8-1

CHAPTER 8
WAVE FORCE ON SMALL DIAMETER MEMBERS
8.1 The Morisons equation
A structural member is considered to be of small diameter when its diameter is
less that about 0.15 times the wave length; for example, members of Jacket structures and
piled jetties.

Fig.8.1 Definition sketch

When member diameter is small incident waves do not get much scattered by the
obstruction and in that case the equation given by Morison et al. (1950) becomes
applicable.
Morison et al. (1950)s equation:
It states that the total force, F
I
, in-line with the wave direction can be obtained by addition
of the drag, F
D
, and the inertia, F
I
components, i. e.,

T D I
F F F = + (8.1)
The force due to drag is proportional to kinetic head, i. e.,
8-2

Fig. 8.2 Area projection on a vertical plane


2
1
2
D
F Au (8.2)
Where =mass density of fluid
A= area of object projected on a plane held normal to flow direction
u = flow velocity
Introducing the constant of proportionality, C
D
, and assuming a steady, uniform flow in a
viscous fluid, we have

2
1
2
D D
F C Au = (8.3)
where
D
C is coefficient of drag. Its value depends on body shape, roughness, flow
viscosity and several other parameters.


Fig. 8.3 Particle velocities

8-3
Because the direction of wave induced water particle velocity reverses after every half
cycle, we write,

1
2
D D
F C Au u = (8.4)
The force of inertia is proportional to mass times the fluid acceleration:
.
I
F vu
u V F
I
& . .
where V = volume of fluid displaces by the object.

.
u = acceleration of fluid
Hence,

.
I m
F C vu = (8.5)
Where
m
C =Coefficient of Inertia. It depends on shape of the body, its surface
roughness and other parameters.
Most of the structural members are circular in cross section. Hence,
1
'
2
D D
F C DL u u =
2
.
'
4
I m
d
F C L u

=
Because u and
.
u vary along L and further considering unit pile length i.e. L=1. Hence,

2
.
1
2 4
T D m
d
F C Du u C u

= + (8.6)

where,
T
F = in-line (horizontal) force per meter length at member axis at given time
at given location.

1
2
D
C Du u = in-line (horizontal) water particle velocity at the same time at the
same location.
8-4

2
.
4
m
d
C u

is in-line (horizontal) water particle acceleration at the same time at

the same location.
Note that ( ) cos u f = and
( )
.
sin u f = . Hence u and
.
u are out of phase by
0
90 and
are not maximum at the same time.

Basically C
D
and C
m
are functions of size and shape of the object. If that is fixed
then they depend on Keulegan-Carpenter number, Reynolds number as well as
roughness factor.

Keulegan-Carpenter number: K
C

It is basically a ratio of maximum drag to maximum inertia. We have,
( )
2
max
max
1
2
F C Du
D D
=
where,
2
max
u
( )
2 2 2
2
2 2
cosh
cos
sinh
H k d z
T kd

+
=
( ) max
max
2 .
4
d
F C u
I m

=
where
( )
2
max 2
.
2 cosh
sin
sinh
H k d z
u
T kd

+
=
At z=0,

( )
( )
max
max
1 cosh
sinh
F
C
H kd
D
D
C D kd
F
m
I

= =
max
2
1
C
u T
D
C D
m

(8.7)
The ratio of maximum drag to maximum inertia can thus be taken as proportional to
max
u T
D
= Where
max
u =Maximum velocity in the wave cycle
T= wave period
D= Diameter
The above ratio also stands for (Total horizontal motion of the particle / Diameter).
8-5

If K
C
< 5 then inertia is dominant,
If K
C
>15 then drag is dominant and regular eddies are shed at downstream section.


Fig. 8.4 Eddy shedding
at frequency of
Sv
fe
D
= where S = Strouhal No. 0.2.
Alternate eddy shedding gives rise to alternate lift forces due to pressure gradient across
the wake.



8-6

Fig. 8.5 Variation of C
D
and C
M
against K
C


Reynolds Number, R
e
:
It is the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force, i. e., R
e
:

max
u D
v
= (8.8)




10 100
1
0
C
D
K
c
1
2
C
m
0
R
e
X 10
5
1
8-7

Fig. 8.6 Variation of C
D
and C
M
against Re
Roughness Factor:





Fig. 8.7 Encrustation around cylindrical members

Structural members are in course of time covered by sea weeds, barnacles, shell fish etc.
Due to this, effective diameter changes, effective mass increases, flow pattern, eddy
structure changes . Finally the wave force also changes. Lab studies have shown that
m
C does not change much.
D
C changes appreciably and can become 2 to 3 times more
than the initial value.

2
1
0
C
D
R
e
X 10
5
5
8-8


Fig. 8.8 Effect of roughness on C
D
and C
M


Scatter in
D
C ,
m
C values: Many laboratory and field studies have been made to
assess the effects of all unaccounted factors like eddy shedding , past flow history, initial
turbulence , wave irregularity directionality, local conditions , data reduction techniques.
But experiments are inconclusive.

Experiments to evaluate
D
C ,
m
C are performed in the following way.
1
2
C
m
0
R
e
X 10
5

Rough
Smooth
2
1
0
C
D
R
e
X 10
5
5
Rough
Smooth
8-9
Fig. 8.9 Flow chart to obtain C
D
and C
M
through lab measurement

Almost all experiments suffer from widely scattered values. Major reasons of the scatter
are: (1) use of either steady/ oscillatory / wavy flow, (2) difficulty in achieving high Re
(
7
10 ), (3) wave theories over predict velocity, (4) definition of Re is arbitrary, (5) waves
are irregular, hence
D
C ,
m
C are large, (6) use of
u
t

(not
du
dt
) overestimate forces, (7) no
accounting for directionality, current, 3-D flow.

Recommendations:
1) For Indian conditions
D
C =0.7 ; Cm=2 are generally used.
2) DnV :
D
C =0.7-1.2 ; Cm=2
3) A.P.I. :
D
C =0.6-1.0 ; Cm=1.5-2
4) Shore Protection Manual:
D
C -Refer Fig. ; Cm=1.5 if Re>5 x
5
10
=2 if Re<2.5 x
5
10
=
5
Re
2.5
5 10 x
, otherwise
EXAMPLE:

A one m diameter jacket leg is subjected to an attack of waves which are 5m high,
80 m long and 10 seconds in period.
Determine maximum Drag Force , maximum Inertia Force ,Total Force @
Measure Forces
Measure
wave time
histories
Get H,T
Compute
u ,
.
u (or
measure)
Correlate as in
M. equation
F= cu u +k
.
u
Get
D
C ,
m
C
8-10

4

= , at a location 10m below SWL . The water depth is 60m.

Take
D
C =1; Cm=2; Use linear theory.
=1030
3
kg
m

Solution :

max max max
1
2
D D
F C D u u =

( ) cosh
cos
sinh
H k d z
u
T kd

+
=

( )
2
(5) cosh 50
80
.1
2
(10) sinh (60)
80

=
=0.717 m/s

max
1
(1)1030(1) 0.717 0.717
2
D
F =
=264.76 N/m.



( ) max
max
2 .
4
d
F C u
I m

=


( )
2
max 2
.
2 cosh
sin
sinh
H k d z
u
T kd

+
=

( )
2
2
2
2 (5) cosh 50
80
.1
2
(10 ) sinh (60)
80

=
=0.45
2
m
s


8-11

max
I
F =
2
(1 )
2(1030) (0.45)
4

=728 N/m.



( ) cosh
cos
sinh
H k d z
u
T kd

+
=

=
(5)(25.3869)
.cos
(10)(55.1544) 4



=0.5067 m/s


( )
2
max 2
.
2 cosh
sin
sinh
H k d z
u
T kd

+
=

=
2
2
2 (5)(25.3869)
.sin
(10 )(55.1544) 4



=0.318
2
m
s

F
2
.
1
2 4
D m
d
C Du u C u

= +
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
1
1
1 1030 1 0.5067 2 1030 0.318
2 4

= +

=646.72 N/m




8-12
8.2 Total Wave Force on the Entire Member Length

Fig. 8.10 Variation of drag and inertia over a vertical

Consider a vertical located at x=0 as shown above.
Consider Linear Theory
2
cos
2
H t
T

= as x=0
( ) cosh 2
cos
sinh
H k d z t
u
T kd T
+
| |
=
|
\


( )
2
.
2
2 cosh 2
sin
sinh
H k d z u t
u
t T kd T
+ | | | |
=
| |

\ \



( )
t t
hd
z d k
T
H
D C u Du C F
T T D D D

2 2
2
2
2
2 2
cos cos
sinh
cosh
2
1
2
1 +
= =
When t=0, ( )
max D D
F F
SWL
0
Z=-d
Drag
X
Z
Inertia
Z =-z
8-13
( )
( ) t
hd
z d k
T
H d
C u
d
C F
T m m I

2
2
2 2
.
2
sin
sinh
cosh 2
4 4

+
= =
When t=0, ( )
max I I
F F
But
( )
max I
F When ( ) t
T
2
sin =1 or when t
T
2
=
2

Or when t=
4
T

At this time t
T
2
cos =
|

\
|

2
cos

=0 Hence
D
F =0

Note: When ( )
max D
F occurs
I
F =0
When ( )
max I
F occurs
D
F =0

( )
max D
F occurs after time
4
T
when ( )
max I
F occurs.
If is small, =0 , if is not small , =
T
t H 2
cos
2



+ =

d
I
d
D T
dz F dz F F
( ) ( )


+ + + =

d
I
d
D
dz z d F dz z d F M
Hence total horizontal force on entire member length at any time t :
TI TD T
F F F + =

( )
2 2 2
2 2
cosh 1 2 2
cos cos
2 sinh
TD D D
d d
H k d z t t
F F dz C D dz
T kd T T

+
| | | |
= =
| |
\ \




( )
( )
2 2
2
2 2
cos cos 1
cosh
2 sinh
D
d
H t t
C D k d z dz
T kd

= +

8-14

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
cos cos sinh 2 1
2 sinh 2 4
D
d
H t t k d z k d z
C D
T kd k k

+ + (
= +
(


[Using
2
sinh 2
cosh
2 4
x x
x = +

]

( )
( ) ( ) { }
2 2
2 2
cos cos
1 1
2 sinh 2
2 sinh 4
D
d
H t t
C D k d z k d z
T kd k

(
= + + +
(




( ) ( ) { }
( )
2 2
2
2 sinh 2
1 1
cos cos
2 4 4 sinh
D
d
k d z k d z
H
C D t t
k kd

( + + +
=
(
(


( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
2
2
2 sinh 2
cos cos
32 sinh
D
TD
z
k d z k d z
C D
F H t t
k kd

=
( + + +
=
(
(


(8.9)
( )
( )
2
2
2
2 cosh
sin
4 sinh
TI I m
d d
H k d z
d
F F dz C t dz
T kd

| | +
= =
|
\



( ) ( )
2 2
sin sinh 2
4 4 sinh
m
d
t k d z d H
C
kd k

+ | | (
=
| (
\

Hence ( )
( )
( )
2
2
sinh 1
sin
4 2 sinh
TI m
z
k d z d
F C H t
k kd

=
+ | |
=
|
\

(8.10)
Similarly,
T DT IT
M M M = +
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
( )
2
2
2 2
2 sinh 2 cosh 2 2 1 cos cos
64 sinh
D
DT
H C D
M k d z k d z k d z k d z t t
k kd

= + + + + + + (


( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2
sinh cosh 1
sin
2 4 sinh sinh
m
IT
H k d z k d z k d z C d
M t
k kd kd

+ + + + | |
=
|
\

(8.11)




8-15
EXAMLPE:
Obtain variation of total horizontal force and moment at the sea bed with time for a
circular vertical pile of diameter 1.22 m extending into a water depth of 22.9 m. The
wave height is 10.67m and the wavelength is 114.3m. Take
D
C =1 and
m
C =2 .
=10.06
3
KN
m
.
What are the maximum force and moment values?
Use Linear Theory.
Consider two cases (a) Integration up to SWL.
(b) Integration up to Free surface.

SOLUTION:
K=
2 2
114.3 L

= =0.05497cycles/m
{ } ( ) { }
1
1
2
2
tanh 9.81(0.05497) tanh 0.05497 22.9 gk kd = = (

=0.6773 rad/s

( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
2
2
2 sinh 2
cos cos
32 sinh
D
TD
z
k d z k d z
C D
F H t t
k kd

=
( + + +
=
(
(


= ( )
( ) ( ) { }
( )
2
2
2 sinh 2
cos cos
32 sinh
D
k d k d
C D
H t t
k kd

( +
(
(


( ) ( )
( ) { }
( )
( )
2
2
2(0.05497)(22.9) sinh 2(0.05497) 22.9
1(10.06)1.22
0.6773 10.67 cos cos
32(9.81)(0.05497) sinh (0.05497) 22.9
t t
( +
= (
(


=123.022 ( ) cos cos t t KN
( )
( )
( )
2
2
sinh 1
sin
4 2 sinh
TI m
z
k d z d
F C H t
k kd

=
+ | |
=
|
\

( )
( )
( )
2
2
sinh 1
sin
4 2 sinh
m
k d d
C H t
k kd

| |
=
|
\

8-16
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2 1.33 10.06 1
2 10.67 0.6773 sin
9.81 4 2 0.05497
t

| |
| |
=
|
|
|
\
\

=-106.74 ( ) sin t KN
Hence
T
F =123.022 ( ) cos cos t t -106.74 ( ) sin t

Vary t=0, T
2 t
T

=0,
2
.T
T

t=0, 2
=0, 6.284
=0, 1,2, ,7

t

TD
F (KN)
TI
F (KN)
T
F (KN)
0 123.02 0 123.02
1 35.01 -89.82 -53.91
2 -21.31 -97.06 -118.37
3 -120.57 -15.06 -135.64
4 -52.56 80.78 28.22
5 9.9 102.86 112.26
6 113.42 29.83 143.24
7 69.92 -70.13 -0.21



8-17
-200
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
0 2 4 6 8
wt
F
t
Series1


We can express: cos cos sin F C K = + . For maximum conditions this equation
can be worked out using as:
1
0 sin
2
F K
c

= =

.

8.3 Wave Forces Using Stokes (V) Theory

Water particle kinematics are calculated at every m length of the vertical
structural member (at its center along the immersed length of the member axis) using the
Stokes Fifth Order theory. Corresponding forces are worked out using the Morrisons
equation at every such segment and then they are added up to cover the full member
length. For a typical case of wave attack shown below, the results are further indicated in
the following figure:

8-18

Fig. 8.11 Calculation of total wave force
D
C =1 and
m
C =2

8.4 Calculation Of Wave Forces Using Deans Theory

For circular vertical piles, based on Deans theory and Morisons equation, it is possible
to express approximately the total maximum force within the wave cycle as:

2
m m D
F gC H D = (8.12)
Where,
m
= Coefficient to be read from curves plotted for various values of

m
D
C D
W
C H
= (8.13)
Similarly the total maximum moment at the base is:

2
m m D
M gC H Dd = (8.14)
Where
m
=Coefficient to be read from curves



SWL
35
375
75
4

Force
8-19
LIFT FORCES:
For high drag ( 15
c
K > ) there is regular and alternate eddy shedding on the
downstream side on both sides of cylinder at a frequency.

eddyshedding
sv
f
D
= (8.15)
where s = Strouhal No. 0.2, = kinematic viscosity of sea water, D = diameter.
This gives rise to lift force given by:

1
2
L L
F C Du u = (8.16)
Where
L
C is Lift coefficient = ( )
c
f K

D
C If
c
K >20
If
c
K <3

If the frequency of eddy shedding goes close to the natural frequency of the structural
member then resonance occurs and high structural vibrations result.

8.5 WAVE FORCE ON INCLINED MEMBERS
Let V
n
, a
n
= normal components of total particle velocity and accelerations, respectively.
Then the normal (to member axis) wave force at any time t is given by:

Fig. 8.12 Normal to axis force


Fn
8-20

n n n n
F C V V Ka = + (8.17)
Where
2
D
D
C C =

2
4
m
d
K C

=
Where
n
V and
n
a are normal components of total velocity (V) and acceleration (a)

Fig. 8.13 Normal to axis force

n
V (or
n
a ) lies along the line of intersection of the two planes
( )
'
n
V cx V xc =
( )
'
n
a cx a xc =
If c is unit vector along axis and
x
c ,
y
c ,
z
c are its direction cosines and if,
n nx ny nz
V V i V j V k = + +
c
Vn
V
0
Plane containing
cylinder axis and total
velocity vector V
Plane normal to cylinder
axis at 0
x
y
z
8-21
n nx ny nz
a a i a j a k = + +
x y z
c c i c j c k = + +
then evaluating the products,
2
2
2
1
1
1
nx x x y x z x
ny x y y y z y
nz x z y z z z
V c c c c c V
V c c c c c V
V c c c c c V
(
(
=
` `
(

(

) )


and
{ }
1
2
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
n nx ny nz x y z x x y y z z
V V V V V V V c c c c c c ( = + + = + + + +


Thus we get,

x nx nx
y n ny ny
z nz nz
F V a
F c V V K a
F V a


= +
` ` `

) ) )
(8.18)
Where
2
2
2
1
1
1
nx x x y x z x
ny x y y y z y
nz x z y z z z
a c c c c c a
a c c c c c a
a c c c c c a
(
(
=
` `
(

(

) )



Note: If wave theory is used then 0
y y
V a = = .


Fig. 8.14 Special case of a pipeline

Further for a horizontal member, 0
x z
c c = = and 1
y
c =

z
y
x
8-22
Note on calculation of direction cosines,

Fig. 8.15 Direction cosines

c c i c j c k
x y z
= + + ; where,
sin cos
sin cos
cos
x
y
z
c
c
c

=
=
=


A note on flexible cylinders
The previous discussion was based on the assumption that the cylinder on which the
force was exerted was rigidly held at its bottom. On the contrary if it is free to move
appreciably with waves, not only the exact volume of water displaced by the cylinder
contributes to the inertia force but also some volume surrounding it behaves as one with
the cylinder and contributes to the force due to inertia. This volume is some fraction of
the displaced volume V. The resulting inertia force is thus:
x
y
z
c
Vn 0
1 c =

cos
z
c =

sin cos c
x
=
sin sin
y
c =
8-23

Fig. 8.16 Added mass effect


.
( )
I F a
F C C V u = + (8.19)
Where
F
C = Froude-Crylov coefficient and

a
C = Coefficient of added mass =1 (theoretically)
Hence Total
I
F = Froude-Crylov Force + Added mass force
The Froude-Crylov Force is the force required to accelerate the fluid particles within the
volume of cylinder in its absence, whereas, the added mass force is the force due to
acceleration of water surrounding the cylinder and oscillating with it.









8-24
8.6 Wave Slam:

Fig. 8.17 Wave attack on a Jacket

When wave surface rises, it slams underneath horizontal members near the SWL and then
passes by them. The resulting slamming force (nearly vertical) due to sudden buoyancy
application is given as follows
2
1
2
z s z
F C Du = (8.20)
Where
s
C (theoretically for circular cylinder)

The American Petroleum Institute (API) suggests that it should be taken into
consideration to calculate total individual member loads and not to get the global
horizontal base shear and overturning moments. Impulsive nature of this force however
can excite natural frequency of the members creating resonant condition and large
dynamic stresses.

8.7 Limitations of the Morrisons Equation:

1) Physics of wave phenomenon is not well represented in it.
8-25
2) The drag force formula and the inertia force formula involve opposite
assumptions. The former assume that the flow is steady while the latter implies
that the flow is unsteady
3) Real sea effects like transverse forces, energy spreading (directionality) are
unaccounted for.
4) There is a high amount of scattering in values of
D
C and
m
C .
5) Inaccuracies in the wave theory based values of water particle kinematics get
reflected in the resulting force estimates.