ERTH2404 Lecture 4: Igneous Rocks

Dr. Jason Mah

Reading assignment
Please read Kehews book to complement the material presented in this lecture: Chap. 4

Lecture objectives & contents

The relationship between igneous rocks and other rock types Properties and classification of igneous rocks
Mineral composition

Mantle melting processes Intrusive and Extrusive processes Engineering considerations

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Review of Minerals
What is a mineral?
Inorganic Homogeneous solid Crystal structure Characteristic physical properties

Rocks are composed of one or more mineral

Introduction to Rocks
Three rock types:
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Igneous + metamorphic = 95% of rocks

The Rock cycle

Theoretical concept predating plate tectonics Rock types:
Igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
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Rock types
Igneous rocks form by cooling and solidification from a liquid called magma Sedimentary rocks form by the erosion and deposition of rock fragments or by precipitation
Metamorphic rocks form by the alteration of existing rocks by heat, pressure or fluids
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Igneous Rocks
Crystallization: the process of mineral formation in a cooling magma Types:
Extrusive: volcanic (cooling at surface)
small grains

Intrusive: plutonic (cooling at depth)

large grains

Rock cycle: Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks are formed from any type of preexisting rocks

Source: British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

Igneous Rocks
Volcanic materials:
Magma (ointment in Greek): partially molten rock below the Earths surface Lava (to wash in Latin): magma that reaches the surface

Three main components

Melt: liquid portion Pyroclastic (Solids): ash, cinders, bombs, minerals crystallized from the melt Gases (Volatiles): H2O, CO2, SO2
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Igneous Rocks

How does the mantle melt?

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Melting and Magmas

What can melt? Upper mantle

Continental crust

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Mantle Temperatures
Liquidus: T above which all liquid Solidus: T below which all solid
Magmas form within 200km of the surface
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Mantle Melting 1
Change in depth and pressure: mantle rises vertically, crosses solidus, becomes partially molten

(oceanic)

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Mantle Melting 2
H2O added to mantle: shifts melting temperature, partially melts

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Mantle Melting 3
Mantle plume: anomalously hot (200-300C)
Volatile rich magma travels from core

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Mantle Melting
1. Lower the pressure: decompression melting 2. Add volatile compounds (H2O, CO2): dehydration melting 3. Hot mantle plume (decompression, dehydration)

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Igneous Rock Classification

All properties are closely related to the cooling environment and magma behaviour
1. Intrusive or Extrusive?

Texture: size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains

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Extrusive vs Intrusive
Cooling rate controls grain size
Intrusive
Cooling slowly at depth leads to uniformly large grain size

Extrusive
Cooling quickly at surface, leads to small grain size Can have two phases of cooling, one at depth and remainder at surface: big and small crystals
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Intrusive (plutonic)
Plutonic

www.turnstone.ca/shap.htm

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Extrusive (volcanic)

Volcanic
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Igneous rock identification

1. Intrusive or Extrusive? 2. Mineral composition

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Minerals and Chemistry

Minerals Olivine, pyroxene Olivine, pyroxene, Ca-feldspar Na-feldspar, amphibole Biotite, Kfeldspar, quartz SiO2 < 45%
45-57%

Igneous Rock Type Ultramafic

Mafic

57-65%
> 65%

Intermediate
Felsic
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Minerals and Chemistry

Key characteristic: % of silica (SiO2) Pale Felsic rocks: rich in silica (SiO2 66%) (Feldspar + silica) Intermediate rocks: 52% SiO2 65% Mafic rocks: rich in ferromagnesian minerals (45% SiO2 51%) (Magnesium + ferric) Ultramafic rocks: 45% < SiO2 Dark
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Minerals and Chemistry

% SiO2 controls magna viscosity and therefore magma behavior and eruptive style High % SiO2:
Viscous magma Low-temperature (600-900oC) Tend to produce large plutonic bodies or explosive eruptions
Fluid magma High-temperature (1000-1250oC) Large, peaceful outpouring at the Earths surface
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Low % SiO2:

Bowens Reaction Series

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Crystallization temperature
High Temperature: olivine, pyroxene, Ca-feldspar
Intermediate Temperature: amphibole, Nafeldspar, + biotite

Low Temperature: Biotite, Na-K feldspar, quartz Previous mineral may dissolve as new ones form
Branch depends on presence of element
Felsic or Mafic minerals
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Classification

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Classification
Pale
Igneous Comp rock type Texture Felsic Obsidian Rhyolite Granite Andesite Diorite Basalt Gabbro Intermediate

Dark
Mafic

Cooling

Fast

Glassy Extrusive Aphanitic

Slow

Intrusive

Phaneritic

High % SiO2

Low % SiO2

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Cooling based textures

Cooling Cooling environment rate Extrusive Intrusive Texture No grains formed Fine-grained Medium-grained Coarse-grained Grain diameter [mm] <1 15 >5

Very fast Non-crystalline Fast Slow Crystalline

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Cooling based textures

Cooling Cooling environment rate Extrusive Intrusive Texture No grains formed Fine-grained Medium-grained Coarse-grained Grain diameter [mm] <1 15 >5

Very fast Non-crystalline Fast Slow Crystalline

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Cooling based textures

Cooling Cooling environment rate Extrusive Intrusive Texture No grains formed Fine-grained Medium-grained Coarse-grained Grain diameter [mm] <1 15 >5

Very fast Non-crystalline Fast Slow Crystalline

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Cooling based textures

Phaneritic texture (intrusive):
Coarse, uniform grains Slow cooling in the subsurface Easily seen with eye

Aphanitic texture (extrusive):

fine grained Fast cooling at the surface

you may need a hand lens to see the crystals

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Extrusive vs Intrusive Rocks

Extrusive Cools quickly: Aphanitic Rhyolite

Intrusive Cools slowly: Phaneritic Granite

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Extrusive vs Intrusive Rocks

What is this texture?

Extrusive Cools very quickly: glassy, no crystalline structure Obsidian

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Extrusive vs Intrusive Rocks

Do these rocks have anything in common?

Rhyolite

Granite

Obsidian

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Volatile based textures

Cooling environment Cooling rate Very fast Extrusive Fast Crystalline Intrusive Slow No Texture Non-crystalline Volatiles escaping? YES No YES No Igneous texture Pumiceous Glassy Vesicular Aphanitic two-stage cooling Porphyritic Phaneritic

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Volatile based textures

Cooling environment Cooling rate Very fast Extrusive Fast Crystalline Intrusive Slow No Texture Non-crystalline Volatiles escaping? YES No YES No Igneous texture Pumiceous Glassy Vesicular Aphanitic two-stage cooling Porphyritic Phaneritic

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Volatile based textures

Pumice
Highly vesicular Frothy appearance Simultaneous cooling and depressurization freezes the bubbles

Considered a glass!
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Add it to the mix

Rhyolite

Granite

Obsidian

Pumice

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Volatile based textures

Magma poor in volatiles
Porphyritic texture: grains of two sizes indicate a two-stage cooling process
Phenocrysts: large grains/crystals formed first and had time to grow in magma chamber before magma reached the surface Matrix: finer grain than phenocryst second in contact with the atmosphere

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Volatile based textures

Phenocryst: crystals Matrix: fine grained, surrounding phenocrysts
Matthew Nyman, TERC

Porphyritic texture
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Volatile based textures

Magma rich in volatiles
Vesicles: small holes on top of lava flows through which gases escape Amygdule: infilling of vesicle with secondary mineral

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Question
An ultramafic rock is composed dominantly of what mineral:
1. Quartz 2. Feldspar 3. Amphibole 4. Olivine 5. Pyroxene
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Question
An ultramafic rock is composed dominantly of what mineral:
1. Quartz 2. Feldspar 3. Amphibole 4. Olivine 5. Pyroxene
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Intrusive & Extrusive processes

We now examine Intrusive processes

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Intrusive processes
Intrusion: movement of magma from a magma chamber to a different subsurface location
Plutons: bodies of rocks formed by the intrusion of magma into older rocks, named country rocks

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Plutonic Igneous Activity

Vast majority of magmas solidify at depth: 87%
Represent magmas that were not erupted; now exposed due to erosion

Half Dome, Yosemite CA

Granite 4,737 ft
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Types of plutons
Plutons are classified according to:
Size and shape Relation with country rocks
Concordant: parallel to country rock layering Discordant: cutting across country rock layering

Pluton: large, massive intrusion Sill, Dyke: thin, tabular intrusions Batholith: assemblage of plutons
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Pluton classification
Shape Non-tabular Tabular Thick and broad Thin in one dimension Relation with country rock Concordant Discordant 2 < 100 km Stock Laccolith > 100 km 2 Batholith Sill Dyke

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Intrusions

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Mackenzie dyke swarm

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Volcanic neck
Intrusion landform created when magma hardens within vent and surrounding softer rock eroded Ship Rock, New Mexico
dykes

www.geology.wisc.edu/~maher/air/air03.htm

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Batholiths
Non-tabular discordant pluton
Majority have a composition of granodiorite to granite Represent uplifted, eroded roots of subduction-related volcanic complexes

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Batholiths
Yosemite, Half Dome

USGS

Granite
4,737 ft
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Intrusive & Extrusive processes

We now examine Extrusive processes

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Extrusive Processes
Volcanism: process by which magma rise into the crust and is extruded onto the Earths surface and into the atmosphere Extruded volcanic material:
Lava Pyroclastic material (tephra): material formed by volcanic explosion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic vent Volatiles: mainly H2O, CO2, SO2
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Lava
Lava viscosity
Increases with volatile content Increases with % SiO2
Low SiO2 Felsic lava Fluid High SiO2 Basaltic Viscious

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Lava
Felsic lava (Si, Al, K, Na)
Flows slowly Lava flows with jagged upper surface: aa

Basaltic lava (Mg, Fe)

Flows quickly over large distances Lava flows with smooth upper surface Pahoehoe: flow wrinkles

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Lava

USGS

aa flow

pahoehoe
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Columnar jointing
Columnar jointing: vertical polygonal structure formed during cooling
Cracks formed during cooling of igneous rocks
Rocks cool from the outside in, causing shrinkage Present in intrusive and extrusive rocks
Common in basaltic lava flows

Side view: columns

Fissures grow at 90 to the cooling surface

Top view: hexagons

Fissures develop preferentially in 3 directions at 120 to each other
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Columnar jointing
Cooling surface Side view Map view

120
120 120

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Columnar jointing
Giant Causeway, Northern Ireland

Photographs: P. Fernberg

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Tephra
Tephra classified according to particle size:
Particle diameter [mm] <2 2 64 > 64 Unconsolidated material Tephra Ash Lapili Blocks / Bombs Consolidated material Pyroclastic rock Ash tuff Lapili tuff Volcanic breccia

Blocks: ejected as solid fragments with angular shapes Bombs: ejected as incandescent lava fragments which were semi-molten when airborne
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Pyroclastic rocks
Particle diameter [mm] <2 2 64 > 64 Unconsolidated material Tephra Ash Lapili Blocks / Bombs Consolidated material Pyroclastic rock Ash tuff Lapili tuff Volcanic breccia

Pyroclastic rocks are transitional between igneous and sedimentary rocks

"Igneous on the way up. sedimentary on the way down!"

Tuff: pyroclastic rock formed from volcanic ash and lapili

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Pyroclastic rocks
Processes converting tephra into pyroclastic rocks:
When tephra is very hot, particles fuse together and form a glassy rock Further cementing can occur from agents transported by groundwater

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Engineering implications
For intrusive igneous rocks
Uniformity and great strength
Dense interlocking network of crystals

Applications:
Provide adequate foundation support for large structures Water reservoirs
Low permeability

Kitchen countertops
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Engineering implications
For extrusive igneous rocks
Variability May be vesicular, highly permeable May be formed by interlayering of lava flows and pyroclastic material

Used extensively as engineering material

Concrete, rock fill, railroad ballast, highway base

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Engineering implications
Fracturing
Columnar jointing allow significant movement of ground water

Weathering
Ferromagnesian minerals present in mafic igneous rocks may decay if exposed to air and water

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Next: Sedimentary Rocks

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