional groups Women Men Traditional practitioners 5 6 4 4 2 6 28 Non Timber Forest Products sellers 4 7 8 3 2 10 34 Total per sociocultural group

Atlantique Mono-Couffo Oum Plateau Zou : Total

Azo Adja Goun Holli Nagot Fon

15 21 13 10 14 14 87

26 16 25 14 13 20 114

50 50 50 31 32 50 263

Table 2: Recapitulation of ethnobotanical uses with different organs of I. gabonensis in Benin

Uses Order 1 Codes C1 Trunk Organs Condition Fields Right and parasitized individuals Ripe Dried Food Construction Types Rural construction

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A1 A2 E1 E2 SC1 SC2

Flesh Kernels Trunk and branches Shell of kernel Branches

Fruits for dessert Condiments Households domestic energy

Dried Dried

Energetic Service of the worship vodoun Socio-cultural Incarnation of triplets died children Musical instrument of the worship vodoun

Trunk SC3

Dried

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Uses Order 9 10 11 12 13 14 Codes T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Leaves T6 Therapeutic 15 16 17 T8 T10 T11 Roots Oil from kernels Small branches, leaves or roots Fresh Dried kernels Fresh Flesh Fibrous flesh Kernels Organs Condition Fields Hardly ripe Very ripe Dried Fresh or dried Types Facilitation of digestion of nitrogenized food Laxative Ulcerate Malaria Reinforcement of the functions reflexes of the bladder Infantile treatment of disease named Gbagla in Benin local language Male gynaecology Skin disease Traditional stomatology: bad breath Scaring /antiseptic of wounds Hyperthermia Fresh or dried 20 21 22 23 24 25 T14 T15 T9 T7 T17 T16 Mixture of leaves, bark and rots Subsidence of forehead treatment for babies Bark Fresh or dried Fresh or dried Fresh or dried Fresh Mycosis Hemorrhoid Female gynecology Dyspnea Tiredness

18 19

T12 T13

Caption:

A = food, E = domestic energy, C = rural construction, SC = socio-cultural, T = therapeutic

Table 3a: Local knowledge variations levels within socio-cultural groups

ETHNOS GROUPS Adja Azo Fon Goun Holli Nagot COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION (%) 200 200 240 190 110 140

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Table 3b: Local knowledge level variation of types of uses

ORDER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Caption: TYPES OF USE C1 A1 A2 E1 E2 SC1 SC2 SC3 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12 T13 T14 T15 T16 T17 COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION (%) 70 0 0 30 30 160 160 150 120 140 160 100 170 130 170 130 280 180 160 180 150 170 180 140 170

A = food, E = domestic energy, C = rural construction, SC = socio-cultural, T = therapeutic

Table 4a: Factors determining the conservation of I. gabonensis in Benin

ANALYSE STANDARD EFFECT III Stage 1 2 3 4 Factors Parasitism of fruits and trees Department Principal agriculture Quality (ideotype) of the fruits DF 1 4 4 1 Order 1 2 3 4 Khi 2 of Wald 27,5436 48,1080 33,0044 4,2989 Pr > Khi 2 < 0,0001 < 0,0001 < 0,0001 0,03430

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Table 4b: Effects of the parameters of the model on the conservation of I gabonensis in Benin
ANALYSE OF MAXIMUM PROBABILITY Parameters Intercept Parasitism of fruits and trees Principal agriculture Principal agriculture Principal agriculture Principal agriculture Department Department Department Department Quality of the fruits DF 1 1 Parasitized fruits and trees Maize/ cassava Cotton/ pineapple Yam Orchard Plateau Oum Zou Atlantique Fibrous fruits with high rate of water Healthy fruits and trees -3,111 Plantations 3,419 Plantations 1,755 Plantations 2,813 1 1 1 1 1 1 Plantations 1,583 Mono-Couffo Mono-Couffo Mono-Couffo Mono-Couffo pasty fruits -1,224 4,298 4,298 0,038** 0,654 -1,231 -2,518 -2,965 1,100 3,988 12,552 19,213 31,064 1,100 3,988 12,552 0,294* 0,045 0,0004*** 2,294 2,294 0,129* 2,369 2,369 0,123* 4,283 4,283 0,038** 27,543 27,546 < 0,0001*** Modes Reference Mode selected Parameters estimated model 1,873 Error std 6,016 Khi 2 of Wald 6,016 Pr > Khi 2 0,014**

1 1 1

19,213 < 0,0001*** 31,064 < 0,0001***

*: Non significant; ** & ***: significant

35
A

30
B

25

Local knowledge levels (% of types of use

20

15
D

10

0 Ho lli Nag o t Ad ja Azo Go un Fo n

Socio-cultural groups

Figure 1a: Means of ethnobotanic knowledge levels of socio-cultural groups in the South of Benin

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A
100 90 80 70 60

B C

D
50

E
40 30 20 10 0 A1 A2 E2 E1 C1 T4 T13 T1 T5 T2 T11 T6 T8 T3 SC3 T15 T16 T7 SC2 T12 SC1 T14 T10 T17 T9

F G G G

Use s

Figure 1b: Means of local knowledge related to uses

Picture 1:

Bark stripping from I. gabonensis tree by the Holli people in Pob, Benin
(Picture: Vihotogb)

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Picture 2:

Religious sacrifice on I. gabonensis trunk by the Holli people in Pob, Benin

(Picture: Vihotogb)

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Okolo, C.O., Johnson, P.B., Abdurahman, E.M., Abdu-aguye, I. and Hussaini, I.M. (1995). Analgesic effect of Irvingia gabonensis stem bark extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 45: 2 pp.125-129. Salid, (2003). Conservation de lamande de mangues sauvages (Irvingia gabonensis), Agridoc Yaound, Cameroun. Shiembo, P. N., Newton, A. C. and Leakey, R.R.B. (1996). Vegetation propagation of Irvingia gabonensis, a West African fruit tree. Forest Ecology and Management, 87 (13) : 185192. Sidibe, M. and Williams J.T. (2002). Baobab. Adansonia digitata. International Centre for Underutilized Crops, Southampton, UK. P. 100. ISBN 0854327762. Tabuna, H. (2000). Evaluation des changes des produits forestiers non ligneux entre l'Afrique subsaharienne et l'Europe. FAO Bureau Rgional pour l'Afrique. Tchoundjeu, Z., Atangana, A.R. and Degrande, A. (2005). Indigenous Methods in Preserving Bush Mango Kernel in Cameroon; American Journal of Applied Sciences 2(9): 1337-1342. Vihotogb, R., Houessou G.L. and Codjia, J.T.C. (2005). Etat de conservation de lespce Irvingia gabonensis dans les Systmes Agroforestiers Traditionels au Sud Bnin. Rapport, Fonds Comptitifs 2004, INRAB/CRRDAPRA, Sud-Centre, 53P.