Carpet Laying

Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying Author(s): Joanna O. Masingila Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 25, No.
4 (Dec., 1994), pp. 430-462 Published by: Wiley on behalf of the American Anthropological Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3195859 . Accessed: 28/06/2013 19:29
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Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying

0. MASINGILA JOANNA Syracuse University
Building upon previous researchconcerningmathematicspracticein everyday situations, this article studies the mathematical conceptsand processesused in througha carpetlaying. Mathematicspracticein carpetlaying is characterized discussion of the mathematicsused by carpetlayers in estimationand installation activities, in an effort to describe and detail how people actively give meaning to and use mathematicsin the midst of ongoing activities in relevant settings. ETHNOMATHEMATICS, MATHEMATICS PRACTICE, EVERYDAY MATHEMATICS, OUT-OF-SCHOOL MATHEMATICS, ACTIVITYTHEORY Prior to the last 15 years, mathematics was generally considered as culture-free knowledge. However, recent anthropological studies have found that mathematics does indeed have a cultural history (Bishop 1988; D'Ambrosio 1985b; Wilder 1981). Furthermore, mathematics learning "is not limited to acquisition of the formal algorithmic procedures passed down by mathematicians to individuals via school. Mathematics learning occurs as well during participation in cultural practices as children and adults attempt to accomplish pragmatic goals" (Saxe 1988:14-15). From this perspective, knowledge is not "a factual commodity or compendium of facts" but rather takes on the character of a "process of knowing" (Lave 1988:175). Learning and doing mathematics is an act of sense making and comprises both cultural and cognitive phenomena that cannot be separated (Schoenfeld 1989). As Cobb noted, "Cognition is context-bounded.... [T]he elaboration and coordination of contexts is essential to the achievement of the most general of goals, the construction of a world that makes sense" (Cobb 1986:5). Part of every culture are the everyday happenings of the people belonging to that culture. As such, mathematical thinking and learning occurs in this everyday practice. As Lave explained, everyday "is not a time of day, a social role, nor a set of activities, particular social occasions, or settings for activity. Instead the everyday is just that: what people do in daily, weekly, monthly, ordinary cycles of activity" (Lave 1988:15). For decades conventional wisdom has viewed schooling as responsible for replacing "the (presumably) faulty and inefficient mathematical knowledge acquired by people" in everyday life (Lave et al. 1989:67). The assumption has been that "young people learn what they need to
Anthropology & Education Quarterly 25(4):430-462. Copyright ? 1994, American Anthropological Association. 430
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know in the classroomand then applythis knowledge in the workplace and in other settings of modern life" (Scribner and Stevens 1989:1). However, this view was not always dominant. In the early 19th century,school mathematicscurriculawere based upon happenings in the workplace (i.e., mathematicsused in branchesof commerce).Since that time the roles have been reversed. The contemporaryview is that school mathematicsshould be the mathematicsthat will prepare students for its applicationin all life situations,replacingthe intuitive and nonintentionallyinvented mathematicsof everyday (Cohen 1982). This contemporaryview, often called the functionaltheory of schooling, has been formulated from a theoretical model of cognition and learningthat assumes that intellectualfunctioningis uniform across all activities, settings, and cultures. However, there is a growing body of research on mathematics practice in everyday situations that "challenges the view thatschool is the centralsourceof everydaymathematics This researchdemonstratesthat mathepractice"(Lave et al. 1989:45). maticalproblems in out-of-school situations are often approachedefficiently and creatively without using school-taughtprocedures in any observablemanner (e.g., Carraheret al. 1985;de la Rocha 1985;Murtaugh 1985b;Saxe 1988;Scribner1985).These and other studies call into question the common belief and assumptionthat schooling is "afont of transferable abilities"(Lave 1988:xiii). This researchalso challenges the theories of cognition that view the mind as a "systemof symbolic representationsand operationsthat can be understoodin and of itself,in isolationfromothersystems of activity" In the United States,researchand theory on cognitive (Scribner 1988:1). has been dominated by Piaget's theory of developmental development cognitive psychology that considers individual development largely devoid of culturalinfluences (Millroy 1992).The previously mentioned body of research on cognition in everyday practicepoints toward the need for studying cognition within a culturalcontext. Researchin the last 15 years has indicated a burgeoning interest in examiningthe mathematicspracticein: (a)distinctcultures (Bishop1979, 1983, 1988; Brenner 1985a, 1985b;D'Ambrosio 1985a, 1985b;Ferreira 1990;Gerdes 1985,1986,1988;Lancy 1983;Posner 1982;Saxe 1979,1981, et al. 1985,1986,1987;de Abreuand Carraher 1986;Carraher 1989;de la Rocha 1985, 1986;Fahrmeier1984;Harris 1987a, 1987b, 1988a, 1988b, 1988c;Lave 1977, 1985, 1988; Lave, Murtaugh and de la Rocha 1984; Petitto 1982;Reed and Lave Millroy1990,1992;Murtaugh1985a,1985b; 1979, 1981;Saxe 1988, 1991;Schliemann 1986;Schliemannand Acioly 1989;Scribner1984a, 1984b, 1984c, 1984d, 1984e, 1985, 1988). Whereas the firstbody of researchhas tended to look at the mathematicspractice of a whole culture, researchersexamining mathematicspracticein everyday situationswithin cultureshave focused on one situationor work context (e.g., groceryshopping, carpentry).
1982, 1988, 1991); and (b) everyday situations within cultures (Carraher
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Mathematicspracticein distinctcultureshas been termedethnomathematics.Ubiratan D'Ambrosio,a Brazilian mathematics educator, has been credited with introducingthe concept of ethnomathematics,that is, the influence that sociocultural factors have on the learning and teachingof mathematics(Scott1985).The prefixethno-refersto "identifiable cultural groups, such as national-tribalsocieties, labor groups, childrenof a certainage bracket, professionalclasses,and so on" (D'Ambrosio 1985a:44).Scott (1985)incorporatedthe meaning of ethno-with mathematicscontent in his definition of ethnomathematics:
Ethnomathematics lies at the confluenceof mathematicsand culturalanthroor pology. At one level, it is what might be called "mathin the environment" is the "mathin the community."At another,relatedlevel, ethnomathematics particular(and perhapspeculiar)way of classifying,ordering,counting and measuring.[Scott1985:2]
In studying different cultures, Bishop has argued that there are six fundamental mathematicalactivities that "areboth universal, in that they appear to be carriedout by every culturalgroup ever studied, and also necessary and sufficient for the development of mathematical These six activities are counting, locatknowledge" (Bishop 1988:182). ing, measuring, designing, playing, and explaining; mathematics,as cultural knowledge, "derivesfrom humans engaging in these six universal activities in a sustained, and conscious manner" (Bishop 1988:183). The studies that have looked at mathematics practice in distinct cultureshelp to furtherour understandingthat mathematicsis and can be developed by differentcultures,and informus aboutthe mathematics research practiceof these cultures.Closely tied to the ethnomathematics is research about mathematicspractice in everyday situations within cultures. MathematicsPracticein EverydaySituations Thereappearto be two commonthreadsrunningthroughthe research literatureon mathematicspracticein everyday situations within cultures.First,the fact thatproblemsare embedded in real contextsthatare meaningfulto the problemsolver motivates and sustains problemsolving activity. Second, in solving problems that arise or are formulatedin everyday situations, problem solvers often use "mathematicalprocedures and thinkingprocessesthatare quite differentfrom those learned in school. Furthermore, people's everyday mathematicsoften reflectsa of level thinking than is typically expected or accomplishedin higher school" (Lester1989:33). Lave (1988) found evidence that mathematics practice in everyday settings differs from school mathematicsin a variety of ways. In everyday settings:(a) people look efficaciousas they deal with complex tasks, (b)mathematicspracticeis structuredin relationto ongoing activityand
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setting, (c) people have more than sufficient mathematical knowledge to deal with problems, (d) mathematics practice is nearly always correct, (e) problems can be changed, transformed, abandoned, and/or solved since the problem has been generated by the problem solver, and (f) procedures are invented on the spot as needed. Whereas school learning emphasizes individual cognition, pure mentation, symbol manipulation, and general learning, everyday practice relies on shared cognition, tool manipulation, contextualized reasoning, and situation-specific competencies (Resnick 1987). Researchers who have investigated how persons solve problems in school-like situations and solve mathematically similar problems in everyday contexts found that in the former situation people "tended to produce, without question, algorithmic, place-holding, school-learned techniques for solving problems, even when they could not remember them well enough to solve problems successfully" (Lave 1985:173). When the same people solved problems in situations that appeared different from school, they used a variety of techniques and invented units with which to compute (Lave 1985). The majority of research on mathematics practice in everyday situations within cultures has investigated the use of arithmetic and geometry concepts and processes. To extend this research to a situation using measurement ideas, I investigated the mathematics practice of a group of carpet layers, in an effort to detail how people "actively give meaning to, and fashion, processes of problem solving in the midst of ongoing activities in relevant settings" (Lave 1988:63). I chose the everyday situation of carpet laying because measurement is a central concept and measuring is a central process in carpet-laying work. Measurement as a concept is the idea that characteristics of objects can be quantified (e.g., the space inside a region can be quantified as the number of square units, or area) whereas measuring as a process is the action taken to quantify those characteristics. Measurement is different in some fundamental ways from arithmetic and geometry. For example, measurement units are determined more clearly by cultural convention than are aspects of arithmetic and geometry practice. Gay and Cole (1967) found, for example, that measures of volume, in units that were socially established, were used by the Kpelle in Liberia in situations where the amount of a given material was important. Buying and selling rice, the staple food of the Kpelle, were two such situations. The local trade uses what is called a sdmo-ko, "salmoncup," for dealing rice. It is the large size tin can (U.S. #1) in which salmon is normallypacked.... The cup the traderuses to buy rice has the bottom rounded out by long and carefulpounding, but the cup he uses to sell rice does not have the rounded bottom.This is the sourceof his profit. [Gayand Cole 1967:64]
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Measurementis also a key partof the school mathematicscurriculum. In fact, the Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for SchoolMathematics stated that "measurementis of central importanceto the curriculum because of its power to help children see that mathematicsis useful in everyday life and to help them develop many mathematicalconcepts and skills" (National Council of Teachersof Mathematics[or NCTM] 1989:51). However, measurementknowledge in school is often limited to memorizing formulas (e.g., P = 2(1 + w) and A = lw) and learning measurementskills such as how to use a ruler,whereas measurement knowledge in the workplace is primarily comprised of concepts and processes centralto measuring,such as area expressed as squareunits, estimation,spatial visualization, minimizing error,and efficiency. Structureand Aim of the Study Various conceptual, theoretical, and methodological frameworks guided the conceptualization, design, and conduct of this study-a cultural framework of ethnomathematics,an epistemological framework of constructivism,a cognitive frameworkof activity theory, and a methodologicalframeworkof ethnography.I will elaborateon the cognitive frameworkhere and discuss later how this frameworkwas used in collectingand interpretingthe data. Framework Cognitive To focus this study in exploring cognitionin culture,I used the theory of activityas a guiding framework.The theory of activity has its origins in the work of the Soviet psychologistVygotskyand has been developed over the years by his successors,especially Leont'ev.Activity theory is a "theoreticalframeworkwhich affords the prospect of an integrated This theory emphasizes accountof mind-in-action"(Scribner1984a:2). thathumansact within socioculturalcontextsthatneed to be considered when studying cognition. Instead of studying psychological entities such as skills, concepts, units, reflexes, or mental functions, the theory information-processing of activity focuses on the unit of activity. One of the key characteristics of an activityis thatit "isnot determinedor even stronglycircumscribed by the physicalor perceptualcontextin which humansfunction.Rather, it is a sociocultural interpretationor creation that is imposed on the contextby the participant(s)" (Wertsch1985:203). Aimof theStudy The general aim of this study was to develop a betterunderstanding of mathematicspractice in everyday situations.To this end, I focused my attention on one particulartype of mathematicspractice-mathematicspracticein carpetlaying. More specifically,my aim was to identify the mathematicsconceptsand processesused in the contextof carpet
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laying and examine what this data can add to the study of everyday mathematics. My motivation for this study and future research is to develop a model for closing the gap between doing mathematics in school and out of school. Fieldwork In order to achieve the two aims, I spent an average of four hours a day, five days a week, for seven weeks during June, July, and August 1991, observing and informally questioning the employees of a carpetlaying business, Miller's Floor Coverings (a pseudonym), in the midwestern United States. I used four methods of data collection in my fieldwork: participant observation, ethnographic interviewing, artifact examination, and researcher introspection. Data Collection Although I did not participate in the actual laying of floor coverings, I participated in the discussion and decision making accompanying any estimation or installation job. My participation was not, however, that of contributing ideas or making suggestions. Rather, I asked questions to clarify what I heard, and I participated in casual conversation. I also participated by going to the estimation and installation sites, holding tape measures, helping to chalk lines, and carrying equipment and materials. I observed Miller's employees through the entire floor-covering process for a variety of situations: (a) residential and commercial settings, (b) one-room jobs up through entire buildings, and (c) carpet, tile, hardwood, and base installations. I chose to observe work tasks completed by both estimators and installers. I observed the estimators taking field measurements, making sketches, and deciding on best estimates. I observed the installers interpreting the estimator's sketches and estimates, measuring, deciding on best installations, and installing floor coverings. Of the six activities identified by Bishop (1988),I focused on measurement and locating in examining mathematics practice in carpet laying. Criteria for selecting work tasks to be observed and analyzed included that the tasks: (a) involve person-world transactions, (b) be essential to, if not constitutive of, job performance, and (c) involve observable modes of solution, as well as the actual achievement of solutions. These criteria have been used successfully in other studies to select candidate tasks for cognitive analysis (e.g., Scribner 1984b). I examined (and made copies of) all sketches and calculations made by estimators and installers, as well as blueprints used for commercial floor covering jobs, for information that might aid me in my research. Along with creating an expanded account of my field notes, which included observations, interviews, and artifact notes, I also recorded my reflections, feelings, reactions, insights, and emerging interpretations daily in a journal.
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The data were analyzed using the theory of activity (Eckensberger and Meacham 1984; Leont'ev 1981; Wertsch 1985) as a framework. Leontev (1981) has specified several distinct but interrelated levels of analysis present in the theory of activity, with a specific type of unit associated with each level. The three levels are activity, goal-directedaction, and operation.Among the activities in which humans engage are several that have been mentioned by Vygotsky's students (e.g., El'konin 1972): play, instruction, and work. I chose the activities that occur in the workplace to focus on for reasons of both significance and strategy. Work is obviously significant; it is basic to human life in all societies and all cultures and occupies a great part of an adult's time. When I considered examining mathematics practice in everyday situations, the strategies involved in such research also pointed in the direction of the workplace. Occupations such as carpet estimating and installing are "highly structured and involve tasks whose goals are predetermined and explicit" (Scribner 1984a:3). Following Scribner's example, I used occupations,work tasks, and conditions to represent the three levels of analysis-activities, goal-directedactions, and operations. The two occupations for which I collected data were estimator and installer. The worktasksin the estimator's job that interested me include: (a) taking field measurements, (b) making sketches, and (c) deciding on best estimates. Those in the occupation of installer include: (a) interpreting the estimator's sketch and estimate, (b) measuring, (c) deciding on best installations, and (d) installing. Like most situations in everyday life, the processes of estimating and installing floor coverings have many constraints that must be taken into consideration during these processes. These constraints are the conditions that I focused on for this study. Constraints that I observed include that: (a) floor covering materials come in specified sizes (e.g., most carpet is 12' wide, base [vinyl piece glued around the perimeter of a room] is 4' long, most tile is 1' by 1'); (b) carpet pieces are rectangular; (c) carpet in a room (and often throughout a building) must have the nap (the dense, fuzzy surface on carpet formed by fibers from the underlying material) running in the same direction; (d) consideration of seam placement is very important because of traffic patterns and the type of carpet being installed; (e) some carpets have patterns that must match at the seams; (f) tile and hardwood pieces must be laid to be lengthwise and widthwise symmetrical about the center of the room; and (g) fill pieces for both tile and base must be six inches wide or more to stay in place. I analyzed the field data through a process of inductive data analysis using two subprocesses that Lincoln and Guba (1985) have called unitizing and categorizing. The work tasks that I observed were chosen through purposive sampling and were changed as the study design emerged. Several times per week I reflected upon the estimation and
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installation work tasks that I had observed thus far and made sampling decisions to: (a) observe certain work tasks again, (b) ask specific questions of certain respondents, (c) observe unfamiliar work tasks, and (d) discontinue the observation of work tasks for which I felt I had enough data. Mathematical Concepts I observed four areas of mathematical concepts used by estimators and/or installers: measurement, computational algorithms, geometry, and ratio and proportion. In the following sections, each of these areas is discussed and data are presented to illustrate the use of some of these concepts.' Measurement The concept of measurement was involved in most of the work done by Miller's estimators and installers. I observed the presence of this concept in the following categories of use: finding the area and perimeter of a region, drawing and cutting 45? angles, and drawing and cutting 90? angles. Finding the Area and Perimeter of a Region. Because carpet pieces are rectangular, every region to be carpeted must be partitioned into rectangular regions. The areas of these regions are then computed by multiplying the length and width. Floor-covering businesses are generally only concerned with the perimeters of regions when base is to be installed; base might be installed around the perimeter of a room after tile, vinyl floor covering, or commercial carpet has been laid. Calculating the perimeter of a region is essential when figuring a job estimate that includes base. This might be done either from a blueprint or from a field measurement. Perimeters are measured on blueprints by tracing the outline of the rooms with a measurement trundle wheel. When completing field measurements, however, estimators seldom measured along the walls to determine the perimeter. Instead, since most rooms are rectangular, the length and width were used to calculate the perimeter. Dean,2 an estimator, explained how he estimated the amount of base needed for a room. "Suppose you have a 12' by 8' room. Then 12 plus 12 plus 8 plus 8 equals 40," explained Dean as he used an adding machine. "There's probably one door; so you subtract three feet. That's 37 feet. Divide that by four because base comes in four-foot sections. That equals 9.2 pieces; so you have to make that 10 pieces of base, or 40 feet." When I asked Dean what he would do if the room were not rectangular, he replied, "Well, if I can't figure it out from the length and width, then I measure the lengths of all the walls and add 'em up."
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3' 1st piece laid
3 \ `.-/'~
l z4
Figure 1 in a 45?-anglepattern. hardwood Installing Drawing and Cutting 45? Angles. An angle of 45? is a common angle measurement used in floor-covering installations. One reason for the frequent use of 45? angles is that this angle is easier to estimate than other angle measures less than 90?. Furthermore, a cut of 45? is more aesthetically pleasing, in some situations, than cuts of other angle measures since floor covering situations often involve cuts made at a corer with an angle measure of 90?.In this case, a 45?-angle cut is on a line of symmetry. The following example illustrates one situation that I observed involving 45? angles. During the last two weeks of my fieldwork I stopped in from time to time to observe one of the installers, Jack, laying hardwood pieces (each 2" by 12") in a large corridor of a building on the campus of the local university. Since some of the wood was to be laid in a herringbone pattern (at a 45? angle), some measuring needed to be done prior to the installation. After Jack had found the intersection of the center lines of each hallway (see Figure 1) and checked to see if the walls were square, he began working to establish a 45? angle. (Consider the center lines of each hallway as the axes and use the orientation shown in Figure 1.) Jack measured three feet in both the positive x- and y-directions and made marks at (3, 0) and (0, 3). Using his tape measure and pencil as a compass, Jack then measured three feet up from (3, 0) and three feet to the right of (0, 3) and established a mark at (3, 3). Jack established the point (-3,
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-3) in a similar fashion. He then drew the line segment connecting (3, 3) and (-3, -3), which passed through (0, 0). Since these are squares,the angles are right angles, and so the diagonal Jack: cuts the right angles in half and makes 45-degreeangles. Joanna: Why did you make two three-footsquares? I could have done it with one, but the other squaremakes the diagonal Jack: more accurate. Joanna: Why did you make three-footsquares? No particularreason except that it's easy to work with-not too big or Jack: too small. Although he mentioned nothing about coordinate geometry, Jack certainly used these ideas in constructing the squares and drawing the 45? angle. To start the installation of the hardwood, Jackplaced one piece of wood on the diagonal that he had drawn such that one bottom corner of the wood was at the origin and the bottom edge lay right along the diagonal. He then proceeded to lay other pieces, as shown in Figure 1. Drawing and Cutting 90? Angles. Along with the use of 45? angles, angles of 90? are commonly used in floor-covering installations. The following example used the hardwood installation discussed above.
4
5'
If
Figure 2 Using a right triangle.
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As mentioned previously, tile or hardwood must be installed so as to be lengthwise and widthwise symmetrical about the center of the room. The center of the room is established by the intersection of the lines that bisect the length and width of the room (see Figure 1). Before Jackbegan laying the hardwood in the herringbone pattern, he used these lines to see if the hallway walls were perpendicular to each other. Jack determined the center of the room by measuring and chalking lines. He then measured three feet in the positive y-direction and four feet in the positive x-direction and made marks at the points (0, 3) and (4, 0) (see Figure 2). Jack asked me to hold the end of the tape measure at one mark, and he extended the tape measure to cross the other mark. He seemed pleased when this measurement was five feet. I asked Jack what that meant-that the length from one mark to the other was five feet. He replied, "Well, that's the way you figure it out: 3,4, 5 [tracing a triangle in the air]." I asked why that meant that it was square. Jack laughed, "That's something from geometry, right? a + b = c-no! It's something like that. What I know is that a 3-4-5 triangle makes a 90? angle, and so the walls that I measured from are square." Jack based this procedure on the Pythagorean theorem, which provides a relationship between the lengths of the sides of a right triangle, even though he could not remember the relationship or the name of the theorem that he probably learned in school. I then asked what happens if the distance from one mark to the other is not five feet. Jack replied, "Well, then you gotta be aware of that and make some adjustments. The main thing is to know if they're square or not so you won't be surprised." ComputationalAlgorithms I observed a number of computational algorithms that estimators used in measurement situations for determining the quantity of materials needed for an installation job: estimating the amount of carpet, estimating the amount of tile, estimating the amount of hardwood, estimating the amount of base, and converting square feet to square yards. For example, to estimate the amount of tile needed for one room, the maximum length and width of the room must be found. Steve, an installer, explained the rest of the process to me this way: "Well, say your room is 11'7" by 19'5". Then you'd make it 12' by 20' because you always round up to the nearest foot. Even if it's 11'1", you have to make it 12'. Then you figure the area (length times width) and divide by 45 'cause there's 45 tiles in a box." Since each of the tiles are 1' by 1', a box of 45 tiles contains 45 square feet of tile. Thus, taking the square footage (with length and width rounded up to the nearest foot) of the room divided by the number of square feet of tile per box gives the number of boxes needed. All the estimators converted square feet to square yards by dividing square feet by nine. This algorithm is essential in the carpet-laying
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x Figure 3 Dean's diagrame Dean's diagram. business since measurements are taken in feet but carpet must be ordered from a supplier in square yards. In a conversation with Dean I asked him why this conversion worked. Ifyou just know the length and width of a room,how do you find how Joanna: many squareyards of carpetyou need? Dean:Well,if the room is 12' by 8', then you take 12 times 8 divided by 9. do you divide by 9? Joanna:Why Dean: That'sthe way you convertsquarefootage to squareyardage. Joanna: Okay,but where does the 9 come from? Dean:I don't know. [Pauses.] Maybe I don't understandthe question. Where does the 9 come from? Yeah,why don't you divide by 8 or 6? Joanna: Dean: with3-by-3grid;see Well,when you have squarefootage [draws diagram 3], each of these squaresis a square foot and there are 3 feet in a yard Figure in therightcolumnof thegrid]and then 3 feet [putsx's insidethe threesquares across[putsx's insidethree in thetoprow].So that makes 9. squares By using a diagram Dean was able to illustrate, although not fully articulate, that in one square yard there are nine square feet and to convert from square feet to square yards involves dividing by nine. Geometry In addition to the 3-4-5 right triangle discussed earlier, I also observed the use of another geometry concept: constructing a point of tangency on a line and drawing an arc tangent to the line. This particular installation involved completing a tiling job by installing base. At one point during the installation, Jack came upon a pipe sticking out of the bottom of the wall. He placed the base piece to be installed around the pipe at the top of the pipe but in line with the adjacent piece of glued base (see Figure 4). Jack made two vertical cuts in the base piece: one on each side of the pipe. Then he placed the base piece to the left of the pipe so that the piece was in the correct position vertically but not horizontally. 3
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Baseplaced on topof pipeandcutvertically.
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Baseplaced to pipeandmarked adjacent horizontally.
Baseturned mark arccutin base. over,horizontal extended,
I)
4 Figure baseto fit around pipe. Cutting Jackmade a small mark(not a cut) on the edge of the base piece in line with the top of the pipe. He then turned the piece over and markedin a straightline (makinga faint line) to meet the verticalcuts made earlier. Fromthose verticalcuts, Jackcut in an arc so that the arc was tangentto the horizontalline. He then glued the base piece and put it in place;it fit very well around the pipe. I questionedJackabout what he had done.
How did you know how to cut thatarc so it would fit so well? Joanna: Oh, afteryou've done it for awhile, you just get a feel for it. I knew that Jack: if I cut just up to the mark it would make a circle [sic],and then it would fit around the pipe.
Whereasin most geometryclassesstudents constructa line tangentto a given circle,in this instanceJackconstructeda point of tangency on a given line and drew an arc tangent to the line. Note that it was not necessary in this case to constructa circle because the pipe was at the bottom of the wall, touching the floor. Thus the piece of base did not need to go around the bottom side of the pipe. Although he did not articulatethis, it appeared obvious to me that Jackknew from experience that, if he cut from the two vertical cuts in an arc up to a certain point on the horizontal line, a symmetrical arc
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would be formed. Jack chose the point of tangency such that a segment drawn from the point of tangency would be a perpendicular bisector of the segment connecting the endpoints of the two vertical cuts. He chose this point of tangency by estimating; there was no measuring involved. However, it was clear to me that he knew what point of tangency on the horizontal line would give him the best-fitting cut. Ratio and Proportion I observed the use of ratios and proportions during estimating situations. In one instance, Gene (an estimator) was measuring a blueprint in the process of preparing an estimate for a commercial job. The blueprints were drawn in a scale of 1/4 inch to 1 foot, and Gene was using a drafting ruler to measure the maximum length and width of each room. When he noticed that I was observing him, Gene explained what he was doing. The scale here is one-fourthof an inch to one foot, and this here ruler Gene: has that scale on this side. So when I measure the length of a room on here theblueprint], the rulershows what the actual measurementsof the [touching room are. How about when you find the perimeter?What do you do since the Joanna: trundlewheel is in the scale of one-eighthof an inch to one foot? Gene: Sometimes we get prints drawn in that scale; so then you just read it. Butfor this one, since when you measurean inch on here the wheel considers it eight feetbut it'sreallyonly four feet, you have to takehalf themeasurement that the wheel shows. Gene was mentally working with the following proportion: (trundle wheel measurement in feet) - (8 feet per inch) = (unknown measurement in feet) - (4 feet per inch). He had simplified the expression so that he only had to divide the trundle wheel measurement by two to find the unknown measurement in the desired scale: unknown measurement in feet = (4 feet per inch) x (trundle wheel measurement in feet) + (8 feet per inch) = (trundle wheel measurement in feet) 2. Although Gene did not speak of or write a proportion, he used a proportion that he had simplified to be a one-step division calculation. However, Gene indicated through his explanation that he understood why the calculation procedure that he used produced the desired information. Analysis By (a) analyzing the occupations of estimator and installer, (b) examining the work tasks of taking field measurements, making sketches, deciding on best estimates, interpreting the estimator's sketch and estimate, measuring, deciding on best installations, and installing, and (c) noting the constraints that must be considered during these processes, I was able to classify the mathematics concepts that I saw the respondents
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in this study use. Mathematics concepts are an important component of the mathematics practices of people, and the concepts discussed above are essential to the mathematics practice of carpet layers. Although the carpet layers were not always able to articulate the mathematics concepts that they were using in their mathematics practice, by studying their interaction with their environment I was able to examine their knowledge in action and make my interpretation of the concepts that they were using. Through observing numerous constraintfilled actions of the estimators and installers involving finding area in terms of square feet, estimating the amount of base needed, and establishing 45? and 90? angles, I concluded that measurement was a pervasive mathematics concept in this context. I also gained insight into the breadth of the concept of measurement in the floor-covering context. I categorized the computational algorithms as an important mathematics concept in this context after observing that the estimators and installers use them continuously to determine quantities needed and noting their measurement foundation. Although Jack did not indicate that he knew the concept of constructing a point of tangency on a line and drawing an arc tangent to the line, his actions led me to conclude that he was using this concept. He knew that this procedure worked from his experience, and he knew what point of tangency would work the best. By observing him during this work task as he confronted a constraint that he needed to deal with, I was able to see that he knew the mathematics concept. Likewise, by analyzing Gene measuring a blueprint, I was able to understand how he used ratios and proportions to change from one scale to another. Mathematical Processes Besides the use of mathematical concepts, the estimators and installers made use of several mathematical processes: measuring and problem solving. These two processes are discussed in the following sections, and some of the ideas are illustrated through examples from the field data. Measuring As would be expected, the process of measuring is widespread in the work of floor covering estimators and installers. Although being able to read a tape measure is vital, other aspects are equally as important in the measuring process: estimating, visualizing spatial arrangements, knowing what to measure, and using nonstandard methods of measuring. Estimating. Although all measurements can be considered estimates (e.g., a measurement is only as accurate as the instrument used), floorcovering estimators and installers make use of estimates in a much more conscious manner. For example, while preparing a bid for a commercial job from a set of blueprints, Gene told me that all these measurements
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are estimates: "That's why we're called estimators. All these measurements I get from here are rounded up to the nearest six inches. Since we have to stand by our bid price (for a commercial job), we have to allow for a difference between these prints and the actual building. Of course, you don't want to overestimate or you might not get the job." Field measurements are also rounded up-to the nearest inch. Todd, the installation manager, told me during a field measurement, "To the nearest inch is good enough for most of the jobs we do. A half-inch of carpet isn't going to cost the customer much money, and it gives us the little bit of extra we need. The only time we use fractions of inches is when we have to get an exact amount-like if the carpet is supposed to be exactly 12 inches from the wall because they have a border, or if tile is being laid and there is supposed to be an equal amount of carpet on each side of the tile." Estimates are made during blueprint and field measurements for reasons of time and cost efficiency. More precise measurements would require more time and effort in measuring and would slow down the process of preparing an estimate for a job. In installation situations, installers estimate angle measurements when needing to cut carpet, tile, vinyl, or base at a certain angle. Through experience they become quite skilled at estimating 45? and 90? angles, as well as certain lengths such as two inches or four inches. When installing carpet, a carpet piece must be laid on the floor so that it extends up the wall two inches. These two extra inches are needed for trimming along the wall. On a wall with a doorway, the carpet piece is laid so that it extends up the wall four inches. This extra carpet is needed for trimming around the door jamb and for meeting other carpet or floor covering in the center of the doorway. Visualizing SpatialArrangements.Spatial visualization plays a key role in the measuring process. Visualization is used when deciding how cuts might be made in a piece of carpet or when developing a mental picture of how an installation job should look upon completion. Any estimation job that will use fill pieces requires the estimator to visualize how those fill pieces will be cut from a larger piece of carpet. Complicating this process are the constraints of seam placement and matching the fill-piece nap with the nap of the adjacent carpet pieces. Figure 5 shows how Dean figured a residential carpet estimate for a bedroom and bathroom. When Dean started to estimate the carpet needed, the sketch he used was like the top diagram in Figure 5 without the seam lines. He first figured that he needed one piece of carpet 12' by 14'9" for the region labeled A. Dean decided the bathroom (region B) would require a piece of carpet 5' by 4'8". However, since a customer must buy a piece of carpet 12 feet wide, the piece for B would be 12' by 4'8", making the total amount of carpet, so far, 12' by 19'5" (one piece 12' by 14'9" and one piece 12' by 4'8"). Dean hoped to use the carpet that remained (after cutting a piece 5' by 4'8" from the 12' by 4'8" piece) to fill in the remaining area in the
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E1- _--i-
seam
4' 6"
12' 19' 5" 44
12'
7'
~A~~~
B
4' 8" 19' 8" Eachpiece of C is 4' 11"x 2' 2". 12' A _ B
waste
51
4' 11" Spatial visuali7ation in estimating.
Figure 5
bedroom. Dean appearedto have a mental pictureof how pieces could be cut froma largerpiece of carpetto fit into the three regions (A, B,and C ) as he sketcheda rectangleto representthe piece of carpet12'by 19'5"
(see the middle diagram in Figure 5). He drew a line to divide the
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rectangle into two sections: one 12' by 14'9" and one 12' by 4'8". Dean then drew a line to divide the 12'-by-4'8" section into two parts: one 5' by 4'8" and one 7' by 4'8". Since each fill piece had to be 2'2" wide (to reach from carpet piece A to the wall and have enough for trimming purposes), only three fill pieces could be cut from the 7' by 4'8" piece. Dean then realized that this was not enough carpet to fill the area: "Three pieces 4'8" long is only 14'; that's not enough. We're going to have to make this second piece longer than 4' 8"." Dean figured that since he needed 9 more inches, each piece would have to be 4'11" long: "So, this whole piece [pointing to the rectangle on the sketch] will be 19'8" long." Dean then drew another rectangle to represent a carpet piece 12' by 19'11" and made the divisions as before (see the bottom diagram in Figure 5): "Each of these fill pieces is goin' to be 2'2" by 4'11"-and that will do it." This diagram helped me visualize how the carpet could be placed so that the nap would be running in the same direction, but Dean seemed to be able to picture this mentally. I remarked that I really had to think about how the pieces go in (turning them in my mind as necessary) to make sure that the naps were running the same way. Dean replied, "Figuring the fill was the hardest thing for me to learn how to do when I first started estimating. You have to be able to put the carpet pieces together in your head and have them all going the same way." Dean used a sketch to check his mental picture. Since the carpet laid in the bathroom would meet the bedroom carpet, the nap had to be running the same way on both pieces. Similarly, the fill pieces had to have the nap running the same way as the large piece in the bedroom. By sketching the carpet piece in this manner and drawing the cutting lines, Dean was able to check this representation against the mental picture that he had formed earlier and see that the naps of all the pieces were running in the same direction. Like the estimators, the installers made use of spatial visualization in mentally picturing how the carpet should be cut and installed before beginning their work. Even though the estimator had made a sketch and indicated the seam placement and direction of the nap, the installer always checked the same information before starting the installation. Knowing What to Measure. Essential to the mathematical process of measuring is the knowledge of what to measure. In order for measurements of an object to be of any use, they must quantify the desired characteristics. For example, when an estimator needs to find the length of a room, he or she must be certain to measure the length at its maximum to avoid having too little carpet at the time of installation. I observed several situations in which estimators and installers used their knowledge of what to measure to figure floor-covering jobs. Some of these situations involved measuring nonrectangular rooms. Knowing what were the necessary and sufficient measurements to take for a set of steps with one side exposed was another situation that I observed.
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t 6
I^
3 Hallway
Hallway 2
Hallway 1
5'1"
6'
Figure6 Measuring intersecting hallways for a tile installation. Preparing for tile and hardwood installations requires knowledge of what to measure since both of these floor coverings must be installed to be lengthwise and widthwise symmetrical about the center of the room. One tile installation that I observed involved two parallel hallways intersecting a third hallway perpendicular to both. For purposes of identification, I will call the two parallel hallways 1 and 2 and the other hallway 3 (see Figure 6). Steve was the installer for this job, and he took several measurements before chalking lines, spreading glue, and beginning the installation. He measured the maximum width of each of the three hallways and divided each of these measurements by two to find the distance that each bisector would be from the respective wall. Steve realized that in this case measuring the length of each hallway is unnecessary because of the arrangement of the hallways. Finding the width bisector and amount of fill for hallways 1 and 2 determines the amount of fill for the length of hallway 3. Likewise, finding the width bisector and amount of fill for hallway 3 determines the amount of fill for the length of hallways 1 and 2. Because the hallways intersected, it was also necessary to measure the distance between the width bisectors of the two parallel hallways. If this measurement was not a whole number of feet, some adjustment would need to be made so that the tile laid in each of the parallel hallways would meet and match the tile laid in the third hallway. It turned out that the width bisectors of these two hallways were 12'2" apart, and so an adjustment had to be made before installing the tile. Steve knew this measurement was necessary; a less-experienced installer might only have measured the lengths and widths of each hall-
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way and started laying tile. If, as in this case, the distance between the width bisectors of hallways 1 and 2 was not a whole number of feet, the installer would face difficulty during the installation. He or she would choose one hallway to begin (e.g., hallway 1). After laying all the whole-tile pieces in hallway 1, work would begin on hallway 3. The installer would encounter a problem when he or she would try to match the tile in hallway 3 with the chalk lines set up in hallway 2. This in turn would negate the plan established for equal fill on both sides of the width of hallway 2. Using NonstandardMethods of Measuring. I observed a number of situations in which installers measured in nonstandard ways-not involving tape measures or other marked measuring devices. The majority of these situations involved object-to-object measuring, that is, measuring one object against another. For example, at one installation site Phil (an installer's helper) measured tack strips against the perimeter of the room. The job involved installing carpet in a basement utility room. This room had not had carpet in it previously, and so tack strips had to be nailed down before the installation of the pad and carpet could begin. Tack strips come from the factory four feet in length and must be cut to fit. The perimeter of the room could have been figured fairly easily (the room was a rectangle: 11' by 11'4"), and tack strips could have been cut to fit the room. However, Phil simply started at the door and laid and nailed pieces of tack strip along one wall until he came to a place where a strip needed to be less than four feet long (approaching a corer). He did not measure the length needed for the strip but rather laid the strip from the corner back to the last piece nailed down and cut off the part that overlapped. He continued around the room, measuring the strips against the perimeter and cutting them accordingly. ProblemSolving The mathematical process of problem solving is used by floor-covering workers every day as they make decisions about estimations and installations. However, the problem solving that occurred in this context is slightly different from how problem solving is typically defined. Problem solving is commonly thought of as the process of coordinating previous experiences, knowledge, and intuition in an effort to determine an outcome of a situation for which a procedure for determining the outcome is not known (Charles et al. 1987). Problem solving in the floor-covering context deviated from this definition in that procedures for determining outcomes were usually known. However, unfamiliar constraints (e.g., a post in the middle of the room) and irregular shapes of rooms forced floor-covering workers to coordinate their previous experiences, knowledge, and intuition to determine outcomes of situations that they faced.
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The problems that estimators and installers encountered required various degrees of problem-solvingexpertise.As the shape of the space being measured (or in which floor-covering material was being installed) moved away from a basic rectangularshape, the level of expertise required increased. To solve problems occurringon the job, I observed Miller's Floor Coverings employees use four categories of problem-solving strategies:using a tool, using a picture, checking the possibilities,and using an algorithm. Using a Tool.I observed both estimators and installers use tools that aided them in the problem-solvingprocess of deciding an estimationor installationjob. In particular,both estimators and installers used tape used a tapemeasureto takethe measurementsthat measures.Estimators a need to make decision abouthow the carpetshould be laid, where they the seams should be, and how much carpetis needed. Installerslikewise measuredto checkthe estimator'smeasurementsand made adjustments if necessary. A measurement trundle wheel and a drafting ruler were tools that were used in the preparationof commercialbids. Gene used a trundle wheel with blueprintsto measurethe perimeterof rooms in which base would be installed.The trundlewheel had the scale of 1/8 inch to 1 foot, and even though measurementstaken on a blueprintdrawn in a scale other than 1/8 inch to 1 foot had to be converted,the trundlewheel was useful because it could measurethe perimeterof any shape quicklyand with acceptableaccuracy.Becauseof the wheel featurethe trundlewheel could be maneuvered easily around cornersand juts on the blueprints to accuratelyassess the perimeterof the region. Gene also used a draftingrulerto measure the maximum length and width of each room being carpeted.A draftingruler has six measuring sides, each with two scales.Gene told me that most of the blueprintshe works with are drawn in one of two scales:"Mostof the blueprintscome in 1/4 inch [to] 1 foot or 1/8 inch [to] 1 foot scales;so I mainly use those two scales on the ruler,but if I need the othersI have them."Thedrafting ruler is a useful tool in measuringand converting the blueprintmeasurements to feet. These measurements can then be used with other factors (e.g., cost efficiency,seam placement, pattern of carpet, type of carpet)to determinehow the carpetshould be laid and how much carpet is needed for the job. Using a Picture.In all the floor-covering situations that I observed, pictures were used to help visualize the situation and function as a problem-solving tool. These pictures were either blueprints or handdrawn sketches. I observed Phil use a drawing to solve the problem of matchingthe patternin a carpetin a commercialcarpetinstallation.This installationwas in a university dormitory and involved several intersecting hallways on a number of floors and carpet with a pattern that repeatedevery threeinches.The hallways were very long (e.g., one was approximately 125 feet long), and since the carpet was sent from the
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/11
L
/
B side seam side seam
4
C D
--E 1 side seam / side seam
Dutt seam
side seam
Figure 7 Carpetinstallation involving intersecting hallways.
supplier in rolls of varying lengths, all less than 100 feet, some butt seams (two carpet pieces seamed end-to-end) were necessary (see Figure 7). Phil, who earlier in the summer had been Jack's regular helper, was now two weeks into heading an installation crew with Matt as his helper. Because of his newly acquired status and his desire to prove himself as an installer, Phil was very thorough about sizing up a situation before he started the installation. In this case he saw that it was important to consider carefully where to begin the installation and in what order to install the remaining carpet pieces given that the pattern must match at all the hallway intersections. The sketch had carpet pieces labeled A through F, but these letters were simply to label the pieces, not to suggest the order of installation. All of the hallways were 4'4" wide and, while pieces B, D, and F were 12' wide, and pieces A, C, and E were 4'8" wide. The carpet nap would be running in the direction of the length of piece B. Phil talked aloud and
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tried different ways of numbering the six pieces of carpet on the sketch, indicating the order of installation and discussing the situation with Matt. Occasionally he would make comments directed toward me, explaining why a certain choice was or was not feasible. Finally, Phil decided that they would install the carpet piece labeled F first and then D, matching the pattern at the butt seam. The third piece to be installed would be E, and this piece must match the pattern in F at the side seam. This would require some careful installation since, with the hallway 4'4" wide and the carpet 4'8" and the pattern repeating every 3", there would be very little room for maneuvering. Phil told me that he would then install piece B, matching the pattern in E at the side seam. Piece C would then be installed. This would be the most difficult carpet piece to install since this piece must match the pattern in B and D. Phil remarked that he might have to work to shift one of the pieces (B or D) to match at the side seam. Piece A would be installed last, cut into two pieces matching B at the side seams. Phil used the drawing of the hallways to visualize the installation and seam placements. By ordering the pieces and thinking about how installing the pieces in this order would affect the ease of matching the pattern, he was able to choose an appropriate order for installation. Checking the Possibilities. I observed a number of situations in which estimators or installers checked possible solutions when solving a problem. These situations can be grouped into four categories: weighing cost efficiency against seam placement, checking the amount of carpet against the area to be carpeted, deciding on roll cuts, and deciding on tile and hardwood work. The following example illustrates the problem-solving process of weighing cost efficiency against seam placement. One carpet-estimate situation that I observed involved a pentagonal-shaped room in a basement. I accompanied Dean as he took field measurements and figured the estimate. The maximum length of the room was 26'2", and the maximum width was 18'9" (see Figure 8). Dean decided that this room would have to be treated as a rectangle and figured how much carpet would be needed by checking two possibilities: running the carpet nap in the direction of the maximum length, and turning the carpet 90? so that the carpet nap ran in the direction of the maximum width. In the first case, two pieces of carpet, each 12' by 26'4", would need to be ordered. After a 12'-by-26'4" piece of carpet was installed, a piece of 6'11"-by-26'4" carpet would be needed for the remaining area. Since only one piece 6'11" wide could be cut from 12'-wide carpet, multiple fill pieces could not be used in this situation. Thus, a second 12'-by-26'4" piece of carpet would be needed for a total of 70.22 square yards. The seam for this case is shown by a thin line in Figure 8. Turning the carpet 90? would require two 12'-by-18'11" pieces and a 12'-by-4'9" piece for fill. The 12'-by-4'9" piece would be cut into four pieces, each 2'4" by 4'9". The seams for this case are shown by thick lines
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.1
\ / seams for second
case
A1 9
18' 9"
22'4"
/^
12' \
X
26' 2"
seam for firstcase
I
12'
8 Figure basement room. Pentagonal in Figure 8. The total amount of carpet needed for this case would be 56.78 square yards. This second case has more seams than the first, but the fill piece seams areagainstthe backwall, out of the way of the normal trafficpattern.Thus,these seams do not presenta largeproblem.In both cases therewould be a seam in the middle of the room. The carpetin the first case would cost at least 200 dollars more than the carpet in the second case. Dean weighed the cost efficiency against the seam placement and decided that the carpetshould be installed as describedin the second case. Usingan Algorithm. Previously I discussed the algorithmsthat are used estimators in by measuring situations to find the quantity of materials needed for an installation job. These algorithms were used, not in a problem-solvingmanner,but ratherto obtain a number representinga quantity of material.Put another way, the estimators did not use the algorithmsto help them make decisions;the decisions had alreadybeen made and the task was simply to find how much of each materialwas needed. Unlike the use of algorithms in the foregoing sorts of estimating situations,I observed installersusing an algorithmin situationsin which it helped the installermake a decisionconcerningan installationjob.The
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algorithm that I observed installers use in the process of solving these problems involved determining how tile should be laid in order that it be lengthwise and widthwise symmetrical about the center of the room. The algorithm involved several steps. The first step was to measure the maximum length and width of the room. These measurements were then divided by two and expressed in feet and inches. The center of the room was found by using these half-measures to measure out from the respective walls and chalk lines representing the length- and width-bisectors. The intersection of these bisectors was the center of the room. However, if only these lines were used as a guide for laying the tile, a problem might arise: Besides being lengthwise and widthwise symmetrical about the center of the room, tile must also be laid such that the fill pieces are greater than or equal to six inches (in order to stay in place). Thus, lining up full tile pieces against the bisectors that establish the center of the room and extending the tile to the wall may result in fill pieces with width less than six inches filling the gap between the full tiles and the wall. What was done to avoid this problem was to consider the maximum length and width measurements one at a time, after they had been divided by two. Expressing these measurements in feet and inches provided the installer with necessary information: The number of feet represented the number of full tiles from the center of the room to the wall, and the number of inches represented the width of the fill piece of tile to bridge the gap between the full tiles and the wall (tiles are 1' by 1'). If the number of inches was less than six, the tiles were shifted six inches (half of a tile). In other words, instead of a full tile edge touching the length-bisector (or width-bisector), the tile was placed so that the bisector ran through the center of the tile (see Figure 9). This shifted the tiles so that the fill tile on each of the two sides split by the length-bisector
14' 6"
6'9"
7'3"
?V Figure 9 Shifting tiles six inches.
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18' 8"
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1' 7" 1'7" 4*
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Figure 10 Measuring for a tile installation. (or width-bisector) was greater than or equal to six inches, thereby helping the fill tile to stay glued down. Sometimes both the length and width tile placements needed to be shifted, sometimes only one, and sometimes the measurements worked out so that no tile shift was needed. Along with considering the previously mentioned constraints, other complicating factors often arose. A discussion of a situation in which this algorithm was used will help to illustrate its use. The first tile installation that I observed was at a commercial job site where tile was being installed in a kitchen. The kitchen had cabinets along a large portion of the walls but also had spaces between cabinets that had to be tiled (see Figure 10). Steve was the installer figuring this job, and he first measured the maximum length of the room and found it to be 18'8". Taking half of this gave 9'4". Since four inches is too short for the fill pieces, the tile had to be shifted six inches-making the fill on each end 10". Thus, a measurement of 9'4" from one of the end walls
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toward the center of the room would reach the center of a full tile (after the tile was installed) instead of the edge of one. Steve next measured from cabinet front to cabinet front across the width of the room and found that measurement to be 7'81/2". Half of this is 3'101/4", and so no shifting was necessary. However, the tile across the width of the room would extend, at some parts, all the way to the wall since cabinets did not cover all the wall space. In considering the fill tile for these cabinet-free spaces, Steve measured from the front of the cabinets back to the wall and found this measurement to be 1'7". Thus, from the width-bisector to a cabinet-free wall the measurement was 5'51/". Since the fill tile for these spaces was less than six inches, Steve considered whether he should shift the tiles six inches across the width of the room. After some calculations and muttering to himself, Steve decided not to shift the tile because that would throw off the fill pieces for the region from cabinet front to cabinet front. Besides, since most of the cabinet-free space along the walls would be later filled by appliances, Steve noted that it was more important to have the necessary fill for the space along the cabinets. This example illustrates how installers used this algorithm to aid them in solving the problem of installing tile. The algorithm did not produce a number that solves the problem, but rather it was a tool to be used for making decisions about how the problem should be solved. Analysis Just as analyzing the occupations, work tasks, and conditions involved in floor-covering work allowed me to interpret the mathematics concepts used by the workers, I was also able to interpret the mathematics processes that they used. I categorized these as the processes of measuring and of problem solving. Not only did I recognize that measuring is an essential process that is used continuously, but I gained insight into how the process of measuring is varied and contextbounded. By analyzing the different work tasks and conditions faced by the estimators and installers, I observed that measuring is multifaceted; it involves estimating, visualization, knowing what to measure, and the use of nonstandard methods of measuring. Moreover, the measuring process is dependent upon the situation; different situations require taking different measurements, visualizing different arrangements, and using different methods of measurement. By using the three levels of analysis, I was able to understand what the carpet layers knew about measuring and how flexible they were in their thinking. I also was able to examine the problem-solving skills and strategies that the estimators and installers used and classify them into several categories. Activity theory provided the framework that allowed me to observe the interactions of the workers with their environment.
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As mentioned previously, Bishop (1988) has laid out what he called "six fundamental activities" that are engaged in by every cultural group and through which mathematical knowledge is developed. This research focused on two of those activities: locating and measuring. Locating involves "exploring one's spatial environment and conceptualising and symbolising that environment, with models, diagrams, drawings, words or other means" while measuring is "quantifying qualities for the purpose of comparison and ordering, using objects or tokens as measuring devices with associated units or 'measure-words'" (Bishop 1988:182-183). My reason for using activity theory as a conceptual framework for this research is that it allows one to address the relationship between knowing and doing by proposing that the "starting point and primary unit of analysis should be culturally organized human activities" (Scribner 1985:199). Focusing on the activities of floor-covering estimators and installers and examining the tasks involved in their work and the conditions that they encounter and with which they must deal in each task provided me the opportunity to see these persons using their knowledge in order to interact with their environment through activities of locating and measuring; this systems approach is at the core of activity theory. To understand mathematics practice in the everyday context of carpet laying, I needed to analyze the activities and the actions in which they are embedded; activity theory provided the framework for this analysis. The research discussed here adds to other research on the mathematics concepts and processes used in everyday situations by extending that research to a measurement context. Other research has examined the use of (a) arithmetic (e.g., de la Rocha 1985; Murtaugh 1985b;Scribner 1984c) (b) geometry (e.g., Millroy 1992), and (c) rational number concepts (e.g., Carraher 1986). This research on mathematics practice in the floor-covering context provides some insight into what is involved in measurement practice in everyday situations. Furthermore, this research combines some aspects of different types of research in this area. Some researchers have focused on situations in which people develop strategies that become fairly routinized (e.g., Lave 1988; Scribner 1984b, 1984c, 1984d), while others have examined situations in which problem solving is adaptive (e.g., de la Rocha 1985; Saxe 1988). The mathematics practice of the floor-covering workers involves features of both of these aspects. Many of the procedures and algorithms used in this context have become somewhat routine for the carpet layers. For example, the installers know how to follow the algorithm described previously for deciding how to lay tile. However, the numerous and varied constraints that occur at different job sites force the carpet layers to be adaptive in their problem solving. At one location Steve was faced with carpeting a room with a rectangular-prism post from floor to ceiling in approximately the center of the room. He needed to install the carpet
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around the post and minimize the seams. Thus, this research builds on aspects from two strains of research on mathematics practice in everyday situations. Future research in this vein should examine how the gap between mathematics practice in school and out of school can be closed. Some research on mathematics practice in everyday situations has contrasted mathematics practice in school with mathematics practice in everyday situations and noted the gap between these two (e.g., Carraher et al. 1985; Masingila 1993). Knowledge gained in out-of-school situations often develops out of activities that: (a) occur in a familiar setting, (b) are dilemma driven, (c) are goal directed, (d) use the learner's own natural language, and (e) often occur in an apprenticeship situation allowing for observation of the skill and thinking involved in expert performance (Lester 1989). Knowledge acquired in school situations all too often grows out of a transmission paradigm of instruction and is largely devoid of meaning because of lack of (a) context, (b) relevance, and (c) specific goal. It is my contention that the gap between in-school and out-of-school mathematics practice can only be narrowed after ways in which mathematics is meaningful in the context of everyday life have been determined. As researchers work to understand mathematics practice in everyday situations, we should also explore how teachers can build upon students' out-of-school knowledge and engage them in solving problems containing real-life constraints so that their learning of mathematics is more meaningful.
JoannaMasingila is an assistantprofessorof mathematicseducationatSyracuse University. Notes MathematThisarticleis based on the author'sdissertation, Acknowledgments. Educain Carpet andApprenticeship ics Practice forMathematics Laying: Suggestions tion, completed in May 1992 at Indiana University-Bloomington,under the directionof FrankK.Lester,Jr. 1. Note that, although algorithmsare processes rather than concepts,I am including computationalalgorithmsas a concept ratherthan a processbecause I am interestedin the mathematical concept of measurementunderlyingthese algorithms. 2. Pseudonymsare used for all respondents. References Cited Bishop, Alan J. 1979 Visualizing and Mathematicsin a Pre-technologicalCulture. Educational Studies in Mathematics10:135-146.
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Leont'ev, Aleksei Nicolaevich 1981 The Problem of Activity in Psychology. In The Concept of Activity in Soviet Psychology. J. V. Wertsch, ed. Pp. 37-71. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Lester, Frank K., Jr. 1989 Mathematical Problem Solving in and out of School. Arithmetic Teacher 37(3):33-35. Lincoln, Yvonna S., and Egon G. Guba 1985 Naturalistic Inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Masingila, Joanna O. 1993 Problem Solving in and out of School. In Proceedings of the 15th Annual Meeting of the North American Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education, Vol. II. J. R. Becker and B. J. Pence, eds. Pp. 40-46. San Jose, CA: San Jose State University. Millroy, Wendy Lesley 1990 An Ethnographic Study of the Mathematical Ideas of a Group of Carpenters. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell University. Dissertation Abstracts International 51:3007A. 1992 An Ethnographic Study of the Mathematical Ideas of a Group of Carpenters. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education Monograph, 5. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Murtaugh, Michael 1985a A Hierarchical Decision Process Model of American Grocery Shopping. Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Irvine. Dissertation Abstracts International 46:1675A. 1985b The Practice of Arithmetic by American Grocery Shoppers. Anthropology and Education Quarterly 16(3):186-192. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics 1989 Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. Petitto, Andrea L. 1982 Practical Arithmetic and Transfer: A Study among West African Tribesmen. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 13(1):15-28. Posner, Jill K. 1982 The Development of Mathematical Knowledge in Two West African Societies. Child Development 53:200-208. Reed, H. J., and Jean Lave 1979 Arithmetic as a Tool for Investigating Relations between Culture and Cognition. American Ethnologist 6(3):568-582. 1981 Arithmetic as a Tool for Investigating Relations between Culture and Cognition. In Language, Culture and Cognition: Anthropological Perspectives. R. W. Casson, ed. Pp. 437-455. New York: Macmillan. Resnick, Lauren B. 1987 Learning in School and Out. Educational Researcher 16:13-20. Saxe, Geoffrey B. 1979 A Comparative Analysis of the Acquisition of Enumeration: Studies from Papua New Guinea. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 1:37-43. 1981 Body Parts as Numerals: A Developmental Analysis of Numeration among Remote Oksapmin Populations in Papua New Guinea. Child Development 52:306-316.
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1982 Developing Forms of Arithmetic Operations among the Oksapmin of Papua New Guinea. Developmental Psychology 18(4):583-594. 1988 Candy Selling and Math Learning. Educational Research 17(6):14-21. 1991 Culture and Cognitive Development: Studies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Schliemann, Analucia Dias 1986 Mathematics Among Carpentry Apprentices: Implications for School Teaching. In Mathematics for All. Science and Technology Education Development Series, 20. P. Damerow, M. E. Dunkley, B. F. Nebres, and B. Werry, eds. Pp. 92-95. Paris: UNESCO. Schliemann, A. D., and Nadja Maria Acioly 1989 Numbers and Operations in Everyday Problem Solving. Science and Technology Education Document Series, 35. C. Keitel, ed. Pp. 126-128. Paris: UNESCO. Schoenfeld, Alan H. 1989 Problem Solving in Context(s). In The Teaching and Assessing of Mathematical Problem Solving. R. I. Charles and E. A. Silver, eds. Pp. 82-92. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Scott, Patrick 1985 Ethnomathematics: What Might It Be? Newsletter of the International Study Group on Ethnomathematics 1(2):1-2. Scribner, Sylvia 1984a Cognitive Studies of Work: Introduction. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 6(1-2):1-4. 1984b Practical Problem-solving on the Job. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 6(1-2):5-6. 1984c Pricing Delivery Tickets: "School Arithmetic" in a Practical Setting. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 6(1-2):19-25. 1984d Product Assembly: Optimizing Strategies and Their Acquisition. The Quarterly Newsletter of the Laboratory of Comparative Human Cognition 6(1-2):11-19. 1984e Studying Working Intelligence. In Everyday Cognition: Its Development in Social Context. B. Rogoff and J. Lave, eds. Pp. 9-40. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 1985 KnowledgeatWork: Anthropology and EducationQuarterly 16(3):199206. 1988 Head and Hand: An Action Approach to Thinking. Occasional Paper, 3. New York: National Center on Education and Employment, Teachers College, Columbia University, and the RAND Corporation. Scribner, Sylvia, and Joy Stevens 1989 Experimental Studies on the Relationships of School Math and Work Math. Technical Paper, 4. New York: National Center on Education and Employment, Teachers College, Columbia University, and the RAND Corporation. Wertsch, James V. 1985 Vygotsky and the Social Formation of Mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wilder, Robert. L. 1981 Mathematics as a Cultural System. Oxford: Pergamon Press.

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Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying Author(s): Joanna O. Masingila Source: Anthropology & Education Quarterly, Vol. 25, No.

Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

& Education Quarterly Anthropology

Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

in Carpet Mathematics Practice Laying

436 Data Analysis

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Practice in Carpet Mathematics Laying

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3' 1st piece laid

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

Figure 2 Using a right triangle.

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

Baseplaced to pipeandmarked adjacent horizontally.

Baseturned mark arccutin base. over,horizontal extended,

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

& Education Quarterly Anthropology

Practicein Carpet Mathematics Laying

Anthropology & Education Quarterly closets(notcarpeted)

12' 19' 5" 44

4' 11" Spatial visuali7ation in estimating.

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

in Carpet Mathematics Practice Laying

& Education Quarterly Anthropology

Practice in Carpet Mathematics Laying

--E 1 side seam / side seam

Figure 7 Carpetinstallation involving intersecting hallways.

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Practice in Carpet Mathematics Laying

seam for firstcase

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

?V Figure 9 Shifting tiles six inches.

Practicein Carpet Mathematics Laying

1' 7" 1'7" 4*

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying

& Education Quarterly Anthropology

Mathematics Practicein Carpet Laying

& Education Anthropology Quarterly

Mathematics Practice in Carpet Laying

Anthropology & Education Quarterly

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