1 1. : THE BRIDGE THE ROEBLINGS BUILT The City of New York has five different sections or "boroughs".

t;. These five sections are Manhattan, Brooklyn, the Bronx, Queens, and Richmond. The central section of New York is Manhattan. Manhattan is the most important of the five sections. Perhaps it is better to say that Manhattan is the most famous of the five sections. Manhattan is an island twelve miles long and about two miles wide. On the west side there is the Hudson River. On the east side there is the East River. To the south there is the ocean, etc. It is possible to go by boat completely around the island of Manhattan. These rivers around Manhattan, with the ocean to the south, have been very important to New York City. They have been important commercially. Ships from all over the world enter and leave New York every day. They pass up and down the Hudson River and the East River. On the other hand, these rivers have also been a problem. Every time that anyone wanted to travel from Manhattan to another section of New York or to New Jersey he had to cross one of these rivers. These rivers are wide and deep. They are deep enough for large ships. The problem is not so serious today. There are now tunnels and bridges at many points. There are twelve tunnels and seven large bridges which connect Manhattan with Brooklyn and Queens. There is the George Washington Bridge and five different tunnels which connect Manhattan with New Jersey. Today, if one goes around Manhattan by boat, he will pass under twenty different bridges, many of them very large. He will pass over eighteen different tunnels. Many of these tunnels are very large. Trains, subways, and automobiles pass through them in large numbers. These tunnels lie deep under the rivers. It has cost much money to build all these tunnels and bridges. Years and years of hard work were necessary. Many lives were lost. Many of these tunnels and bridges have become very famous. There is the George Washington Bridge, the Holland Tunnel, and many others. The most famous of all remains the Brooklyn Bridge. The Brooklyn Bridge was built in the year 1883. It has been the subject of more poems, more articles, and more photographs than any other bridge in the world. It is still one of the most popular places of interest in New York. The plan for the Brooklyn Bridge was made by an engineer named John Roebling. This was in the year 1867. Brooklyn at the time was a young city. It was growing fast. It was becoming an important business center. Communication was poor. To reach New York one had to cross the East River by boat. This trip was very slow. In bad weather it sometimes took several hours. People began to say that a bridge was necessary. It was almost a mile across the river. The river was

very deep. The bottom of the river was soft. The bridge would have to be very high. Ships must be able to pass under it. Most people said that it was impossible to build such a bridge. John Roebling wrote a letter to one of the newspapers . He said that he could build this bridge. Roebling was already quite famous as a pioneer in the building of suspension bridges. He had built several fine bridges in the United States. His most ambitious project was the Brooklyn Bridge. It was decided to give Roebling a chance. A company was organized. Roebling was head engineer. He began to work making plans for the bridge. He sent his son Washington to Europe to study some new bridges there. Some experiments had been made with working in a large box under water. Roebling wanted to find out about these experiments. One day he was working near the river. He was completing his plans. A boat struck the dock on which he was standing. His foot was hurt badly and became diseased. Two weeks later he died. Before he died he cried sadly. He asked that his son Washington would continue his work. Finally it was decided to let his son do this. Washington Roebling began to work with the same interest and energy as his father. The bridge was begun but there were many problems. According to the plans there were to be two large towers. One of these towers was to be on the Brooklyn side of the river. The other tower was to be on the Manhattan side. It was very difficult to put these towers in place. The towers had to be very strong. They were of granite. From the towers hung a system of steel cables. These steel cables were to hold the bridge. The bottom of the river was soft. The workers had to go far below the river to reach rock. They had to remove some of this rock in order to make a good base for the towers. Today engineers know how to do these things. They have had much experience. They have special machines. But at that time no one knew exactly how to do this work. The Brooklyn Bridge was the first bridge of its kind in the world. They used the new box that Washington Roebling had studied in Europe. The box was made of wood. It was about the size of a house. It had three sides and a top. It had no bottom. In this box men could work under the water. Air was forced into the box. The water was forced out of the box. It was very dangerous. No one understood the problems of this kind of work. Men became sick. They were afraid. There were many accidents. Roebling himself worked with the men in the box. He spent more time in the box than anyone else. He tried to encourage the men. The men felt strange pains in different parts of their body. One day a worker went down into the box. He felt perfectly well. Within half an hour he began to feel strong pains in his stomach. Five minutes later he was dead. The same thing happened to other men. Yet the work had to continue. Roebling talked to the men. One day he himself had a similar attack. He could neither talk nor hear. He became paralyzed. After a week or two he felt better. He went back again to work in the box. He had a second attack, more serious than the first. He could not work again. In fact, he was unable to work again during the rest of his life. He remained a cripple. But Washington Roebling continued to direct the work of the bridge. His home was near the bridge. He sat in one of the windows of his bedroom. He used a

telescope and watched the work every day. His wife helped him. She studied mathematics and all about bridges. She learned a great deal about such things. Each day she went to the bridge and carried her husband's orders to the men. She worked with the men. At the end of the working day she returned to her husband. She told him about the work of that day. In this way, year after year, the work continued. In 1876 the first steel cable was placed from one tower to the other. In 1883, about fifteen years after it was first begun, the bridge was officially opened. It was a great occasion, and many important people took part in the ceremony. Washington Roebling watched the ceremony through his telescope. The bridge was a great success. It was strong and beautiful. People came from everywhere to see it. It was one of the wonders of the nineteenth century. There is more traffic on it today than ever before. The bridge remains very strong. It also remains a monument to the two men who built it, John Roebling and his son Washington Roebling. John Roebling gave his life to it. Washington Roebling was a cripple as long as he lived. But he carried out the dream of his father. He did something which everybody in his day said was impossible. He built a bridge a mile long over a deep river. The bridge connected Brooklyn with Manhattan Island. 2. : 1. on the other hand; 6. steel cables; 2. the bottom of the river; 7. strange pains; 3. to pass under; 8. remaine a cripple; 4. suspension bridge; 9. to direct the work of the bridge; 5. ambitious project; 10. the wonder of the nineteenth century. 3. : 1. ; 6. ; 2. ; 7. ; 3. ; 8. ; 4. ; 9. ; 5. ; 10. - 4. , . , , : 1. final 6. complete 2. differ 7. eight 3. commercial 8. sad 4. communicate 9. danger 5. fame 10. able 5. (, , , : )

, ) ). 6. , : , , , , : 1. Some experiments had been made with working in a large box under water. 2. The plan for the Brooklyn Bridge was made by an engineer named John Roebling. 3. But Washington Roebling continued to direct the work of the bridge. Each day she carried her husband's orders direct to the men. 4. The bridge being a great success, people came from everywhere to see it. 5. Within half an hour he began feeling strong pains in his stomach. 7. : 1. What is the most important of the five sections of New York? 2. Why was it necessary to build the bridge? 3. When was the Brooklyn Bridge built? 4. Who made the plan for the Brooklyn Bridge? 5. Who began building the bridge and who finished? Why? 6. How did Washington Roebling become a cripple? 7. Who helped him to finish the work? In what way? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 2 1. : RECEIVERS A radio receiver has two main functions to perform: firstly, it has to select the required radiation from all the other electromagnetic waves that are present over the surface of the Earth, and secondly, it has to separate (or demodulate) the audio-frequency current from the radio-frequency carrier. This process is also called detection. The selection is effected by making use of a resonant circuit. If a resonant circuit in the receiver is tuned so that it will oscillate at the same frequency as the carrier-wave that is to be received, it is clear that of all the electromagnetic waves picked up by the receiving aerial, the only one that will be selectively strengthened will be the one with a frequency exactly fitting the resonance of the tuned circuit. This aspect of resonance is familiar in connection with sound waves; if a note is played on a piano in a room containing a glass turn with a natural resonant

frequency the same as that of the note, the glass will vibrate in resonance with the note, and may even shake. The receiving aerial, then, collects the modulated carrier-wave and feeds it into a circuit tuned to resonate at the frequency of carrier-wave. This tuning can be effected by altering the capacity of the capacitor of the resonant circuit. The second function of a receiver is to demodulate the carrier-wave; again, this operation can be performed by using an electro-valve. Valves are not only used for amplification, they also serve another purpose rectification, that is to say, they will only permit current to flow in one direction. Thus, if a modulated carrier-wave fed into the grid of a triode valve, and the grid is correctly bias; only current flowing in one direction will pass through the valve, bottom half, or negative swing, of the wave will be cut off. The shape traced by the peaks of the emergent half of the carrier-waves is the same as the original audio-frequency current, so that these half-waves are fed into earphones or at loudspeaker, the original sound wave will be reproduced. The half-waves of the carrier themselves will not, of course, affect the earphones or loudspeaker as their frequency is far too high. Demodulation has therefore b achieved by the use of an electronic valve as a rectifier. Rectification can also be brought about by the use of certain crystals, which have the property of allowing current to pass in direction only. These crystals were used in the early days of radio crystal sets; transistors and the semiconductor diode are a more modern application of the same principle. TELEVISION. Television works on a similar principle to radio except that signals have to be transmitted one for the sound and one for the vision. In the receiver these signals, which are close to each other in frequency have to be amplified and separated. The separator contains two resonant circuits, one tuned to the frequency of the sound carrier-wave. The sound signal is then done with in the same way as a sound receiver. The picture is formed by making a beam of electrons move across the screen of a cathode tube, variation in the intensity of the beam causing areas transmission these are the number of lines that can be seen making up the picture. With interlaced scanning the whole screen is covered by half the number of lines in 1/50th of a second this is called a frame. The remaining lines fill the spaces between the first frame during a subsequent period of l/50th of a second, thus the whole process takes l/25th of a second. During this time the spot of light has covered the whole screen twice, but owing to the persistence of the fluorescent coating of the tube, the whole screen is illuminated. To obtain a proper picture, the movement of the electron beam in the receiver must be exactly synchronized with the electron beam in the television camera. This is achieved by transmitting synchronizing pulses with the vision signal. The cathode ray tube (CRT) consists of an evacuated glass tube containing an electron gun (a heated cathode surrounded by a metal cylinder) producing a beam of electrons that fall on the fluorescent screen. Magnetic deflection coils deflect the beam from side to side producing the lines, and another set of deflection coils give the up and down movement required by the frames.

The television camera consists of an optical lens system similar to the lens used in a photographic camera, the image from which is projected into a camera tube. This consists of a photosensitive mosaic scanned by an electron beam. All are housed in an evacuated glass tube. The output signals of the camera tube are usually preamplified within the body of the camera. Colour TV works on the same principle, the camera having three separate tubes, each sensitive to one of the three colours red, green, or blue. In the receiver the cathode ray tube has three electron guns, each one is controlled by the appropriate tube in the camera. The screen of the CRT is coated with a mosaic of different colour spots that fluoresce when electrons from a particular gun strike them, all the colours are made up from blends of the three colours. 2. : 1. audio-frequency current; 6. the frequency of the sound carrier-wave; 2. the radio-frequency carrier; 7. sound receiver; 3. receiving aerial; 8. cathode ray tube; 4. a resonant circuit; 9. evacuated glass tube; 5. a triode valve; 10. photosensitive mosaic 3. : 1 ; 6. ; 2. ; 7. ; 3. ; 8. ; 4. ; 9. ; 5. ; 10. 4. , . , , : 1. modulate 6. amplify 2. receive 7. deflect 3. carry 8. conductor 4. rectify 9. move 5. magnet 10. sensitive 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : , , , , : 1. This consists of a photosensitive mosaic scanned by an electron beam.

2. This is achieved by transmitting synchronizing pulses with the vision signal. 3. A radio receiver has two main functions to perform. A radio receiver functions to perform certain actions. 4. Colour TV works on the same principle, the camera having three separate tubes, each sensitive to one of the three colours red, green, or blue. 5. For obtaining a proper picture, the movement of the electron beam in the receiver must be exactly synchronized with the electron beam in the television camera. 7. : 1. What are the two main functions of a radio receiver? 2. What are valves used for? 3. How does the receiving aerial work? 4. What principle does television work? 5. What is the picture formed by? 6. What does the cathode ray tube consist of? 7. What does the television camera consist of? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 3 1. : High Scale of Construction Construction is growing from year to year in our great country. This requires the use of new building methods and new building materials which play a very important role in the work of architects and builders. They help to develop modern architecture, speed up construction work and decrease its cost. We are now building thousands of new blocks of flats, schools, hospitals and a large number of industrial enterprises. A great percentage of the houses are constructed by house-building plants. This building method is successfully applied in different cities and towns of Russia. The newly built blocks of flats have all modern conveniences, making our life more and more comfortable. Colossal Construction Site. If it were possible to have a bird's-eye view of Western Siberia, one would see that it is in reality a colossal construction site. Large industrial enterprises are being built and still more are planned for construction. Blocks of flats containing tens of millions of square metres of floor space are under construction. The realization of this programme for capital construction is possible only if industrial methods of work are used, if construction work is turned into a

mechanized process of erection in which buildings and other structures are made of prefabricated parts. Among the large industrial enterprises of Western Siberia, a great number of power stations have been and are being built with capacities of about 2 to 4 million kw. Electricity has reached Siberian collective and state farms, small railway stations. It has set in motion electric trains and machines at plants and factories and illuminated villages and towns. A number of industries will make further progress on the basis of local raw materials. Building Units Reduce Construction Costs. Building units suitable for offices, classrooms, libraries, village halls or airport buildings, are now being manufactured in a transportable form yet completely permanent. The units are sold in a series of large prefabricated component parts which can be erected by a local contractor. Erection is simple; the units can be put up by unskilled labour, entirely by hand, and without the use of a mechanical plant. The length of the buildings are from 24 ft upwards. Spans are standardised at 18 ft, 24 ft and 30 ft. Floor to ceiling height at its lowest (under the roof beams) is 8 ft 6 in. Europe's Largest Tyre Works. The second section of what is claimed to be Europe's largest tyre works has been built in the Ukrainian town of Dniepropetrovsk. The territory of the works has been enlarged by 100 acres. Some 30 industrial buildings have gone up and the main block which is made of prefabricated reinforced concrete occupies an area nearly 1,300,000 sq ft, or almost twice as much as the first section of the works. All production processes are fully mechanized and automated. House-building Combine. House-building combines "create" the whole building. They not only make the various elements and components but assemble them on the site. All the working processes are mechanized. The first blocks made of prefabricated units appeared in the villages in the Volgograd and Moscow regions. Now everywhere in Russia vibro-rolled panels are being widely used in construction. The assembly method is developing into the main method of apartment and industrial construction. Prefabricated structures are transported by lorry and are immediately hoisted into position. Nowadays finished blocks of prefabricated flats with interior decoration are assembled on many construction sites. A lorry brings a complete flat to the prepared foundations of a building. A powerful gantry crane lifts the 18-20 ton flat and carefully sets it on the foundation. After a last inspection electricians, plumbers and gas-men can begin their work. Tower Cranes. Tower cranes are a comparatively recent innovation and have already proved their worth. They consist of a vertical mast structure mounted on a wheeled chassis, the mast being built up in sections to suit individual requirements and rotatable through 360. The wheeled chassis is self-propelled on railway track and the whole base is suitably ballasted for stability. The design of the jib varies, there being two main types: a fixed horizontal

jib and a raisable jib. One or more control cabins are located in the mast section and in one design the cabin may be moved up or down inside the mast like a lift to enable the operator to select the best inspection point. Tower cranes are electrically operated from an external power source and incorporate the usual safety devices. They are best suited to restricted sites where derrick cranes would be difficult to accommodate. Investigation has shown that, if properly used, tower cranes will effect considerable savings in building costs by avoiding the necessity for double handling of materials and by enabling large pieces of structure to be prefabricated on the ground and then hoisted into position. To obtain full value of the machine, however, it is essential that the job be large enough and the work planned in advance to ensure that the crane is kept fully employed. 2. : 1. to have all modern conveniences; 2. local raw materials; 3. tyre works; 4. prefabricated reinforced concrete; 5. vibro-rolled panels; 3. : 1. ; 2. ; 3. ; 4. ; 5. ;

6. gantry crane; 7. wheeled chassis; 8. a fixed horizontal jib; 9. a raisable jib; 10. double handling of materials

6. ; 7. ; 8. ; 9. ; 10.

4. , . , , : 1. raise 6. suitable 2. handle 7. fabricate 3. inspect 8. stable 4. electrical 9. product 5. horizon 10. full 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : ,

 , , , : 1. This requires the use of new building methods and new building materials. Some 30 industrial buildings have gone up. 2. Blocks of flats containing tens of millions of square metres of floor space are under construction. 3. The design of the jib varies, there being two main types: a fixed horizontal jib and a raisable jib. 4. Investigation has shown that tower cranes will effect considerable savings in building costs by avoiding the necessity for double handling of materials and by enabling large pieces of structure to be prefabricated on the ground. 5. Builders always mind the work being planned to ensure that the crane is kept fully employed. 7. : 1. What does construction require? 2. What basis will a number of industries make further progress on? 3. Why is erection of building units simple? 4. What panels are being widely used in construction? 5. Where are finished blocks of prefabricated flats with interior decoration assembled? 6. What does a tower crane consist of? 7. What are two main types of the jib? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 4 1. : FROM THE HISTORY OF BUILDING The history of building extends as far back as that of civilization itself. Primitive building required practically no tools and depended upon the mere piling up of stones or sun-dried bricks for walls and the using of branches for roofs. The invention of tools permitted the cutting of stones and timbers. The later use of finer tools, with the transition to bronze, is marked by the Egyptian pyramids and temples, while the coming of the Iron Age brought tools which made possible the development of carpentry and fine accurate stone cutting. Most of the building of old times was based upon the column and beam method of construction. Great changes in building methods together with numerous mechanical inventions and the appearance of new materials (such as concrete) resulted in great buildings being erected during the following centuries.

The middle of the 19th century, with the use of steam and electricity saw deep changes in the entire range of building. The modern building is designed by an architect who calls to his assistance consulting and technical services for the various mechanical and engineering factors which enter into it. Taken as a whole, modern building constitutes a vital element of national industry. The great problem still ahead of building is to help satisfy such urgent social needs as minimum-cost housing and the elimination of excessive city congestion. A New and Higher Level of Building. The great discoveries of our time in physics, chemistry, and other sciences, and the use of atomic power have revolutionized technical development in the 20th century. The creative work of mechanical, technological, and civil engineers, architects and building workers, and a wide use of scientific inventions have raised building to a new higher level. It permits the industrialization of all construction work. The achievements of builders, who are working at the construction of our metres, railways, hydroelectric stations, etc., are well known the world over. Great possibilities are open to our architects and builders by using modern achievements in science and technology in building. For example, plastics materials have been so greatly developed that they can be used almost everywhere in building. Also the development of science and technology has been of great help in mechanizing and speeding up construction. Beams. Beams are very important members in many engineering structures and machines. A beam is a structural member that is subjected to forces acting perpendicular to it. Common examples of beams are the steel beams used to support floors in buildings. In some cases of beams, the load will not be perpendicular to the beam but will act more or less at an angle. Beams are usually classified according to the way in which they are supported. A simple beam is one that lies on two supports at the ends. In a built-in beam the ends are so fixed that they cannot turn when a load is applied. A beam can be built-in at one end and simply supported at the other. Sometimes the ends of beams in structures and machines are built-in but not enough that the beam might be, considered fixed. A cantilever beam is one that is fixed at one end and free at the other. If a beam lies on more than two supports, it is called a "continuous beam". From the History of Brickwork. Brick is a universally used structural material, which in modern times is made by pressing clay into blocks and burning them to hardness. Bricks in their most primitive form were not burned, but were hardened by being dried in the sun. In that form they were utilized during many centuries and are used even today in regions with the proper climate. Brick probably existed in times of which no record remained. Since the Middle Ages, brickwork has been in constant use everywhere, in every sort of construction and in every architectural style. Good bricks are practically indestructible by fire or atmospheric action and more durable than

stone. At the beginning of the I9th century, mechanical processes came into everyday use and by the end of the century had almost entirely replaced the ancient hand-fashioned methods. Contemporary bricks are rectangular blocks with the standard dimensions of about 2 1/4 by 3 3/4 by 8 in. They are produced in a great variety for widely different purposes 2. : 1. sun-dried brick; 2. assistance consulting; 3. plastics materials; 4. a built-in beam; 5. the Middle Ages;

6. the column and beam method of construction; 7. elimination of excessive city congestion; 8. hand-fashioned methods; 9. cantilever beam; 10. continuous beam.

3. : 1. ; 6. ; 2. ; 7. ; 3. ; 8. ; 4. ; 9. ; 5. ; 10. . 4. , . , , : 1. civilize 6. wide 2. architecture 7. differ 3. possible 8. entire 4. mechanic 9. hard 5. build 10. industrialize 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : , , , , : 1. Great changes in building methods together with numerous mechanical inventions and the appearance of new materials (such as concrete) resulted in great buildings being erected during the following centuries. 2. Great possibilities are open to our architects and builders by using modern achievements in science and technology in building.

3. Plastics materials having been greatly developed, they can be used almost everywhere in building. 4. A beam is a structural member that is subjected to forces acting perpendicular to it. The radio station agreed to beam the Ministers speech to the whole of Europe. 5. They insisted on brick being produced in a great variety for widely different purposes. 7. : 1. What did primitive building require and depend upon? 2. What rind of great problem is still ahead of building? 3. What has revolutionized technical development in the 20th century? 4. Where can plastics materials be used? 5. What is the history of brickwork? 6. What are beams usually classified according to? 7. When did mechanical processes come into everyday use? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 5 1. : FROM THE HISTORY OF ARCHITECTURE When our ancestors emerged from caves their first efforts at obtaining manmade shelters were probably devoted to supporting branches against trees and rocks and covering them with large leaves. From these beginnings was developed the column and beam system of construction. For many centuries the column and beam was the only generally employed method of stone construction; according to this method were produced the beautiful impressive monuments of Egypt and Persia, which reached their highest point of beauty in Greece. In Mesopotamia the presence of excellent clay and the scarcity of stone and timber led in the very early days to the introduction of brick construction and the development of the vault and dome as a means of covering spans and areas. During the Roman Empire round arches, vaults and domes were perfected, as never before, in stone, brick, and concrete, this development being made possible by the abundance in Italy of good limestone and pozzuolana, a volcanic material, which when mixed with lime produced an excellent cement, The pointed arch was an inherent feature of the Gothic style, but it was not the only element in this remarkable architecture. The awakening of classical culture in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries

brought with it the Renaissance of Roman architecture. And indeed the spirit of those days made a fresh and living thing of the revived elements, developing and perfecting them far beyond their Roman values, though structurally contributing little. The constructive principles did not develop and have endured until, in our time, the use of steel and reinforced concrete introduced new possibilities into construction. The structural scheme today is one of skeleton framework, but the materials at hand have indefinitely expanded the possibilities. The more recent developments in arch and shell construction contain a promise of great possibilities in the architectural design of the future. Our ideal should be to develop the extraordinary possibilities of modern structural principles and of modern materials in the light of simplicity, economy, and the demands of our time. A Great Russian Architect. V. I. Bazhenov (1737-1799) was the founder of the Russian architectural classics of the 18th century. In 1784-1786 he created one of his best works, a masterpiece of Russian classical architecture the famous Pashkov house which is now the old building of the Lenin Library in Moscow. Those who have seen his impressive buildings and looked at them with understanding will feel that he fully succeeded in his purpose and that he gave the world something that will take its place with the greatest structures of the world. In addition to his being an outstanding artist and architect he was also a well-known figure encyclopedically educated. He was 28 when he became academician in St. Petersburg as well as a member of several academies abroad. At the same time he was a brilliant practical engineer and an incomparable designer of architectural ensembles, the Kremlin Palace being one of these. How Materials Influence the Schools of Architecture. It is of interest to note briefly the influence of materials upon the schools of architecture. Where clay abounded, as in Egypt, sun-dried bricks were easily and cheaply made. Stone was also obtainable, and because of its durability it became the material of the temples and palaces; the less pretentious dwellings were built of brick. In Mesopotamia large brick buildings were constructed, and, in the absence of stone and wood to span their areas, the arch and dome came into being. Greece possessed perfect marble for columns and beams, and the arch and dome received little attention. A fortunate combination of lime, limestone, clay, and pozzuolana gave Rome stone and cement, and the great mass of her structures is largely due to the union of stone, brick, strong mortar, and concrete. In Northern Europe, Switzerland, and Russia, where forests abounded and other materials were difficult to obtain, wooden architecture was characteristic for buildings of all types. Science, machinery, and easy transportation are now bringing to the hands of architects resources of materials hitherto unknown or unobtainable. Most of the world's great architecture is in stone, because until recently this was the material used in practically all the buildings where monumentality and permanence were desired. Thus, the stone tradition has permeated much of our architectural thinking and has determined much of our taste and judgment. To say that the history of architecture is embraced entirely in stone

structures is not accurate, for this neglects the remarkable work of the Romans in concrete and many structures of wood and brick throughout the world. The Bolshoi Theatre. The Bolshoi Theatre is the leading Soviet theatre of opera and ballet and has played an enormous part in developing both these arts. Such famous singers as Chaliapin, Sobinov, Nezhdanova, Obukhova, Barsova and Kozlovsky have performed on its stage. Many gifted young artists have appeared there in recent years. The Bolshoi Ballet is world famous and has made successful tours in Britain, France, Belgium, Japan, the Federal Republic of Germany, the United States and other countries. Reviews of the national art of the Union Republics of the USSR are held at the Bolshoi Theatre, and it is also used for celebrating important dates in the social and political life of the country. In 1924, the first Constitution of the USSR was adopted at the Second Congress of Soviets, which was held in the Bolshoi Theatre. The history of the building is as follows. It was first built in 1780 and destroyed a quarter of a century later by fire. Twenty years afterwards the architect O. Bove erected a new building in the Russian classical style. In 1853 it was again damaged by fire. It was soon restored, however, by A. Kavos who adhered mainly to the previous architectural design. It is one of the largest opera houses in the world. The five-tier auditorium is 21 metres high, 26 metres wide and 25 metres long, and seats more than 2,000. 2. : 1. method of stone construction; 6. column and beam system of construction; 2. impressive monuments; 7. constructive principles; 3. volcanic material; 8. reinforced concrete; 4. skeleton framework; 9. pretentious dwellings; 5. classical culture; 10. brick buildings 3. : 1. ; 6. ; 2. ; 7. ; 3. ; 8. ; 4. ; 9. ; 5. ; 10. . 4. , . , , : 1. construct 6. main 2. architecture 7. build 3. remark 8. beauty 4. transport 9. impress 5. dwell 10. general

5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : , , , , : 1. Many gifted young artists have appeared there in recent years. 2. With awakening of classical culture in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries brought with it the Renaissance of Roman architecture. 3. The structural scheme today is one of skeleton framework, the materials at hand having indefinitely expanded the possibilities. 4. In addition to his being an outstanding artist and architect he was also a well-known figure encyclopedically educated. 5. The history of the building is as follows. It was first built in 1780 and destroyed a quarter of a century later by fire. 7. : 1. What did the first man-made shelters look like? 2. What method of stone construction was used for many centuries? 3. What were the means of covering spans and areas developed in Mesopotamia? 4. When and where were round arches, vaults and domes perfected? 5. Who was the founder of the Russian architectural classics of the 18th century? 6. What gave Rome stone and cement? 7. What is the history of the Bolshoi Theatre? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 6 I. : HISTORY OF TRANSPORT Transportation takes us where we want to go, and brings us nearly everything we eat, wear, and use in daily life. Day and night, swift airliners speed passengers through the sky. Long trains roar across the countryside carrying passengers, mail, and such products as food, livestock, and coal. Automobiles, buses, and huge trucks rumble along the streets and highways. Ships steam across oceans and along lakes and rivers. Pipelines carry petroleum and natural gas across

thousands of miles. Developments in transportation have cut travel time greatly in the past 200 years. In 1800 it often took a businessman a month to travel by sailing ship from London to New York City. Today, he can fly this distance by jet airliner in only a few hours. The airplane has made New York City closer in time to Sydney, Australia, than it was to Montreal, Canada, only a hundred years ago. Americans and Canadians can easily travel to Europe and back on a two-week vacation. Modern transportation also makes it possible to travel in comfort. The pioneers jolted westward over rough trails in springless wagons with wooden wheels. Today, tourists ride on paved roads over the same routes in automobiles and buses with wheels that have soft, air-filled tires. Passengers on the first trains sat on hard wooden seats and often choked in clouds of smoke and dust. Food could be obtained only at wayside stations. Many of today's trains have soft, reclining seats. Air conditioning may keep the air clean and cool, and dining cars serve tasty meals. Transportation would not be possible without communication. It depends on communication just as communication depends on transportation. Automobiles and trucks could not travel on crowded streets and highways without street signs and traffic lights. Automatic block signals and other means of communication enable railroads to operate safely. Lighthouses, lightships, bell buoys, and radio compasses provide information for ships at sea. Airplanes could not land and take off safely without radio, radar, and other electronic communication devices. How Transportation Affects Our Lives. Without transportation, our modern society could not exist. We would have no metals, no coal, and no oil. Nor would we have any products made from these materials. Besides, we would have to spend most of our time raising food and the food would be limited to the kinds that could grow in the climate and soil of our own neighbourhoods. Transportation also affects our lives in other ways. Transportation can speed a doctor to the side of a sick person, even if the patient lives on an isolated farm. It can take policemen to the scene of a crime within moments of being notified. Transportation enables teams of athletes to compete in national and international sports contests. In times of disaster, transportation can rush aid to persons in areas stricken by floods, famines, and earthquakes. KINDS OF TRANSPORTATION There are three main kinds of transportation: (1) land, (2) water, and (3) air. Each has advantages and disadvantages. For example, trucks and trains can operate in storms that may ground airplanes or keep ships in harbours. Weather and geographical conditions may also determine the type of transportation used in a region. In snowbound arctic regions, dog sleds remain one of the most dependable means of land transportation. Sure-footed donkeys and llamas are still an important form of land transportation on the narrow mountain trails of rural regions in Latin America. In some jungle areas of South-eastern Asia, dugout canoes provide the swiftest means of travel. On Land, the chief forms of transportation are (1) automobiles, (2)

railroads, (3) trucks, and (4) pipelines. Automobiles provide the most important means of passenger travel in the United States and Canada. They account for more than four fifths of all the miles travelled by Americans. The remaining passenger travel in the United States is about equally divided among airplanes, trains, and buses. The automobile also is important in land transportation in Western Europe and some other parts of the world. Railroads haul about half of the freight transported in the world. Tracks carry about a fifth of this freight, and pipelines transport a little less than a fifth. Boats, barges, and airplanes transport the remaining freight. Railroads have equal or greater importance in the transportation of freight in Canada, Europe, and other areas. In addition to hauling freight, most railroads provide passenger service between cities and towns. Commuter trains transport thousands of persons daily between their homes in suburban areas and large cities. Railroads move every type of material, but are best suited to haul great quantities of heavy freight. For this reason, railroads play an important role in transporting coat, iron ore, grain, lumber, and other heavy products. Trains can haul freight cheaply because a single locomotive can pull as many as 200 freight cars. Trucks cost relatively more than railroads for transportation, because they require more power and more men to move the same amount of freight. But trucks can travel wherever there are roads. Special trucks used in logging, mining, drilling oil wells, and laying pipelines can operate even in areas that lack roads. The big trucks we see on the highways carry from 15 to 20 tons of freight. Any company or factory with this much freight to ship can load a truck at its door. The truck can then be driven directly to the customer's door. Other Methods of Land Transportation include buses, streetcars, electric elevated trains, subway trains, motorcycles, motor scooters, and bicycles. Buses serve as a main means of transporting people between cities in many parts of the world, and also within larger cities and towns. Streetcars, elevated trains, and subway trains are kinds of passenger transportation usually found only in larger cities. People in some countries use motorcycles, motor scooters, and bicycles as widely as Americans and Canadians use automobiles. The high cost of petroleum fuels outside the United States and Canada prevents most persons from driving vehicles that use as much gasoline as automobiles. 2. : 1 nearly everything 6 bell buoys 2 jet airliner 7 in other ways 3 wooden wheels 8 isolated farm 4 choked in clouds of smoke 9 times of disaster 5 crowded streets 10 advantages and disadvantages 3. :

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10

4. , . , , : Transport, pipe, high, motor, wide, neighbour, every, spring, wood, west. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 Long trains roar across the countryside carrying passengers, mail, and such products as food, livestock, and coal. 2. Developments in transportation have cut travel time greatly in the past 200 years. 3. Air conditioning keeping the air clean and cool, dining cars serve passengers. 4. They improved the engine by constructing the new tipe. 5 Buses serve as a main means of transporting people between cities in many parts of the world. 7. : 1 How long did it often take a businessman to travel by sailing ship from London to New York City? 2 Why would transportation not be possible without communication? 3 How does transportation affect our lives? 4 How many main kinds of transportation are there? 5 What are the chief forms of transportation on land? 6 How much freight do railroads haul in the world? 7 What do other methods of land transportation include? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10 - 15 ). 10. .

 7 I. : KINDS OF TRANSPORTATION On Water transportation follows chief routes: (1) on lakes, (2) on rivers, and (3) across oceans. Lake Transportation. The United States and Canada are the only countries with the advantage of a system of inland waterways like the Great Lakes. The lakes form the heart of the St. Lawrence Seaway. Huge deposits of iron ore lie to the west of these lakes, and great quantities of coal are mined to the south and east. Large, specially designed freighters provide cheap water transportation to bring millions of tons of coal and iron. River Transportation provides cheap, efficient water transportation for much of the heart of the country. For this reason, much heavy industry has been located along the rivers. River barges also serve as an important means of water transportation in different countries. They haul large quantities of heavy goods on the rivers and canals of Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Russia and other countries. In China, tiny sampans and other river boats provide transportation on the larger rivers. Oceans serve as the main arteries of transportation between continents. Ocean ships carry about two thirds of the goods between the United States and other countries. Most of the rest of this trade is with the neighbouring countries of Canada and Mexico. It moves by trains, trucks, and lake steamers. The largest quantities of goods shipped across oceans include petroleum, coal, grain, and iron ore. But ocean ships transport nearly every product produced or raised by man. Great refrigerated ships bring bananas from Central America to the different countries. Industrial nations import mahogany, chrome, and manganese by ship from various regions, and send automobiles, machinery, and other manufactured goods to all parts of the world. In the Air. Jet airliners enable travellers to eat breakfast in New York City and have dinner in London. Jets speed passengers and mail over the 3,250 air miles separating the two cities in only 6 1/2 hours. In the 1500's, it took one of Ferdinand Magellan's sailing ships, the Victoria, three years to make the first trip around the world. A jet airplane can flash around the world in about 36 hours. Airplanes usually follow the shortest route between two points, because they can fly over mountains and water barriers. They carry chiefly passengers and mail. Not much freight is shipped by air, because of the high costs of air transportation. Helicopters are also important in air transportation. In some large cities, helicopters ferry passengers and mail between airports and downtown areas. They also carry mail to suburban areas. In addition, helicopters are used in all kinds of rescue work, such as plucking injured climbers from mountains. Some police departments use helicopters to patrol waterfront areas arid crowded highways. Aids to Transportation. Modern transportation can operate swiftly and

safely because of the many aids to transportation that have been developed. Automobiles and trucks would be useless without a good system of paved roads. Bridges and tunnels help speed land vehicles across rivers, mountains, and other barriers. Ships require safe harbors equipped with wharves and piers in order to load and unload their cargoes. Airplanes could not speed passengers throughout the world without airports conveniently located near cities. Air, railroad, bus and ship transportation are remarkably safe today. Railroads have automatic signals and instruments that send sound waves to check steel rails for flaws that might cause accidents. The engineer may have a radiotelephone in his locomotive cab. Buses have been improved by such devices as air-suspension systems in place of springs. All water traffic, whether on oceans, rivers, or lakes, has been made safer by radio, radar, and such devices as gyrocompasses. Radio puts ships in touch with shore and with other vessels. Radar enables them to efficient water transportation "see" through fog, storms, and darkness. Airplanes patrol major ship routes to assist in rescues in case of accidents. Ships of the International Ice Patrol warn of the presence of icebergs. Radio and radar provide much the same services for aircraft. Accurate weather information permits planes to fly over or around most storms. PROBLEMS OF TRANSPORTATION Many problems must be overcome in the task of transporting people and materials from one place to another. Transportation services must be able to operate day and night, the year around, in all kinds of climate and weather. They must be able to operate over mountains and rivers, and through snow and storms. Climate and Weather. In the days of sailing ships, transportation by water depended almost entirely on the weather. Ships needed favorable winds to fill their sails. Sailors often made long detours to sail through waters where they could depend on the wind. Storms often sank or disabled sailing vessels. Even today, weather conditions are a problem to water transportation. Ocean liners usually try to sail around severe storms rather than through them. In the North Atlantic, icebergs endanger ships in certain months. Fog always threatens vessels, even though many ships have the electronic "eyes" of radar. On land, snow and ice often block railroads and highways. In extreme northerly regions, it is difficult to build railroads and highways, because the ground stays permanently frozen a short distance below the surface. During the summer, the surface of such ground thaws and becomes a muddy bog. In winter, the extremely low temperatures in these areas make steel rails so brittle that they break easily. In rainy tropical regions, dense jungles must be cleared before railways and roads can be built. In these regions, railroads must use steel ties and telegraph poles. Wooden poles and lies rot in tropical climates. They may also be destroyed by termites. In desert regions, such as the Sahara, the Gobi, and the southwestern United States, extremely high daytime temperatures cause transportation equipment to overheat and break down. Drifting sand blows into machinery, and may block roads and railroad tracks. But weather is the greatest threat to air transportation. Small aircraft caught

in violent storms must either fight their way through or find a safe landing place. All pilots consult weather reports and maps before taking off, so they can avoid bad weather conditions. Since the 1940's, radio, radar, and other electronic devices have made flying safer. 2. : 1 chief routes 6 refrigerated ships 2 the only countries 7 high costs of air transportation 3 deposits of iron ore 8 rescue work 4 efficient water transportation 9 remarkably safe 5 neighbouring countries 10 air-suspension systems 3. : 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 4. , . , , : Transport, high, motor, wide, neighbour, every, wood, engine, safe, south. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 On water transportation follows chief routes. 2 But ocean ships transport nearly every product produced or raised by man. 3 Jets speed passengers and mail over the 3,250 air miles separating the two cities in only 6 1/2 hours. 4 Carrying mail to suburban areas is done by helicopters. 5 In the days of sailing ships, transportation by water depended almost entirely on the weather. 7. : 1 What are chief routes on water transportation? 2 What lakes form the heart of the St. Lawrence Seaway? 3 Why do airplanes usually follow the shortest route between two points? 4 Why do modern transportation can operate swiftly and safely?

5 How must any problems of transportation be overcome? 6 What did transportation by water depend entirely on in the days of sailing ships? 7 Why is weather the greatest threat to air transportation? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 8 I. : AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC CONTROL: A GUARANTEE OF SAFETY A large number of cybernetic problems are being tackled in air transport. The growing intensity of air traffic has called for the automation of its control. The world's biggest airports handle up more than 1,000 planes a day. The dangerous situations that often arise as a result tell on an aerodrome's capacity. The automatic air traffic system takes over a large proportion of the work involved in the information exchange between dispatcher and pilot. At the same time, it carries out all sorts of calculations and warns the dispatcher of potential dangers, thus taking a lot of nervous strain and effort out of his work. Fundamental research is being carried out into the automation of automobile driving. The "robot driver" system is called upon to do two things: to keep the vehicle on the road and to prevent it from colliding with the cars ahead or running into obstacles. The first problem was solved experimentally by tracing a luminous line on the road and fitting a car with a photocell which keeps an "eye" on this line, and, through a set of actuating mechanisms, adjusts the steering wheel in case of the slightest deviation from the present course. The second problem is more complex, both technically and economically. Life itself insistently calls for its solution, for, according to international statistics, road accidents kill 250,000 people a year. Two ideas are considered the most practicable in this respect the use of microwave radar which probes the stretch of the road lying ahead of the moving car and presents the road situation on a dashboard screen. In conditions of poor visibility, it can always take over the steering wheel and brake control. The other idea is to lay "loops" of currentcarrying cable under the road surface. When a car passes over such a loop, the latter's magnetic characteristic changes, this being a source of information for the car following immediately behind. The latter's transducers pick up the signal and transmit continuous measurements of the distance to the leading car, its speed and the gain rate. In critical situations, the engine is stopped and the brakes are applied automatically. LOOKING TO THE FUTURE Experts estimate that by the year 2020 we will go by rocket from New York to Tokyo in 30 minutes. We will be able to reach any point on the globe from any

other point through tunnels deep in the earth. The prospect is adventurous and exciting. But most people are more interested in better ways to travel during their own lifetime. It's possible, that within the next two or three decades we will be riding in remote-controlled electronic cars. We will travel over plastic-footed climate-controlled highways. Trips, through metropolitan areas will be made on quiet, swift buses travelling on separate express lines of city streets. Helicopters may carry whole buses loaded with passengers from point to point above city traffic. But don't look for such developments in the next 30 years. Moving sidewalks still aren't moving, and won't for some time. What about monorails? Half a dozen are already operating. Tokyo has one that runs from the suburbs of the city to the airport but few people use it. But for some reason, no monorail system has ever been able to find a practical place. "Flying crane" helicopters soon may help solve the complicated problem of getting passengers from the centre to airport and back again. Anew mass transit system particularly well suited to medium-sized towns is being tested now. Lightweight automated vehicles operate singly or in trains on a lightweight aerial roadway. The cars look like buses and run on four pairs of rubber tyres. Service is round-the-clock with trains running every two minutes. The system is controlled by a central computer. Electric cars are in a number of countries. Experts say they expect electric cars to be available within the next years, although they believe that their use will be limited almost totally to city centre delivery vans and suburban shopping cars. The "ideal" short-haul air transport probably will be a vertical or short takeoff and landing aircraft that will fly 30 to 45 passengers right into the heart of a city or its suburbs on trips up to 260 miles. Air-cushion vehicles are getting a lot of press these days, and there's little doubt that they will be in your future. The scheme "Tubeflight" is one in which aircushion-supported vehicles will travel inside tubes at air transport speeds. Some ideas of rapid transportation are on the drawing boards some may never get off. Some are already under way and operational while others will see the light of day. Others may not take shape until nearly the year 2020. But changes are taking place, and there are more to come. 2. : 1 a large number of 6 according to international statistics 2 automatic air traffic system 7 road surface 3 to warn of potential dangers 8 any point on the globe 4 to run into obstacles 9 look for such developments 5 luminous line 10 from point to point 3. :

1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 4. , . , , : Transport, high, motor, west, tube, run, air, light, practice, adventure. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 Fundamental research is being carried out into the automation of automobile driving. 2 Air-cushion vehicles are getting a lot of press these days, and there's little doubt that they will be in your future. 3 Trips, through metropolitan areas will be made on quiet, swift buses travelling on separate express lines of city streets. 4 Moving sidewalks still aren't moving, and won't for some time. 5 Flying crane" helicopters soon may help solve the complicated problem of getting passengers from the centre to airport and back again. 7. : 1 How many planes do world's biggest airports handle up a day? 2 How does information exchange take place between dispatcher and pilot? 3 What is the "robot driver" system called upon to do? 4 How long will we go by rocket from New York to Tokyo by the year 2020? 5 What will helicopters do soon? 6 What do experts say about electric cars? 7 What do you know about scheme "Tubeflight"? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 9 I. :

The British Pioneers of Motor Industry The first wholly British four-wheeler was Frederick Lanchester's, which made its trial run in February 1896. These developments were in anticipation of a change in the traffic laws, the result of an agitation led by two aristocratic motoring enthusiasts, the Hon. Evelyn Ellis and Sir David Salomons, and their Self-Propelled Traffic Association. In 1896 the 1865 and 1878 Acts were repealed and the speed limit for road locomotives raised from 4 m.p.h. to '14 m.p.h. or less than this as the Local Government Board may decide'. As finally determined by the Board, the maximum speeds for vehicles of varying weights were: under 1 1/2 tons, 12 m.p.h.; 11/2-2 tons, 8 m.p.h.; over 2 tons, 5 m.p.h. With his usual showmanship Harry J. Lawson organized the first London to Brighton run, ostensibly to celebrate the liberation of the motor car but really to advertise his companies' automobiles. Lawson tried to do for the motor car what George Hudson did for the railway, become king of the new transport revolution. Fortunately for the British motor industry, he did not succeed. Although the English Daimler Company went on under other management to earn its reputation for quality cars, the Lawson empire, after his patents were defeated in the courts in 1903, declined and broke up. The collapse of his monopoly, and the further raising of the speed limit to 20 m.p.h. in 1904, brought a flood of British car manufacturers into the field. Many of them were cycle manufacturers, with names which became famous automobile marques: Ariel, Humber, Morgan, Riley, Rover, Sunbeam, Swift, Triumph, and so on. The further development of British Motor industry is connected with the names of F.H. Royce and William Morris. Both Royce and Morris were self-taught engineers of humble origin who rose in the traditional way by their native ability to great wealth. Frederick Henry Royce was the son of an unsuccessful miller and began life as a newspaper boy and telegraph messenger before his uncompleted apprenticeship at the Great Northern Railway works at Peterborough and jobs at the Electric Light and Power Company in London and Liverpool. Out of work at the age of twentyone in 1884, he set up a partnership in a back-street workshop in Manchester, making lamp-holders and filaments, an electric bell of his own design and, eventually, high-quality dynamos and electric cranes. Henry Royce built a twocylinder car of his own, which made its first trial ran in 1904, and then two more for his partners. The new third partner, Henry Edmunds, a motoring enthusiast and member of the Automobile Club committee, showed his car to his London friends, Claude Johnson and the Hon. Charles Rolls, son of Lord Llangattock and winner of the AA Thousand Miles Trial in 1900. They were so impressed by its quietness, smoothness and pulling power that they went into partnership with Royce to produce and sell it commercially. Rolls-Royce cars were an immediate success, making the fastest nonstop run at the 1905 Manx Touring Trophy race and winning outright in 1906, and making a record time from Monte Carlo to London in 1905 at over 27 m.p.h. More important, they soon established themselves as the quietest, smoothest and most reliable cars on the market. By 1907 the company had evolved the ultimate car for silence and reliability,

the Silver Ghost. The company settled down to produce this one model, which sold substantially unchanged for nineteen years - longer than the Model-T Ford - and claimed it as the best car in the world. Meanwhile, both Rolls and Royce took up the new cult of flying. Rolls was the first man to fly both ways across the Channel, before meeting his death in a competition at Bournemouth in 1910 at the age of thirty-three. Royce designed aero-engines for the war-planes of the First World War, from which a new Rolls-Royce Company was born. The eldest son of a farm bailiff near Oxford, William Morris in 1893 at the age of fifteen was forced by his father's illness to go out to work to help support a family of five. He began to work as an assistant to a bicycle repairer, but set up on his own at the age of sixteen on a capital of 5, repairing and soon making custom-built bicycles. He graduated via motor cycles to selling, repairing and hiring out motor cars. In 1910 he began to work on the designs for a car. His aim was to manufacture a cheap, mass-produced, popular, all-British car to compete with the Model-T Fords which from 1910 began to be assembled at Ford's subsidiary at Old Trafford, Manchester. As far as possible, he emulated Ford's methods: until the latter revolutionized production all motor cars had been made as individual machines, one at a time. Ford first of all introduced batch production, the production of cars in groups on a large factory floor, with specialized mechanics moving from one to the next. When Morris began, Ford had not yet invented the assembly line, which was to become the main basis of twentieth-century mass production. Morris's genius was for persuading sub-contractors that they could make a handsome profit by volume production at what seemed impossibly low prices. Thus the engine might be halved in price (from 50 to 25) if it could be made in quantities of fifty or more a week. This system became responsible for the subdivision of the motor industry into hundreds of component manufacturers. His first model, the Morris Oxford (8-9 horse-power, weighing 12 1/ 2 cwt, and capable of 55 m.p.h. and petrol consumption of 50 miles to the gallon) appeared at the Motor Show in 1912. Hitherto most cars of this size and performance had cost 250 to 400. The two-seater Oxford retailed at 165. Though not the cheapest car on the market, it was so successful that Morris obtained orders for 400, and immediately leased the old Military Academy at Cowley near Oxford and planned to produce 1,500 cars a year. He did not achieve this, quite, in 1914, mainly because of the war when he switched to the mass production of howitzer bomb-cases, but he had laid the foundations of British mass production of motor cars. Morris was not the only manufacturer of cars for the mass or, strictly, the middleclass market. In 1914 there were no less than seventy different light cars on the British market, plus a large number of cyclecars. When registration of cars began in 1904 there were 17,810 vehicles on the road, under half of them cars. By 1914 there were 354,232, including 122,035 cars and 118,045 motor cycles. 2. : 1 traffic laws 6 cycle manufacturers 2 vehicles of varying weights 7 native ability

3 king of the new transport revolution 4 empire declined and broke up 5 speed limit

8 an unsuccessful miller 9 telegraph messenger 10 to set up a partnership

3. : 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 - 9 5 10 4. , . , , : Develop, show, manage, product, possible, success, nine, rely, compete, cycle. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 The collapse of his monopoly, and the further raising of the speed limit to 20 m.p.h. in 1904, brought a flood of British car manufacturers into the field. 2 Out of work at the age of twenty-one in 1884, he set up a partnership in a backstreet workshop in Manchester, making lamp-holders and filaments. 3 Rolls-Royce cars were an immediate success, making the fastest nonstop run at the 1905 Manx Touring Trophy race and winning outright in 1906, and making a record time from Monte Carlo to London in 1905 at over 27 m.p.h. 4 Meanwhile, both Rolls and Royce took up the new cult of flying. 5 Morris beginning his activity, Fords assembly line was to become the main basis of twentieth-century mass production. 7. : 1 When did Frederick Lanchester's made its trial run? 2 Who determined the maximum speeds for vehicles of varying weights? 3 What famous automobile marques do you know? 4 What do you know about Frederick Henry Royce life? 5 When and what kind of partnership did he set up? 6 What was the reason of Rolls-Royces cars success? 7 When and why did William Morris go out to work?

8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 10 I. : American Car Makers Cars were the toys of the rich in the early days. But it was a Detroit farmboy Henry Ford who literally transformed the world. The car he built and the changes he made in the techniques of industrial production revolutionarized the lives of people everywhere. At the height of his fame in the 1920's, Ford was a name known universally. Henry Ford's dream to build "a motor car for the great multitude - a car so low in price that no man making a good salary will be unable to own one" When he finally realized his dream, with the launch of the Model T Ford in 1908, the effect was revolutionary. The T meant people barely able to afford a horse and buggy could buy a car. In 1908, less than 200,000 people in the USA owned cars; five years later 250,000 owned Model Ts alone. By 1930, over 15 million Ts had been sold. The key to Ford's success was mass production. By using huge teams of men working systematically to build huge numbers of cars, he could sell them all very cheaply. Indeed, the more he sold, the cheaper they became. Before Ford, complete cars were built by small teams of men. In the Ford factory, each worker added just one small component, as partly assembled cars were pulled rapidly past on the production line. The. principles Ford used to make the Model T are used in motor manufacture to this day. Modern assembly lines use robots to build cars more quickly, cheaply, and accurately. But the idea of assembling components on a moving production line remains. The cheap, tough and thoroughly reliable Model T put America, and much of the world, on the roads for the first time - and earned the affection of two whole generations of American families. It is easy to see how the Model T took shape from its individual components. Mudguards, running board, and sill all bolt together to form one side of the car, and are mounted directly on to the chassis. One of the things that made the Model T so cheap was its standardized body. At the time, most car bodies were built separately by specialist coachbuilders; the Model T's was made right on the Ford production line. So Ts could not be tailor-made to suit individual customers' requirements. Instead, Ford offered a limited variety of alternative body styles. The T's chassis appeared fragile, earning it the nickname "Tin Lizzie". But it was made from vanadium steel, which proved very strong. Ford claimed that his car was available in "any colour you like, so long as it's black". This meant painting was cheap and simple. Later models came in other

colours. Every period in the history of the motor car is remembered for its own particular style or technological trend. But perhaps none is quite so distinctive as the mid 1950s to mid 1960s in the USA. This was the era of rock'n'roll and drive-in movies, fast-food and new freeways. The booming confidence of the American nation in those years is reflected in some of the most outrageous, flashy cars ever made. Competition between American carmakers was fierce, and each tried to outdo the others in the glamour of their cars. Constant demand for a new sensation tested the skills of designers such as Harley Earl and Bill Mitchell to the limits. Expanses of chrome and fin were matched by all kinds of technological gimmicks. Yet though the styling was excessive, innovations such as wrap-round windscreens and power-steering were genuine and lasting. Big and Small American cars of the 1950s were small inside considering their vast proportions. Space was sacrificed for the sake of the styling. Boots were often very shallow which is why the Ford made use of the back seat space (left). Beautiful or Ugly? Unlike cars today, which change little in looks from year to year, new models appeared almost every year in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s Fords. Believe it or not, they were advertised as "The World's Most Beautifully Proportioned Cars". Fin Time Nothing is more characteristic of American styling in the 1950s than the fin. Strictly for show, they first appeared in 1955 and got bigger and bigger until the end of the 1950s. They finally disappeared in the mid 1970s. Gadget Mad American cars of the era had many clever accessories. Ford's electric hood was spectacular. The cover slid back at the push of a button to reveal the soft-top which erected automatically. Power Assistance Cadillacs, like most American luxury cars of the time, had "power-assisted" steering and braking - essential in such heavy cars. 1957 Cadillac Coupe de Ville Typical of American cars of the 1950s, the Coupe de Ville is almost 6 m (18 ft) long and extravagantly finned and chromed. It also has many' advanced technical features, such as electrically winding windows and reclining seats, and a smooth eight-cylinder engine. The 1950s saw the creation of a series of remarkable high performance cars. With the petrol rationing of the war years ending in 1950, designers started working on cars faster than anything seen before. Racing cars had been capable of speeds of over 220 kmh (140 mph) before the war, but most road cars were much slower. In the early 1950s, however, a number of expensive 220 kmh sports cars emerged from the factories of big companies like Jaguar and Mercedes-Benz and specialists such as Porsche, Aston Martin, Maserati, and Ferrari. Designed with both road and track in mind, they were often called Grand Tourers, or GTs. But the GTs of the 1950s were very different from the big open Grand Tourers of the 1920s and 1930s. These cars

were compact, usually closed-in, two-seater cars - cars not for leisurely motoring to the coast, but for scorching round winding roads at terrifying speeds. Many were winners on the racetrack, and could often match these performances on the road. Indeed, the road version of the Mercedes-Benz 300SL was a third more powerful than the racing prototype. 2. : 1 the toys of the rich 6 production line 2 literally transformed the world 7 more quickly, cheaply, and accurately 3 mass production 8 thoroughly reliable 4 huge numbers of cars 9 car bodies 5 partly assembled cars 10 own particular style 3. : 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 4. , . , , : Form, revolution, every, perform, big, wind, standard, coach, power, win. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 The T's chassis appeared fragile, earning it the nickname "Tin Lizzie". 2 At the height of his fame in the 1920's, Ford was a name known universally. 3 By using huge teams of men working systematically to build huge numbers of cars, he could sell them all very cheaply. 4 In the Ford factory, each worker added just one small component, as partly assembled cars were pulled rapidly past on the production line. 5 The styling being excessive, innovations such as wrap-round windscreens and powersteering were genuine and lasting. 7. : 1 Why was it a Detroit farm boy Henry Ford who literally transformed the world? 2 What kind of car did Henry Ford built?

3 What did each worker add in the Ford factory? 4 Why do modern assembly lines use robots? 5 What made the Model T so cheap? 6 Where is the booming confidence of the American nation in those years reflected in? 7 What did the 1950s see? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 11 I. : High Performance Road Race The famous Mille Miglia (1000 miles) was an endurance race for road cars run over 1600 km of winding public roads in Italy. The 300SL excelled several times in the race and, in 1955, won outright. Space Frame Designers of GTs sought to keep weight to a minimum. Mercedes succeeded by making the 300SL's unique chassis from tubular steel. The frame was light and strong - but its high sides were the reason for the "gullwing" doors. 1957 Mercedes-Benz 300SL "Gullwing" With futuristic bodywork matched by advanced engineering that gave the car 230 kmh (144 mph) performance, the Mercedes-Benz 300SL was a true classic. Formula one racing cars are the ultimate speed machines, worlds apart from everyday road cars. Their open, one-seater bodies are made of new ultra-light materials and are so low slung they almost scrape the ground. The "fuselage" and wings are aerodynamically shaped to keep the wheels firmly on the road. Vast, wide tyres give extra grip at high speeds. And enormously powerful engines propel them around the track at speeds in excess of 300 kmh (190 mph). Motor racing is so fiercely competitive that designers are always trying new ideas to give their cars the edge in performance. But each car has to comply with strict rules laid down for Formula One cars, covering everything from the size of the fuel tank to the shape of the floor-pan. To keep up with new developments, the rules must be updated almost every season, and the ingenuity of designers is tested to its limits as they try to adapt their designs to the new rules - and still beat their rivals. Finishing School The 500 cc events that started up in the 1950s have proved an ideal way into racing for many a budding Grand Prix driver. Air Pressure Racing car bodies are not only streamlined to cut down air resistance; they are

also shaped so that the air flowing over the car helps keep it on the road. The front and rear wings act like upside down aeroplane wings to push the wheels on to the ground. Ground Effect In 1979, many racing cars had "skirts" almost touching the ground -so that, at high speed, air rushing under the car sucked it on to the ground. This "ground-effect" improved road-holding so much that skirts were soon banned because drivers were going too fast. Now cars have a "waist" to give the same effect. 1979 Ferrari 312 T4 One of the most successful modern Grand Prix cars, the Ferrari 312 took first Niki Lauda and then, in 1979, Jody Scheckter to the world drivers' championship. Hybrid Japanese Electric Vehicles Hybrid electric vehicles have been developed by auto manufacturers independently, as a promising option for replacing internal combustion engine vehicles. To date, several hybrid buses and passenger car have been commercialized. In 1997, Toyota Motor Corporation launched its originally designed production hybrid passenger car Prius. The price is 2.15 million yen, only 25 percent higher than a comparable gasoline vehicle. The Prius is powered by both gasoline engine and electric motor independently or jointly, doubling the fuel efficiency to 28 km per liter compared with a conventional Corolla. The company developed hybrid system combines parallel and series hybrid systems, allowing the engine simultaneously to provide propulsion and to operate an electric generator charging the nickel-metal hydride batteries with a power split device. The vehicle also achieved lower emissions, half of carbon dioxide and one tenth of nitrogen oxides compared to a gasoline car. Nissan Motor's hybrid electric vehicle will use series hybrid system comprising a newly developed compact electric motor, lithium-ion batteries, and a gasoline engine which is solely used to generate electricity. The vehicle can cover 660 km, and runs 50 km on pure electric drive. The company claims that its hybrid system doubles fuel efficiency, and reduces nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide by 95%, and carbon dioxide 50% comparing with a gasoline version. To promote development of a vehicle of high fuel efficiency with low emissions, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry initiated a 7-year hybrid vehicle development program from fiscal year 1997. The program also aims to develop a power unit and power control system for hybrid vehicles, alternative fuels, infrastructure for clean fuels, and light weight materials, with a budget of 210 million yen for the initial year. Public interest in the electric vehicle has become higher and higher, to which the latest electric vehicles can respond in terms of performance, pleasure of driving, fuel efficiency, as well as zero emissions and low noise. The second-generation electric vehicles powered by long-life batteries also have far less running costs than conventional vehicles. These vehicles may hold the key to electric vehicle market expansion for the coming several years. Further improvement in vehicle performance, however, is indispensable especially for class* mini vans and

trucks, for these are the major vehicles to have been and to be introduced by the major users such as municipalities and utility companies. Class is the Japanese specific classification for vehicles which are less than 3.295 m long and with an engine displacement of 660 cc or less. 2. : 1 endurance race 6 tubular steel 2 road race 7 racing cars 3 keep the wheels firmly 8 vast, wide tyres 4 fiercely competitive 9 give the edge 5 the front and rear wings 10 internal combustion engine 3. : 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 4. , . , , : develop, high, late, perform, please, improve, how, independent, design, dynamic, commercial, stream. 5. (, , , : ) , ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 With futuristic bodywork matched by advanced engineering that gave the car 230 kmh (144 mph) performance, the Mercedes-Benz 300SL was a true classic. 2 Nissan Motor's hybrid electric vehicle will use series hybrid system comprising a newly developed compact electric motor. 3 Public interest in the electric vehicle has become higher and higher, to which the latest electric vehicles can respond in terms of performance, pleasure of driving, fuel efficiency, as well as zero emissions and low noise. 4 These are the major vehicles to have been and to be introduced by the major users such as municipalities and utility companies. 5 The company developed hybrid system combines parallel and series hybrid systems, allowing the engine simultaneously to provide propulsion and to operate an electric generator charging the nickel-metal hydride batteries with a power split device.

7. : 1 Why was the Mercedes-Benz 300SL a true classic? 2 What kind of machines are formula one racing cars? 3 What materials are open, one-seater bodies made of? 4 Why are designers always trying new ideas to give their cars? 5 What is the price of Prius? 6 What will Nissan Motor's hybrid electric vehicle use? 7 What did the Ministry of International Trade and Industry initiate and why? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. . 12 I. Cars for the New Millennium Visitors to September's Frankfurt Motor Show, or IAA, were presented with an unprecedented range of new models from a German car industry at its most innovative. Opel G90 Opel of Russelsheim didn't have far to travel to the IAA in Frankfurt - but it did have plenty of new cars to take along. The most important is the G90, Opel's vision of what an Astra car will be like in the not-too-distant future. The G90 - 90 stands for grammes/kilometre of CO2, half a normal car's output - blends lightweight materials, an aerodynamic body and three-cylinder engine to show how regularsized cars can be made more environmentally friendly. Opel also showed off its new midengined two-seat sports car, the Speedster. Porsche 911 Turbo Porsche's enduring 911 enters the 21st century with meaner looks and more power than ever in the form of the new Turbo. With more than 300 kW of power from its twin turbo 3.6-litre engine, the Turbo can accelerate from standstill to 100 km/h in 4.2 secs and eat up the autobahn at up to 300 km every hour. Mercedes SLR Roadster Mercedes-Benz showed off its new supercar, the SLR, to be built by McLaren in Britain, almost a year ago. At Frankfurt it was the turn of the SLR roadster - and as the centrepiece of the Mercedes hall it went straight to the top of every car enthusiast's wish list. The 200 mph convertible boasts dramatic looks and a special hood that keeps the rain out but lets the light in. With its sky-high price it would only ever be sold in tiny numbers to the megarich, but Mercedes has not yet confirmed it will make it. The coupe goes on sale in 2003. AudiA2

Audi's smallest car is also one of its technologically most important. The A2 is made from light but strong aluminium and tips the scales at a remarkable 895 kg, boosting performance and saving fuel. The A2 is a short but tall car and offers what Audi claims is an exceptionally spacious interior. Diesel and petrol 1.4-litre engines are available, both giving 55 kW for top speeds past 170 km/h, with average fuel consumption of 4.2 1/100 km for the diesel and 6.1 1/100 km for the petrol. Ford FC5 The new car, a rival for machines such as the Renault Scenic and Opel Zafira, boasts Ford Focus looks but a much bigger body to give room for extra seats. What it won't have in production form, at least not until 2004, is the hydrogen fuel cell equipment that Ford has cleverly packaged inside this special FC5 shown in Frankfurt. VW Concept D In a show littered with more world debuts than ever, the company behind most of them -the VW Group - also took the wraps off the show's most controversial new car, the VW Concept D. Huge, streamlined, equipped with a vast array of features and powered by 10 or 12-cylinder diesel or petrol engines, the Concept D aims to take on top-of-the-range cars from Mercedes and BMW for the first time. SEAT Leon The Volkswagen group, which among its many brands counts Skoda and SEAT, had some important world debuts for ordinary motorists at Frankfurt. On the SEAT stand was the Leon, a Golf-sized hatchback based on the firm's Toledo that aims to muscle in on what is Europe's biggest sector of the market. There's a big range available -right up to a four-wheel drive version with 130 kW. The Leon, on sale now, ranges in price from DM26,450-DM40,990. BMW Z9 BMW took the prize for surprise of the show with an extraordi narylooking GT coupe unlike anything in the current range. Although the Z9 won't be built in this form, the concept does hint at what future BMWs will be like, including more muscular styling, gimmick-free interior (the dashboard has hardly any switches) and weight-saving construction. The doors are novel: you open a normal one for access to the front or, if you have rear-seat passengers, swing open the whole side of the car. The Z9 is powered by a 3.9-litre V8 diesel engine, indicating that BMW believes its efficient new-technology diesels are now powerful and refined enough even for high performance sporting cars. Smart Roadster Smart city cars are now a familiar sight on Europe's roads but at Frankfurt the Mercedes-owned company took things in a new and different direction. So far it is only a concept car, with production mooted for 2002, but the Smart Roadster could have a market to itself as a small, fun, cheap to buy and run two-seater convertible sportster. Skoda Fabia Skoda, meanwhile, unveiled an even more important car than the Leon from sister company SEAT. The Fabia is the first in the VW group to be based on a

new platform that will be used by the next Polo. With distinctive supermini styling and what are bound to be attractive prices, the Fabia at Frankfurt scored highly for its looks, interior space and high quality finish far removed from Skodas of old. With efficient petrol and diesel engines, it should be a hit. Ford Ford is still the classic American success story. Founded in 1903, the Ford Motor Company became a national hero in less than 12 years. It did so on the sturdy back of one car - the Model T. The world's first mass production car was the embodiment of Henry Ford's hopes and dreams. In the event, he held on to it for almost too long. Over 15 million "Tin Lizzies" had been made over a period of 19 years before the Model A took over. A very public pacifist during World War I, Henry Ford sanctioned rapid conversion to war production in 1942. When the war ended, so did Henry Ford's reign at the controls. By then well into his eighties, he'd probably .stayed on for too long. Power passed not to his son Edsel -who died in 1943 at the age of 49 - but to grandson Henry Ford II. "HFII" retired in 1980, having steered the giant company to ever greater success. He did things differently to his grandfather, encouraging fresh new managerial talent instead of relying on stalwarts. On the other hand, was just as adept at firing anyone with overt power-lust. The Ford family no longer owns a holding, but the knack of know-ing what the public wants and selling it to them at the right price has remained with Ford for 90 years. It shows no sign of deserting them. 2. : 1 unprecedented range 2 plenty of new cars 3 not-too-distant future 4 lightweight materials 5 more power

6 the top of every car enthusiast's wish list 7 tiny numbers 8 an exceptionally spacious interior 9 average fuel consumption 10 a rival for machines

3. : 1 6 2 7 3 8 4 9 5 10 4. , . , , : roduct, body, great, different, father, manage, rely, high, board, power. 5. (, , , : )

, ) ). 6. , : I II (Participle I & II), , , : 1 The Fabia is the first in the VW group to be based on a new platform that will be used by the next Polo. 2 The war ending, Henry Ford's reign sanctioned the controls. 3 On the other hand, was just as adept at firing anyone with overt power-lust. 4 Founded in 1903, the Ford Motor Company became a national hero in less than 12 years. 5 With distinctive supermini styling and what are bound to be attractive prices, the Fabia at Frankfurt scored highly for its looks, interior space and high quality finish far removed from Skodas of old. 7. : 1 Whom was Mercedes-Benz, the SLR, built by in Britain, almost a year ago? 2 When does the coupe go on sale? 3 Why is Audi's smallest car also one of its technologically most important? 4 What cars are called smart city cars? 5 When was Ford founded? 6 When did Henry Ford's reign at the controls end? 7 Whom did Henry Ford's power pass to? 8. (2-3 ). 9. (10-15 ). 10. .