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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers 1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review 1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction 1.4
Failure Criteria of Materials 1.5
Review
Chapter 1 Introduction
Section 1.1
Case Study: Pneumatically Actuated PDMS Fingers
Problem Description
[2] A single nger is studied in this case. [1] The pneumatic ngers are part of a surgical parallel robot system remotely controlled by a surgeon through the Internet.
Chapter 1 Introduction
5 [3] Geometric model. 4 Stress (MPa) 3 2 1 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 [4] The strain-stress curve of the PDMS elastomer used in this case.
Strain (Dimensionless)
[6] Undeformed shape. [5] As air pressure applies, the nger bends downward.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
[8] Strains.
[7] Displacements.
Chapter 1 Introduction
[2] The upper surface would undergo compressive stress. It in turn reduces the bending stiffness.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Dynamic Simulations
When the bodies move and deform very fast, inertia effect and damping effect must be considered.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Modal Analysis
A special case of dynamic simulations is the simulation of free vibrations, the vibrations of a structure without any loading.
It is called a modal analysis. Purpose of a modal analysis is to nd natural frequencies and mode shapes.
Chapter 1 Introduction
Structural Nonlinearities
Linear simulations assume that the response is linearly proportional to the loading.
Deflection (mm) 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 0 40 80 120 160 200 [1] Solution of the nonlinear simulation of the PDMS nger. [2] Solution of the linear simulation pf the PDMS nger.
When the solution deviates from the reality, a nonlinear simulation is needed. Structural nonlinearities come from large deformation, topology changes, nonlinear stress-strain relationship, etc.
Pressure (kPa)
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Section 1.2
Structural Mechanics: A Quick Review
Engineering simulation: nding the responses of a problem domain subject to environmental conditions. Structural simulation: nding the responses of bodies subject to environmental conditions.
The bodies are described by geometries and materials. Environment conditions include support and loading conditions. Responses can be described by displacements, strains, and stresses.
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Displacements
{u} = {
uX
uY
uZ
[5] The displacement vector {u} of the particle is formed by connecting the positions before and after the deformation.
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Stresses
{ }
X = YX ZX
XY Y ZY
XZ YZ Z
[3] This face is called negative X-face. [2] This face is called X-face, since the X-direction is normal to this face.
ZY
Z
Z
ZX
XY = YX , YZ = ZY , XZ = ZX
{ } = {
XY
YZ
ZX
YX
XZ
YZ
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Strains
[5] Translate AB C so that A coincides with A. The new conguration is AB C . Now CC is the amount of stretch of ABC in Y-face.
C C
A
B
A
X
Strain on X -face =
BB AB
X =
BD DB , XY = AB AB
[2] Original conguration ABC. [6] The vector BD describes the stretch of ABC in X-face.
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Physical meaning of strains: The normal strain X is the percentage of stretch of a ber which lies along X-direction. The shear strain XY is the angle change (in radian) of two bers lying on XY-plane and originally forming a right angle. We can dene other strain components in a similar way.
{}
X = YX ZX
XY Y ZY
XZ YZ Z
XY = YX , YZ = ZY , XZ = ZX
{ } = {
XY
YZ
ZX
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Governing Equations
{u} = { { } = { { } = {
X
uX
uY
uZ
}
YZ YZ ZX ZX
Y Y
Z Z
XY XY
} }
Totally 15 quantities
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For isotropic, linearly elastic materials, Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio ( ) can be used to fully describe the stressstrain relations.
XY
The Hooke's law is called a material model. The Young's modulus and the Poisson's ratio are called the material parameters of the material model.
G=
E 2(1 + )
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X Y Z + T E E E Y Z X Y = + T E E E Z = Z X Y + T E E E XY = XY , YZ = YZ , ZX = ZX G G G X =
If temperature changes (thermal loads) are involved, the coefcient of thermal expansion, (CTE, ) must be included.
If inertia forces (e.g., dynamic simulations) are involved, the mass density must be included.
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Section 1.3
Finite Element Methods: A Conceptual Introduction
Basic Ideas
A basic idea of nite element methods is to divide the structural body into small and geometrically simple bodies, called elements, so that equilibrium equations of each element can be written, and all the equilibrium equations are solved simultaneously The elements are assumed to be connected by nodes located on the elements' edges and vertices.
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Another idea is to solve unknown discrete values (displacements at the nodes) rather than to solve unknown functions (displacement elds).
In case of the pneumatic nger, the structural body is divided into 3122 elements. The elements are connected by 17142 nodes. There are 3x17142 unknown displacement values to be solved.
Since the displacement on each node is a vector and has three components (in 3D cases), the number of total unknown quantities to be solved is three times the number of nodes.
The nodal displacement components are called the degrees of freedom (DOF's) of the structure.
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{ } {}
The displacement vector {D} contains displacements of all degrees of freedom. The force vector {F} contains forces acting on all degrees of freedom. The matrix [K] is called the stiffness matrix of the structure. In a special case when the structure is a spring, {F} as external force, and {D} as the deformation of the spring, then [K] is the spring constant.
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22
4. Solve the equilibrium equation. Now, the nodal displacements {d} of each element are known. 5. For each element: 5.1 Calculate displacement elds {u}, using an interpolating method, {u} = [N] {d}. The interpolating functions in [N] are called the shape functions. 5.2 Calculate strain elds according to the strain-displacement relations. 5.3 Calculate stress elds according to the stress-strain relations (Hooke's law).
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Shape Functions
Shape functions serve as interpolating functions, allowing the calculation of displacement elds (functions of X, Y, Z) from nodal displacements (discrete values).
[1] A 2D 4-node quadrilateral element
d6 d8 d7
Y
d5
{u} = N {d }
d4 d2
X
For elements with nodes at vertices, the interpolation must be linear and thus the shape functions are linear (of X,Y, Z).
d3 d1
[2] This element's nodes locate at vertices.
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For elements with nodes at vertices as well as at middles of edges, the interpolation must be quadratic and thus the shape functions are quadratic (of X,Y, Z). Elements with linear shape functions are called linear elements, rst-order elements, or lower-order elements. Elements with quadratic shape functions are called quadratic elements, second-order elements, or higher-order elements. ANSYS Workbench supports only rst-order and second-order elements.
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[4] Tetrahedron.
[1] 3D 20-node structural solid. Each node has 3 translational degrees of freedom: DX, DY, and DZ.
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2D Solid Bodies
[5] 2D 8-node structural solid. Each node has 2 translational degrees of freedom: DX and DY.
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3D Surface Bodies
[8] Degenerated Triangle
[7] 3D 4-node structural shell. Each node has 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of freedom: DX, DY, DZ, RX, RY, and RZ.
3D Line Bodies
[9] 3D 2-Node beam. Each node has 3 translational and 3 rotational degrees of freedom: DX, DY, DZ, RX, RY, RZ.
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Section 1.4
Failure Criteria of Materials
Ductile versus Brittle Materials
A Ductile material exhibits a large amount of strain before it fractures. The fracture strain of a brittle material is relatively small. Fracture strain is a measure of ductility.
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Therefore, for these materials, we are most concerned about whether the material reaches the yield point y .
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Cast iron and ceramics are two examples of brittle materials. For brittle materials, there usually doesn't exist obvious yield point, and we are concerned about their fracture point f .
f
Stress
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Failure Modes
The fracture of brittle materials is mostly due to tensile failure. The yielding of ductile materials is mostly due to shear failure
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Principal Stresses
A direction in which the shear stress vanishes is called a principal direction. The corresponding normal stress is called a principle stress.
Y
Y
( X , XY )
( Y , XY )
XY
XY
XY XY
Y
[3] Stress in the direction that forms 90o with the base direction.
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At any point of a 3D solid, there are three principal directions and three principal stresses. The maximum normal stress is called the maximum principal stress and denoted by 1 . The minimum normal stress is called the minimum principal stress and denoted by 3 . The medium principal stress is denoted by 2 . The maximum principal stress is usually a positive value, a tension; the minimum principal stress is often a negative value, a compression.
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1 f
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max =
1 3 2 y 2
We may state a failure criterion for ductile materials as follows: At a certain point of a body, if the maximum shear stress reaches the shear strength of the material, it will fail.
y =
1 3 y
(1 3 ) is called the stress
intensity.
max y
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w d w yd
w yd =
2 (1+ ) y 3E
wd =
2 2 2 1+ 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 6E
) (
) (
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After substitution and simplication, the criterion reduces to that the yielding occurs when
2 2 2 1 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 y 2
) (
) (
The quantity on the left-hand-side is termed von Mises stress or effective stress, and denoted by e ; in ANSYS, it is also referred to as equivalent stress,
e =
2 2 2 1 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 2
) (
) (