Cosmology Lecture Notes

Prof. Daksh Lohiya

Books Used: Steven Weinberg, Adler, Rindler, Lightman et al.
Overview
In the last semester, you learnt that gravitation is not to be treated in terms of
a force eld. Trajectories of particles follow from geodesic motion in the curved
space-time.
Setting up a geometry of a region of space-time, necessarily requires and uses
the trajectory of light rays in an essential manner. As these trajectories, in
turn, depends upon the distribution of matter, Einstein argued for a relation
between the geometry of space-time and the distribution of matter.
GTR: Basic Philosophy
In general, in the presence of matter, Space-time is curved. By this one means
that the canonical postulates of Euclidean geometry would not hold. At any
point of space-time, matter distribution is described by a rank 2 stress energy
tensor. This is related to a rank 2 geometric object, the Einstein Tensor, in
terms of the celebrated Einstein equation:
G

= T

The left-hand side of this equation involves space-time derivatives of the metric
tensor. The right-hand side describes the matter distribution. However the
matter distribution cannot be specied unless one knows the geometry itself.
Therefore the above Einstein equation cannot be used to derive the form for the
metric tensor by specifying the matter distribution in terms of the stress energy
tensor. This is an example of Godels dilema. Einsteins equations are usually
used by specifying a geometry with a particular symmetry. The metric that
follows is expressed in terms of parameters (for example the parameter M in
Schwarzschilds spherically symmetric solution). The stress energy tensor, for
a matter distribution, having the same symmetry as the geometry, is used for
the right-hand side of the Einstein equation. One then solves the equations and
interprets the parameters. This was done for the spherically symmetric case in
the rst semester, when you discovered that the parameter M was the geo-
metric mass at the origin.
We shall repeat this exercise to derive the metric for a space-time that pos-
sesses large-scale homogeneity and isotropy. This metric shall be used to study
cosmology.
Before proceeding, you would recall that given a metric tensor, the Christoel
symbols can be derived from the derivatives of the metric tensor. The deriva-
tives of these symbols can then be used to setup the Reiman tensor. Contrac-
tion of this tensor gives the Ricci tensor, and a further contraction - the Ricci
scalar. This was done for the spherically symmetric metric case in the previous
1
semester. We shall not spend time repeating the above drill for the metrics that
we shall come across. Instead I have posted an extremely user-friendly software:
REDUCE. Einstein tensor components are also listed in Tolmans book: RELA-
TIVITY THERMODYNAMICS AND COSMOLOGY. The tables given in that
book were compiled by Dingle. You shall be supplied with the components of
the Einstein tensor, if needed, in your examination.
Cosmology: The Physics of the Universe:
Ever since the Dawn of Time, the universe has posed a mystery for humankind.
With the advent of sophisticated telescopes, a lot of the mystique has now been
lost over the last few hundred years. We believe that everything about the uni-
verse is explainable. We now believe that we have surveyed a fair sample of the
universe. The sample being fair and large enough to incorporate all the basic
large-scale features of the universe. Such a presumptuousness is essential for
any progress and cosmology. So we shall live with it. The basic facts about the
universe: typical galaxies have some hundred thousand million stars. Each star
is separated by a huge distance from its nearest neighbour, in comparison to
the size of a star. The size of a typical galaxy is some 3 10
4
light-years. The
average separation of each star from its nearest neighbour being roughly 10 ly.
To get a feel of the dimensions and size, if each star was the size of a pinhead,
our solar system would be a 10 m disk centred on the Sun. The stars in our
galaxy would be spread over a desk 50 km in diameter. Inter galaxy distances
are of the order of 3,000,000 Ly. Distances are measured in parsecs: 1 pc = 3.26
ly (approx).
Observations tell us that the distribution of galaxies and clusters of galaxies is
more or less isotropic: which means that there is no preferred direction in the
universe. One is you must did this isotropy is not about our location alone.
One assumes that there is no preferred point location in the universe. That
is, the universe possesses isotropy from any vantage point. Such a universe
possesses homogeneity. Isotropy about every point of space-time implies homo-
geneity. Homogeneity, on the other hand, does not necessarily imply isotropy.
The assumption of large-scale homogeneity and isotropy is also referred to as
the cosmological principle.
One now introduces the concept of a universal proper time which denes
CosmicTime:
We assume that at each point in the universe, there exists a frame in which
the universe appears isotropic. Proper distance traversed by particles at rest in
such a frame denes the cosmic Time.
The cosmological principle basically amounts to the assumption that the total-
ity of all observations that any fundamental observer makes of the rest of the
universe, tallies with the observations made by every other such observer, up
to a translation of cosmic Time. Upon a suitable adjustment of clocks, one can
ensure that at a xed cosmic Time the universe, as observed by any fundamen-
tal observer, appears the same.
For a xed cosmic Time, the most general spatial metric for an isotropic
space-time is described by:
d
2
= a
2
[dr
2
f(r)
2
+r
2
d]
2
d
2
+sin
2
d
2
a is the cosmic time dependent scale factor. The Ricci scalar for this three-
dimensional metric is a constant - having no spatial dependence:
R =
3
2a
2
r
3
[r
2
(1 f
2
)]
,r
= A(constant)
[r
2
(1 f
2
)] = Br
4
+ C, B, C being constants. Locally Euclidicity implies
that f 1 as r 0
1 f
2
= Br
2
f
2
=
1
1 Br
2
d
2
= a
2
(t)
_
dr
2
1 kr
2
+r
2
d
_
Here one has scaled r so that the constant k has values 0, 1. The complete four
dimensional metric follows from the fact that for a particle at rest, the metric
is simply given by the cosmic Time itself: ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
, and further, in the full
metric, there can not be any (dt)(dx
i
) terms. The presence of such terms, would
violate isotropy. Two neighbouring points, in geodesic motion, which send light
signals towards each other at a xed cosmic Time, would receive the signals at
dierent cosmic Times if such terms are present - this would violate isotropy.
This gives:
ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
a
2
(t)
_
dr
2
1 kr
2
+r
2
d
_
This is the Freidman-Robertson-Walker (FRW) metric and it has been obtained
by using only using symmetry arguments. Einsteins equations have nowhere
been used in this derivation.
By construction, for dx
i
= 0 ds = cdt where t is proper time as observed by
each fundamental observer at rest in this space-time.
The FRW metric can also be written in several equivalent forms upon trans-
formation of coordinates. One such form is:
ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
a
2
(t)[d
2
+S
2
d]
Where S = = r for k = 0; for k = +1, r = sin(); S sin(), and for k = 1
r = sinh(); S sinh().
Physical distance between two points is measured by the magnitude of the metric
separation at a xed cosmic Time. Thus for dt = 0 the physical distance between
two points separated by a radial coordinate interval dr, with d = phi = 0, is
given by d = a(t)
dr
1kr
2
which implies
= a(t)
_
r
0
dr
1 kr
2
. This distance changes with cosmic Time. The rate of change of this distance,
per unit distance, denes the Hubble parameter:
H(t)

=
a
a
3
The function a(t) is called the cosmological scale factor.
Lecture II:
FRW metric
ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
a
2
(t)
_
dr
2
1 kr
2
+r
2
(d
2
+ sin
2
d
2
)
_
g
rr
= a
2
(1 kr
2
)
1
, g

= a
2
r
2
, g

= a
2
r
2
sin
2
.
We shall work with the Einsteins equations with an additional term:
G

+ g

= T

here is a small constant called the cosmological constant. With the local
geometry completely specied by the metric tensor, the matter distribution
being described by the Four velocity of any uid element, the stress energy
tensor is dened as a rank 2 tensor:
T

= pg

+ (p +)u

where ; p are 2 scalar functions. To get a feel for this form, recall:
Stress Energy Tensor for a uid Simplest non interacting dust in at
space-time with proper density
0
(x), as measured by an observer moving with
uid, having 4-vector velocity u

(x). Element of matter at x

moving as x

(s)
and
dx

ds
= u

. Simplest rank 2 tensor one can make using these 4-velocity

components is:
T

=
0
(x)u

This is the stress tensor for dust. In a at space-time, with metric

and
coordinates (ct, x, y, z):
T
00
=
0
dx
0
ds
dx
0
ds
= c
2

0
_
dt
ds
_
2
For a displacement ds along the trajectory of the uid: ds
2
= c
2
dt
2
_
1
v
2
c
2
_

T
00
=
2

0
=
T
0i
=
0
dx
0
ds
dx
i
ds
=
0
c
dt
ds
dx
i
dt
dt
ds
=
v
i
c
T
ij
=
v
i
v
j
c
2
Thus
T

=
_

_
1 v
x
/c v
y
/c v
z
/c
v
x
/c v
2
x
/c
2
v
x
v
y
/c
2
v
x
v
z
/c
2
v
y
/c v
x
v
y
/c
2
v
2
y
/c
2
v
y
v
z
/c
2
v
z
/c v
x
v
z
/c
2
v
y
v
z
/c
2
v
2
z
/c
2
_

_
For non-relativistic uid, the dominant term is T
00

0
Force free motion
is described by the vanishing divergence of this stress tensor T

,
= 0 The 0
component of equation is
T
00
,0
+T
0i
,i
= 0
4
1
c

t
+
1
c
_

x
(v
x
) +

y
(v
y
) +

z
(v
z
)
_
= 0
or
+.[v] = 0
This is just the equation of continuity. For i = 1
T
10
,0
+T
1j
,j
=
1
c
2
_

t
(v
x
) +

x
(v
2
x
) +

y
(v
x
v
y
) +

z
(v
x
v
z
)
_
=

c
2
_
v
x
t
+v
x
v
x
x
+v
y
v
y
y
+v
z
v
z
z
_
+
v
x
c
2
[ +.[v]]
The second term is vanishes due to the continuity equation. The rst terms, for
all i, gives:
T
i
,
=

c
2
_
v
i
t
+v.

v
i
_

Dv
i
Dt
This, Euclidian derivative, of any quantity Q(x, t) is change of Q to an observer
following the ow of the uid stream.
DQ
Dt
=
Q
t
+
Q
x
i
x
i
t
This is obvioulsy banishing for the velocity as velocity along the ow of the uid
remains zero.
T
i
,
=

c
2
_
v
i
t
+v.v
i
_
= 0
Thus for all components:
T

,
= 0
In the Presence of Forces, the uid is subject to pressure. Let us dene M

0
u

(x)u

(x). We are to nd T

such that T

, = 0 gives the correct equa-

tions of motion. In the limits of low pressure, ignore v
2
/c
2
, pv/c terms Assume
p small, elastic energy density <<
0
. For the time component:

0
+

.[
0
v] = 0
still holds and remains unchanged. But
Dv
i
Dt
=
0
_
v
i
t
+v.

v
i
_
= f
i
=

p
x
i
. That is, the volume element is accelerated by pressure force density

p
x
i
An observer moving with uid accelerates:
0
Dv
i
Dt
= f
i
=
p
x
i
: from
the Newtons Second law of dynamics.
Now to put this in relativistic covariant form.
Notice:
M
0
,
=
1
c
_

0
t
+

.(
0
v)
_
= 0
Gives the non-relativistic continuity equation as before. However, the i
th
com-
ponent
M
i
,
=

0
c
2
Dv
i
Dt
5
must be
=
1
c
2
p
x
i
= 0
We have to nd 33 S
ij
such that
S
ij
,j
=
1
c
2
p
x
i
or
S
ij
=
p
c
2
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
If we nd such a matrix:
M
i
,
+S
ij
,j
= 0
Consider
S

p
c
2
_

_
0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_

_
Then by construction (M

+ S

)
,
= T

,
= 0 Consider the most general
tensor that can be constructed from the metric tensor and the four velocity
components:
S

p
c
2
[u

+g

]
For low speeds, we require this to reduce to S

that was calculated earlier for

non relativistic limit.. F
S

=
p
c
2
[u

]
T

=
0
u

+
p
c
2
[u

]
Taking this stess tensor to describe the homogenious and isotropic uid
in cosmology, we have an added simplication in co-moving coordinates: it is
straightforward to see thatx
i
= constant are geodesics in an FRW Universe.
This follows from:
dx
i
ds
= 0;
d
2
x
i
ds
2
+
i

dx

ds
dx

ds
= 0
Which is the geodesic equation. In co moving coordinates, the four velocity
components are simply: U
t
= 1; U
i
= 0. The stress tensor components are
thus:
T
0
0
= & T
i
j
= p
i
j
T

=
_

_
0 0 0
0 p/c
2
0 0
0 0 p/c
2
0
0 0 0 p/c
2
_

_
Einstein equation reads:
G

= T

6
Using REDUCE we nd the non vanishing components of the Einstein tensor:
G
0
0
= 3
a
2
+k
a
2
G
1
1
= G
2
2
= G
3
3
=
_
2
a
a
+
a
2
+k
a
2
_

_
2
a
a
+
a
2
+k
a
2
_
= 8G
p
c
2
(A)
3
a
2
+k
a
2
= 8G (B)
These are referred to as the Freidman equations.
From the second equation, it follows:
d
dt
_
B.
a
3
3
_
=
d
dt
_
8Ga
3
3
_
= a
2
a +k a + a
3
+ 2 a aa
= a
2
a
_
+
a
2
+k
a
2
+ 2
a
a
_
= a
2
a
_
8Gp
c
2
_
or
d
dt
[a
3
] +
p
c
2
da
3
dt
= 0
Multiplying throughout by c
2
, the rst terms is nothing but the rate of change
of mass energy in a volume a
3
, while the second term is just pressure times the
rate of change of volume. This is equivalent to
dE +PdV = 0
Thus, the energy balance is preserved under cosmic evolution. The scalar func-
tions, p and are therefore interpreted as the pressure and mass density respec-
tively.
The above results actually do not use Einstein equations. These follow from
the FRW metric and the vanishing co variant divergence of the stress tensor
alone:T

;
= 0
Proof:
T

;
=

Now

=
1
2
g

=
1
2
Tr[g

)
1

]
Now for a general spacetime dependent matrix M(x). It is easy to see:
Tr[M
1
(x)

x

M] =

x

ln(det(M))
ln[det(M)] = ln[det(M +M)] ln(det(M))
= ln[det(M
1
(M +M)]
7
ln[det(1 +M
1
M)]
= ln(1 +Tr(M
1
M))
Tr[M
1
(x)

x

M] =

x

ln(det(M))

=
1

g
T

;
=
1

gT

) +

From the expression of the stress tensor for a uid:

T

= ( +p/c
2
)u

p/c
2
g

;
=
p
,
c
2
g

+
1

g( +p/c
2
)u

] +

(p/c
2
+)u

The last term does not contribute for the cosmic uid for which the four velocity
has only the time component equals unity and all other components vanishing,
because it is easy to see that

o,o
= 0. For the same reasons, i.e. the vanishing
of the spatial components of the velocity, and also because there is no spatial
gradient of the pressure, the only nontrivial component of the above equation
is the = 0 component. This gives:

g
p
,o
c
2
g
00
= [

g( +p/c
2
)]
,o
a
3
dp
dt
=

t
[a
3
(c
2
+p)]
or
d
dt
[a
3
c
2
] +p
d
dt
(a
3
) = 0
dM +PdV = 0 QED
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
We saw that if p = 0, the density scales as a
3
. For a Universe lled with
radiation, the stress tensor is tracless: P =

3
c
2
. The energy balance equation
implies:
d
dt
(a
3
) +

3
d(a
3
) = 0
(d)a
3
+ 4/3da
3
= 0
d

+
4
3
da
3
a
3
= 0
ln + ln(a
3
)
1/3
= 0
ln(a
4
) = const.
8
a
4
= const.
For a radiation eld, the energy density is given by the fourth power of the
temperature:
= T
4
aT = const.
in the radiation dominated universe.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
At the current epoch, assuming that the mass distribution is described by a
uid with negligible pressure, putting p = 0, a
3
is a constant. We dene
8Ga
3

3
= const
a
2
=

a
+

3
a
2
k F(a(t))
With a general solution
t =
_
da
_
F(a)
(C)
A static Universe is a solution: Putting a = 0, eqn(A) implies
k
a
2
= , which
in turn, with eqn (C)implies:

a
=
2
3
a
2
= 8G
For such a static solution, > 0 k = +1. The Hubble parameter vanishes as
the scale factor is time independent. This is the reason Einstein introduced the
cosmological constant as he was looking for an explanation for a static universe
as a solution to Friedmann equations.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Classication of all solutions to the Freidman equations:
Empty Solutions
= 0 = 0
= 0, k = 0, a=arbitrary const.
= 0, k = 1, a = t: By a coordinate transformation, this can be reduced to
the ordinary Minkowski spacetime.
> 0, k = 0, a = e
t
de Sitter Solution
> 0, k = 1, a =
1

cosh(t)
> 0, k = 1, a =
1

sinh(t)
< 0, k = 1, a =
1

sinh(t)
Here = (/3)
1/2
& = (/3)
1/2
From:
a
2
a
2
=

a
3
+

3
a
2

k
a
2
it follows that for all indenitely expanding models (a ):
( a/a)
_

3
9
Thus the De Sitter solution is the limit of all such indenitely expanding models
with non-vanishing cosmological constant.
Non Empty Solutions
1. = 0, non vanishing.
(a)k = 0,
a = (9/4)
1/3
t
2/3
(This is called the Einstein de-Sitter universe)
(b)k = +1
t = [sin
1

x
_
x x
2
]
where x =
a

. This can also be written in a parametric form that repre-

sents a cycloid
t =
1
2
[ sin ]
x(t) =
1
2
(1 cos )
(c)k = 1 t = [

x +x
2
sinh
1

x]
For small a(t), all solutions approach each other.
2. When both and are non vanishing, one cannot do better than solving
the integral:
t =
_
da
_
F(a)
(C)
However, essential qualitative features of all solutions follow from the plot
of F(a) = 0, on a , a(t) plane. The solution lies above the line and the
distance from the line gives a measure of the magnitude of

(a)
a
. The
solutions would be the constant lines above the lines F(a) = 0. This
gives all the features of all possible solutions. Refer to Rindlers book (or
the class notes): Essential Relativity
.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
General Properties of FRW metric
Let a geodesic observer at r = r
1
send us a train of null waves starting with
a wave crest at t = t
1
which travels radially and is received by us at t = t
0
at
r = 0
ds
2
= 0
_
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
= f(r
1
) =
_
r
1
0
dr

1 kr
2
If the next wave crest is sent at t
1
+t
1
and is received at t
0
+t
0
:
ds
2
= 0
_
t
0
+t
0
t
1
+t
1
dt
a(t)
= f(r
1
) =
_
r
1
0
dr

1 kr
2
10
For small ts:
t
1
a(t
1
)
=
t
0
a(t
0
)

1
=
t
1
t
0
=
a(t
1
)
a(t
0
)

0
a(t
0
) = const.
for a photon One can visualize this as wavelength expanding with universe
expansion which implies the frequency decrease with cosmic time. The red shift
is dened as:
z =

0

1
=

0

1
1 =

1

0
1
1 +z =
a(t
0
)
a(t
1
)
For r
1
small, which implies small t
0
t
1
= a(t
1
)r
1
/c, the speed is just v = ar
1
:
z =
a(t
0
) a(t
1
)
a(t
1
)
=
a(t
0
)(t
0
t
1
)
a(t
1
)

v
c
Which gives the usual red shift formula for small distances.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Horizons
Consider communication in an FRW Universe using null rays:
ds
2
= 0 along Null geodesics.

dt
a(t)
=
dr

1 kr
2
Consider the maximum distance a null signal can travel from t = 0 till any
epoch t
0
. If the signal was sent from radial coordinate r = 0, along the radial
direction, and has travelled till r = R at t = t
0
, the FRW metric implies:
_
t
0
0
dt
a(t)
=
_
R
0
dr

1 kr
2
Physical distance corresponding to the radial coordinate R is thus:
= a(t
0
)
_
R
0
dr

1 kr
2
= a(t
0
)
_
t
0
0
dt
a(t)
We shall see that for most familiar equations of state of matter, the scale
factor has the time dependence: a(t) Kt
n
, with n < 1. The above expression
for the maximum distance gives:
= a(t
0
)
_
t
0
0
dt
a(t)
=
t
0
(1 n)
<
This is bounded. The bound is called the Particle Horizon radius and depends
on the value t
0
. This also implies that at any epoch, signals from any region
with distance greater than the Horizon radius have not reached us yet. This
means that domains that could not have communicated with each other would
11
see each other only after a particular epoch, and, lo and behold, they would have
precisely the same properties. This was referred to as the horizon problem.
This was posed in the early 1980s by Alan Guth as a statement that within
the FRW universe, one could not achieve homogeneity dynamically. However,
a simple reection on the inference structure would reveal that the existence of
Horizons is not a problem of the FRW metric, but the property of the metric.
The assumption of large-scale homogeneity and isotropy implies the existence
of Horizons. The same assumption also implies the FRW metric.
There is another Horizon that also occurs in cosmology: this is referred to as
the cosmological event horizon. This represents the maximum distance to which
one could send a null signal from a particular Epoch onwards. From the above
analysis, the following follows:
= Lim
t
a(t)
_
t
0
dt
a(t)
If this is bounded, it would represent the upper bound of the distance one could
communicate with starting from the present Epoch. In the de Sitter universe,
a(t) = exp(t), which gives =
1
=
_
(3/). Conversely, in such a universe
they would be regions which we would never ever see.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
The big bang
Cnsider the Freidmann equations:
_
2
a
a
+
a
2
+k
a
2
_
= 8Gp
3
a
2
+k
a
2
= 8G
In an expanding model, as one goes back in time, the density increases as the
scale factor decreases. If one goes to just an order of magnitude smaller scale,
matter density would increase by three orders of magnitude and cosmological
constant remains the same. Thus at a suciently early Epoch, the cosmological
constant plays a negligible role in the dynamics of the universe. Putting the
cosmological constant equal zero, it is easy to see:

3 a
a
= 4G( + 3p)
For all familiar equations of state of matter that one has dealt with +3p > 0,

a
a
< 0. This implies that as one goes back in time, the scale factor would
keep dipping towards the time axis. It would hit the time axis at a nite time
which we dene as the origin of time. At this time, the scale factor goes to
zero, and the time derivative of the scale factor goes to innity. The universe
explodes from this State. This explosion is referred to as the big bang. The
cosmology with this property is referred to as the standard big bang cosmology
[SBB].
In a cosmology with matter distribution having + 3p > 0, the value of the
Hubble parameter gives an indication of the age of the universe. For the Ein-
stein de Sitter universe, but for the negligible time period when the universe was
12
radiation dominated, the scale factor evolves as a t
2/3
. The Hubble parame-
ter is therefore, H
0
= 2t
0
/3. A measurement of the Hubble parameter therefore
gives the age of the universe as:
t
0
=
2
3H
0
Taking the measured value of the Hubble parameter as 70 km/sec/Mpc. With
1pc 3.1 10
13
km. This gives an age of 10 giga years. This bound is not
good as one has objects (starts) which are 15 giga years old. This is a serious
problem and is referred to as the AGE problem in standard cosmology.
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
At the present epoch (t
0
) in SBB: Friedmann equations give:

0
=
3
8G
_
k
a
2
0
+H
2
0


3
_
p
0
=
1
8G
_
k
a
2
0
+H
2
0
(1 2q
0
)
_
where q
a a
a
2
is called as the decceleration parameter. Another useful param-
eter that one would use is the critical density parameter:
c

3H
2
0
8G
In = 0 models

c
=
_
k
H
2
0
a
2
0
+ 1
_
It follows that for

0

c
> 0; < 0; = 0, the curvature parameter k = +1; 1 ; 0.
In general (with non vanishing:
M
+
k
+

= 1, with
M
=

c
,

k
=
k
H
2
0
a
2
0
and

=

3H
2
0
For p = 0, which is a good assumption for the present epoch, and for a = 0
model, we get
k
a
2
0
= (2q
0
1)H
2
0
=
c
[(2q
0
1 + 1)] = 2
c
q
0

c
= 2q
0
Thus for q
0
> 1/2,
0
>
c
, k = 1
q
0
< 1/2,
0
<
c
, k = 1 q
0
= 1/2,
0
=
c
, k = 0 The value for the critical
density follows from the measured value of the Hubble parameter:

c
= 1.1 10
29
(H
0
/75km/sec/M pc)
2
in grams per cubic cm.
For = 0
_
k
a
0
_
2
= H
2
0
(2q
0
1) +

c
= 2q
0
+
2
3H
2
0
q
0
=

M
2

3
13
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Fine Tuning Problem
The cosmological constant plays a negligible role even when universe is slightly
(order of magnitude) younger. As we saw:

M
=

c
(
M
1) =
k
a
2
H
2

where

=

3H
2
.
(
M
+

1) =
k
a
2
H
2
If RHS is small now, then it has to be much smaller at an earlier epoch. Let

M
+

.
If a = ct
n
then H
2
=
n
2
t
2
H
0
H
=
t
t
0

_
a
a
0
_
1/n
(
a
0
H
0
aH
)
2
=
_
1
1 +z
_2
n
2

( 1)
0
( 1)
==
_
1
1 +z
_2
n
2
This implies that if 1 is of the order of unity today, and the universe
has been expanding as a(t) t
2/3
, during the entire Epoch after the radiation
domination, then at the time when radiation ceased to become dominant, 1
is of the order of 10
3
, as it scales as (1+z)
1
. In the radiation dominated era,
it scales as (1 + z)
2
. This implies that at the time of nucleosynthesis, and in
fact at much earlier temperatures appear one believes SBB holds, 1 must
be extremely close to zero. In other words one has to nely tune the density
to be equal to the critical density in the very early universe to an incredible
accuracy. If in the early universe, the density was slightly smaller than the
critical density at that epoch, the universe would be almost empty now. On the
other hand if the density was even slightly greater than the critical density in
the early universe, the universe would soon become extremely dense and would
have very collapsed long ago. The critical density is referred to as an example
of dynamic repeller. The requirement of a ne tuning of the density to be close
to the critical density to an incredible precision is referred to as the ne tuning
problem
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Consider the spatial section of the FRW metric.
d
2
= a
2
(t)[
dr
2
1 kr
2
+r
2
(sin
2
d
2
+d
2
)]
This represents the metric on a three space, of curvature given by k/(a
2
). The
space is unbounded and innite for k = 0, 1. For k = +1 it is nite but
14
unbounded. The proper volume in this case is given by:
_
1
r=0
_

=0
_
2
=0
drdd
r
2
sin

1 r
2
a
3
(t) = 2
2
a
3
(t)
Luminosity Distance
Source luminosity is also referred to as the Absolute Luminosity = L. This
is the total power emitted by the source. Consider a source at r = 0 which emits
a photon at t = t
1
. The photon is received at t = t
0
at r = r
1
. The Apparent
Luminosity ux, l, in a Euclidean space, is given by the ux of total luminosity:
i.e. l =
L
4d
2
in Euclidean space, d being the distance from the source to the
observation point. Taking a cue from this result, the denition of luminosity
distance in a general space-time is d
L
(
L
4l
)
1/2
where
l =
Total power at r = r
1
Area at r = r
1
=
L
_
a(t
1
)
a(t
0
)
_
2
4a
2
(t
0
)r
2
1
The factor (a(t
1
)/a(t
0
)
2
has a simple justication: every photon is redshifted by
a factor (a(t
1
)/a(t
0
), the number of photons emitted per unit time is related to
the number of photons absorbed per unit time at the reception point by another
factor (a(t
1
)/a(t
0
): giving two powers of this factor in the numerator.
d
L
=
a
2
(t
0
)
a(t
1
r
1
= a(t
0
)(1 +z)r
1
l is measured by reference to the apparent luminous ux of the star Vega, in
terms of a logarithmic scale dened by:
l
2.52 10
5
ergs/cm
2
/sec
= 10
2m/5
m = 0 for Vega. Vegas l is just the denominator of the left-hand side of the
above equation. The absolute luminosity of a star, or an object, is simply
luminosity if it was located at 10 parsecs: (Vegas distance).
L = 10
2M/5
3.02 10
35
erg/sec
[exercize: for M = m = 0, i.e. for Vega, [L/(4l)]
1/2
= 10Pc]
Thus with
d
L
= 10
1+(mM)/5
pc
_
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
=
_
r
1
0
dr

1 kr
2
S
1
(r
1
)
or
r
1
= S
__
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
_
10
1+(mM)/5
= a
0
(1 +z)S
__
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
_
15
mM = 5 + 5 log
_
a
0
(1 +z)S
__
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
__
Now (1 +z) =
a(0)
a(t)
dz =
a(0)
a(t)
2
adt
_
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
=
_
z
0
dz
(1 +z) a
where
a =
_

a
+

3
a
2
k = H
0
a
0
_

M
(a
0
/a) +

(a
0
/a)
2
+
k
Where we have used the Freidmann equations. This gives:
S
__
t
0
t
1
dt
a(t)
_
= S
_
1
a
0
H
0
_
z
0
dz
(1 +z)
_

M
(1 +z) +

(1 +z)
2
+
k
_
For small x, S(x) = x. It is easy to see that the argument of S remains small.
The integral can be evauated in general.
The above analysis relates the apparent luminosity to the absolute luminos-
ity of an object, as a function of the Hubble parameter and the parameters

M
,

,
K
. If we require that these parameters are not nely tuned,
K
must necessarily vanish and the other two parameters is then satisfy the condi-
tion:
M
+

= 1.
The above analysis could in principle be used to estimate the parameters of a
cosmological model. However the trouble is that we can only measure the appar-
ent luminosity of an object. The above formula and analysis is however used by
identifying objects whose absolute luminosities are believed to be known. The
identication of such standard candles is necessary if the above analysis has to
be put to any use. The nearby stars, up to roughly a few hundred parsecs, have
an independent distance measurement by using parallax methods. However,
such ordinary stars are not of much use in cosmology as individual stars cannot
be resolved in distant galaxies by the best available telescopes. However, some
variable stars in our own galaxy have been studied. These are called Cephed
variables. A distinctive relation between their luminosity and variability has
been observed. The use of variable stars are relatively easy to identify in neigh-
bouring galaxies because of their variability. Using these as standard candles,
estimates of the Hubble parameter were made in the 1930s. The rst values gave
a rather large estimate of almost 500 km/sec/Mpc. This gives an age estimate
of the universe 10 times smaller than the age estimates of old stars. A more
careful analysis was suggested and carried out. This program was independently
carried out by two groups: Alan Sandadge in the US and French astronomers
in Europe. The 70s and the 80s witnessed a bitter ght and debate between the
two groups. While the French group gave the value of the Hubble parameter
that was consistently greater than 100km/sec/Mpc, Sandages estimates were
around 50 Km/sec/Mpc. The current accepted value is around 70 Km/sec/Mpc.
In the mid-90s, type IA supernova was identied as a suitable standard can-
dle and a project was designed to measure cosmological parameters using this
16
standard candle. Assuming that the super no way have a xed absolute lumi-
nosity, they are observed apparent luminosities were measured. A measurement
of their red shift was then used to make estimates of the parameters
M
,

.
This has been carried out for several hundreds of observed supernovas. At 66
and 95 percent condence limits (one and two sigmas), the measured values
do not satisfy
M
+

= 1. However, at three sigma (99 percent CL), the

measured values are
M
.28;

.72. Using these values in the expression

for the deceleration parameter
q
0
=

M
2

3
gives a negative value. This is what is referred to as the accelerated expansion
of the universe.
17