MATHEMATICS lN 2001: IMPLICATIONS FOR TODAY'S UN DERGRADUATE TEACH ING*

Peter Hilton, Department of Mathematics, University of Binghamton, U.S.A.

Dedication: "To my friend Ralph Nero, wishing him a well-earned and happy retirement."

l.lntroduction
Although this conference is principally concerned with the vital issue of the remedial teaching of mathematics, my own contribution will not center on this problem. My concernis that we designtoday's mathematics curriculum to take account ofthe changes which are takingplace, and will continue to take place, in mathematics itself and the uses to which it is put in our society. I am further concerned that teaching styles and strategies be well adapted

to the cwriculum and to the fundamental purposes of

mathematics education. Thus the plan of mytalk is as follows.I will first speculate on what mathematics will look like in the year 2001.

Such speculation could, of course, occupy the entire amount of time allocated to me for this lecture, but I will discipline myself and make this part fairly brief, confining myself to those aspects of mathematics and its use which are relevant to my own principal theme. I will then draw inferences about how we should be thinking today about
the teaching of mathematics. In deriving these inferences, and in offering examples; I will not feel obliged to confine

myself to mathematical topics traditionally regarded as appropriate to the undergraduate level. My reasons for

for my speculations. Of course, I am not the first to regard 2001 as a significant date Stanley Kubrick has published ahead of me! Nor am I unduly obsessed by the fact that 2001 marks the beginning of the third millennium (although the millenial rites will doubtless have been performed a year earlier). My main reason for choosing this year is that it seems to me reasonable to try to look 20 years ahead. To look further ahead would be foolhardy at a time when mathematics, and society, are changing so rapidly; but to narrow one's sights would leave one open to a very real risk in trying to make predictions of any substance. For it is reasonable, in looking ?n years ahead, to ignore local fluctuations, (here we refer to a fluctuation which is'local'with respect to the time coordinate, rather than with respect to space coordinates), which may simply be regarded as due to statistical variation. Thus when we try to assess movements in society and education it is perhaps easier to look ahead 20 years than, say, three years. Of course, it may be wrong to take the position that what we are experiencing now in education is a local fluctuation rather than a trend; if, in fact, it is a trend then the prognosis is gloomy indeed. But I am discussing mathematics and matlematics education in this paper, rather than education in general, so I will not allow myself to get side-tracked onto that much bigger, and perhaps more ominous, theme.

allowing myself this latitude are two-fold.

In the first
2. The future o{ mathematics
What then are the predictions about mathematics in 2001 most relevant to our concerns today? First, with regard to mathematics itself, perhaps the most significant trend is towards unityin the science of mathematics. The wonderful flowering of mathematics in the last 30 years a veritable golden era was characterized by the development and elaboration of several largely autonomous mathematical disciplines, and, in some cases, even the emergence of quite new ones. Characteristic of this period has been the building of powerful mathematical struc-

place, I am hoping to reach awide audience ofconcerned citizens, and I would not wish to exclude those whose own

educational background does not include

concentration

on mathematics at the college level. Second if the talks at this conference demonstrate anything (and they certainly do), they show that it is no longer realistic to suppose that college mathematics education can be predicated on the

assumption that the students are adequately prepared in

pre-calculus topics (algebra, geometry, trigonometry, elementary probability and statistics, elementary techniques of estimation and approximation, with applications). I rather suspect that this particular situation may get worse rather than better in the immediate future. Let me say a word about my choice of the year 2001

tures which have enabled mathematicians to conducl

deep and penetrating analyses of existing problems and to formulate new ones. The subject to which I have my-

Editor's Note: Although this wo*ing document was prepared as long ago as 1981 by the author for a Conference on Remedial and Developmental Mathematics in Colleges hetd in the Roosetelt Hotel, New York in Apit of that year, many interesting and relevant points were raised for the tefiisry teoching of mathentatics in South Afica.

10

Julie/July 1989, No.2e

self mads a modest contribution, algebraic topolog5r, typifies this kind of mathematical progress. fhe subjeit barely existed before the Second World War, but, in the later years, it became an eiceedingly active independent branch of mathematics, employing its or"n methods, its ownlanguage, its own terminology; and tremendous progress was made. In the course of this progress offshoots emerged - homological algebr4 categorical algebra _ which,-though related in obvious ways to existingspecialties of mathematics, duly became independent thembytheir own expeits. Og" may say, speaking roughly but not too roughly, that the recent era has been one of vast progress in the technologyof mathematics - the develop-ent of powerselves and were served

tics, which is being recognized as applicable. Moreover, new concepts in mathematics are being evoked, and new methods invented, to study the real world, so that we can say, without, I believe, undue optimisrn, that we are on the

threshold of forging a new unity of the mathematical

sciences as a whole.

What are the implications of this new synthesis within mathematics for the teaching of mathematics at the
undergraduate level or even earlier? I believe that the answer must be that we should also be breaking down the barriers between pure and applied mathematics. This has been argued in detail elsewhere (Hilton:L981), so I will content myself with a brief description of the principal features of such a change in teaching style and content. We should emphasize the interconnections between different parts of mathematics, so that, for example, linear algebra would appear primarily as a tool in the study of differential equations and Euclidean geometry and much of elementary complex variable theory would likewise be

the synthesis of these individual disciplines. Mathematics is regaining its unity, but it is in many respects a nsv,/ rrni[y. Methods developed in one area of mathematics are provingvaluable in another; algebra and topologl are again being seen as playing a vital role as
tools in the study of the fundamental problems of mathemirtical analysis and eve nin so, applied' a field as mathematica! statistics. A young mathematician requires today a very broad base in order to be properly prepared for an effective career involving mathematical reseirch. is one very important feature of this new unity _ -There which must be stressed before I leave this aspect of my theme today. I refer to the new unity of ,p ure, aid ,appliei' mathematics. For certain historical .eisorrs, which many have analysed, there has emerged in this country a strong distinction, amounting among many mathematicians to veritable antagonism, between pure and applied mathematjcs (and-between pure and applied mathematicians!) At first, in the period u4der discussion, the pure mathematicians were in the ascendancy, but, in the latter years ofthe period, the tables have been turned. There are now many_co_lleges and universities in this country where it is verydifficult for a pure mathematician to obtain a posi_ tion in the mathematics department, and much easier for an applied mathematician, almost as if applied mathematicians were members of a minority group whose inter_ ests need protection by affirmative action. Of course there are often absolutely valid professional reasons for preferring the applied mathemaiician; but there are also examples where the choice of an applied mathematician has about it something of the flavor of a public relations

y*qr

firl new techniques. We are now seeing a distinct trend to.

motivated by the study of systems of linear differential equations. We should also include in our treatment of

Jusf as doing'pure' mathematics

has much in common with doing'applied' mathematics, so should the teaching be closely related
mathematical topics, where appropriate, a discussion of accessible, and interesting, applications. These applications should be genuine - and this is a severe condition to impose! For an application to be genuine, two conditions must be satisfied. First, the problem must be a real problem and, second, it must require the particular piece of mathematics for its solution. However, we do not deny the validity of illustrations in helping to establish the significance of a piece of mathematics, provided that an illustration is honestly and openly presented as such. An illustration can involve a highly idealized picture of the universe (for instance, a process which changes under the influence of one single variable rather than a number of variables); and it may not actually require the particular mathematics for its solution - it would suffice that the mathematics was capable of providing a solution. Indeed; some of the best illustrations would involve problems which had already been solved by different methods, so that they would constitute verification of the new piece of mathematics under study. It is worthwhile pointing out that, just as doing,pure' mathematics has much in common with doing ,opplied' mathematics, so should the teaching be closely related. For we want to teach our students how to use mathematics; much of our teaching today is, however, concerned with training students to regurgitate memorized formulas and routines and I assume it to be common ground that this sort of teaching is merely a response to administra-

exercise.

problems coming from the real world, sometimes on problems from within mathematics itself. So many parts of mathematics, hitherto regarded as the preserve of pure mathematics, are proving of great value in the study of real-world problems, so that it is mathematics itself, rather than certain special disciplines within mathema-

Happily we can look, ih the near future, to the disappearance of this rigid distinction, so that we -ry uguin speak simply of mathematicians, working sometimei on

tive pressures and serves no really useful purpose for the students in their future lives. The way we use algebra to study geometric problems resembles very closely the way we use, say, differential equations in gas dynamics or in the studyof competitive populations; inboth cases we set up a mathematical model, reason within the model, and examine the sigrrificance and validity of our conclusions in the context of the original problem area. So we need mathematical courses with an applied flavor, whether the ' applications' are within or outside mathematics. Let me readily cpncede that the proposals I am making here are not easy to implement. A curriculum of the kind eavisaged is much harder to devise than a standard

tial development ofleisure occupations. Indeed, whereas today the average person's daily life is divided into two phases, work and rtcovery from wor\ we will, in the neK millenium, be moving into a period where the two phases would naturally be described as leisure and interruption
of leisurr. The list could be prolonged; each of you could supplement it. But it is clear that the computer is going to play an enormous role in our lives, and I claim that it follows that we should have some understanding of the basis on which it functions. This understanding should include a more than passing acquaintance with the computer as a piece of engineering; but even more important is an understanding of its logical processes and its capacities. For we are certainly going to be using the computer; and if we use it without this understanding, then we become slaves of the machine. It is bad enough to be a slave to the television set and the washing machine; it is incomparably worse to be a slave to a machine which will be playing so ubiquitous a role in our lives. For such slavishness will be characterized by an abrogation of our control over our lives and our decisions, a catastrophic drop in our level of personal responsibility. The signs of these imminent dangers are already clearly visible; the awful scenario of the book 1984 is nearer than we think. Thus the availability of the computer calls for a concerted educational plan to teach our students to think, quantitatively and qualitatively, and this must mean both to reason and to apply mathematical processes intelligently. Of course, many are aware of this; but there has, I believe, been a tendency to concentrate attention on those aspects of the learning of mathematics most closely related to the current activities of computers. Thus much has been written and done in the general area of computers in education (I especially commend the publication The Computing Teacher (1980-) and of computer-aided instruction, and I intend to say no more of this aspect here. My concern is principally with the impact which computer-availability should, in my view, have on the teaching of mathematics on what is taught and how it is taught. Let me begin with a few remarks on the relation of computers to mathematics itself. The study of this relation has several components. Of especial interest, but of no particular relevance to the theme of this talk, is the role of the computer in mathematical proof. This question has been highlighted by the recent computer-assisted proof of the celebrated Four Color Theorem, by Appel, Haken and Koch. An excellent discussion of the significance of this proof for mathematics, and mathematicians, is to be found in a special issue

curriculum and.makes far greater demands on the

teacher. Some attention is given to this aspect of the problem in the NRC-report (1979:25), but I believe that the faculty of each institution must decide how best to implement these recommendations, assuming of course, that it is decided that they have merit. The Tucker Panel of the Committee on the Undergraduate Program of the Mathematical Association of America will shortly be produc-

ing its report and this document, gonlaining a number of sample curricula in the mathematical sciences, should be a most valuable document for those wishing to adopt a more integrated curriculum. But the problem of ensuiing that the teacher has the breadth of knowledge and the right positive attitude to teach such a curriculum effectively is highly non-trivial, and I have no glib solutiohs to

offer.

A further aspect in which mathematics is undergoing radical change which will surely be reflected in substantial differences by 2001 is that of the impact of the computer. This must have an equally profound effect on our teaching of mathematics"and deserves a greatdeal of our attention. Thus I propose to devote a separate section to considering the impact and the effect.
3. The computer and modern mathematics
The computer is with us and will profoundly influence our lives, whether.or not our educational system proves capable of adapting to its presence and its potentialities. It is not difficult to anticipate certain profound changes the

computer (accompanied by its acolytes, the minicomputer, the programmable calculator and even the handcalbulator) will wreak in society within 20 years. Information accumulation, sorting, retrieval and display will become enormously more. efficient, so efficient that the individual citizen and, less importantly, the corporation

will find themselves

exposed

to great risls of

abuse.

Check-writing and check-cashing will have disappeared. Video texts will be in common use. Each home will have its supply of chips enabling domestic and family tasks to be planned and executed and results made available in convenient forms. Patterns of employment will undergo change. The working day and the working week will be considerably shortened and there will have been substan-

of the Tlvo Year College Mathematics Journal

(198L,

Vol.12). Closer to our concerns here is the influence of the computer on the direction mathematics is taking. New
areas of mathematics are arising, and new aspects of exist-

ing areas are being thrown into prominencs. In the past,

Julie/July 1989, No.20

we have regarded a mathematical problem as solved if there existed a theoretical procedur- for determining the answer, and we would, broadly speaking, discriminate be_ tween procedures for solving the same problem largely on aestheticgrounds. But today and even mo.e i.,ihe future we employ a different set of criteria (while, of

clearer to them when the computer, endeavouring to find a solution for an inconsistent system, actually produces a row consisting of a string of zeros followed by a non-zero entry. Again, existence theorems for differential equations often seem to the student abstract and academic.

Yet, given the differential equation dyldy

Closed-form solutions arc no longer central to problems involving integration and cunning substitutions, fo translate an unfamiliar integral into a familiar one, are now tittle more than i nt e I I e ct u a/ exercises
course, not abandoning considerations of taste and eleg_ ance). For we now may use the computer to obtain numerical solutions and also to carry out logical task, and we are interested in computational efficienry. It is of vital concern how rapidly the computer gets the answer, and

given initial values (a,b ),and with the function/saiis4ring some suitable (e.g. Lipschitz) condition the Euier oI

: f(afi

wtth

provides a method of approximating to a solution, and the student can actually see the solution taking shape on the

-"tt

computer print-out (or, better

screen).

stil[ on the computer

As an example of a subject which has lost virtually all of its importance, let us instance that of techniques oi integration. Closed-form solutions are no longer central to problems involving integration and cunning substitutions, to translate an unfamiliar integral into a familiar one, are now little more than intellectual exercises. This aspect of

the impact of mechanical calculators is, of couise, of

enormous significance in considering desirable reforms at the pre-college level - but this is so vast and important a subject that it would be irresponsible to attempt to treat it here by a few asides. A word of caution is needed in considering the impact

not only for financial reasons! Where a procedure

parameters, and thus we are involved in a new area of mathematics called the theory of computational complexity. There are already exciting resultsln this theory, fasci_ nating and important open questions, and eue., unexpected connections with some of the deepest ques_ tions of mathematical logic. Automata theory and boding -of theoryare two other relativelynewbranches mathemal tics which owe much of their prominence today to their connection with computers, but which themselves make contact wi_th important classical areas of mathematics, for examgl_e, -lineq algebra, polynomial theory and the the_ ory of finite fields, as well as with other more recent re_ search areas, such as category theory. The implication of these considerations for the teaching of mat-hematics is clear we must bear in mind the importance of the com_ puter (and its baby brothers, down to the hand-calcula_

pends on a number ofparametcrs, *e need to know how the computer time required varies with the sizes of those

de_

of computers and other calculators. The problem of round-off error is a very serious one, and students must have their attention drawn to it early in their studies. Computer arithmetic is not the same as human arithmetic; computer analysis and algebra are not the same as

Computer arithmetic is not the same as human arithmetic, computer analysis and algebra are not the same as traditionalsubl'ects
the traditional subjects. Ifyou try to sum an infinite series by machine then, in almost all cases, you will find that the series converges if the nth term tends to zero _ a false theorem of real analysis. If you carry out an iterative pro_

tor) in designing and executing the mathematical

curriculum, at all levels. But we should not simply regard
the machine as a means of swift, accurate and painless cal_ cllation, important as that aspect is. We shouid recognize that the computer can give the student significant inJghts into mathematics itself; and we should recognizethat the

computer has affected the roles of varioui parts of the traditionalcurriculum, causing us to change tire emphasis we give to those parts in the curriculum. Let a few examples suffice. The study of systems of linear equations is probably even more important today than.it 20 years ago, because there are now so many ryas applications of such a study and because the computer
has rendered procedures for solving such systems much

cedure on a machine, it will often become stationarv-in a finite number of steps, by contrast with .ordinary' -athematics - qnd the displayed stationary value may differ from the value obtained by theoretical analysis. Here then is another respect in which the availability of the computer changes mathematics, and gives rise to a new aspect of mathematics which we must teach our students.

4. Presenting mathematics today for use tomorrow

Let us now consider how we can effectively teach mathematics today in such a way that our students will be ready to enter tomorro#s world. I take it that that world is part_ ly characterizedby (a) an increased importance of mathematical thinking, and (b) the general availability of the computer and similar machines. I will argue that not only

standing the conditions under which a system of linear equations has a solution; the situation becomes much

more effective. Students often have ditrilulty under-

do we need to modify the content of our mathematics courses, as already suggested, but, even more urgently,
we need to modify the style and approach

attitude towards mathemgtics which epitomizes today's

teaching and today's learning. Consider todat's human being and today's computer; here there was no real need to emphasize today's human being, because human evolution is a very slow process, but there was a need to emphasize today's computer, be-

in short, the

Educators should now face squarclY the fact that computers have been invented and are going to PlaY a very substantial role in our studenfs'llves
cause computers pass through generations very rapidly. Thus some of the properties of cornputers I list in Table l- are not necessarily permanent features of computers but rather represent characteristics of their standard operating function today. (I am not spe,aking here ofthe computer as itself a subject for research by those working in the field of artificial intelligence. For a popular presentation of this quite different, and fascinating, topic see London Times, Feb 9, 1981-.) In Table 1, then I list some typical and contrasting properties of human beings on the one hand and, on the other hand, of computers as used todayin everydaylife or as tools in the exact sciences. The list is, of course, incomplete. One implication of the availabilityof the computer for education is obvious: leave to the computer what the computer does best. But what do we find in praclice? We find a determined effort in current mathematics education to to discourage human attributes and to do the opposite machine attributes. This would make replace them by educate juvenile computers; if we were seeking to sense it is perverse when our students are human. It had some semblance of justification before computers had been invented but educators should now face squarely the fact that computers have been invented and are going to play

very substantial role in our students' lives. We have now the opportunity and, moreover,.the pressing necessity to realize the dream of Norbert Wiener of. achieing'the human uses of hurnan beings'. But there are serious obstacles in the way. There are strong traditions and there is an immense inertia in the system due to many factors (of which standardized tests constitute one particularly conspicuous and vicious example). Arnong those factors I again stress, as I did earlier, the important role of attitudes, and I will give examples of attitudes which must be swept away if we are to achieve an appropriate education for the citizens of a self-respecting, advanced society. Principally, the attitudes which must change are (a) the attitude to education, (b) the attitude to mathematics, and (c) the attitude to usingmathematics.I prefer to concentrate on (b) and (c), since the problem of society's attitude to education is so vast, so pervasive, and so difficult that it cannot be treated adequately here; moreover, it is not at all specific to mathematics, though its effect on prevailing views of what mathematics should be taught is profound. Suffice it here to say that there is a fundamental confusion in the minds of many people between educa' tion and training, and that this confusion tends to blind these people to the true purposes ofeducation. Ifwe educate properly, our students will also be trained. But if we only train, then our students are deprived of the opportunity of self-development and the capacity of self-expression. Let us, then, speak of society's attitude to mathematics. Here we do not have in mind the attitude of the pro' fessional user of mathematics, but rather that of the layman who does not regard mathematics as a significant part of his or her life. We also do not wish to deal here with the common confusion which identifies mathematics with elementary arithmetic - this is not so much a false attitude as a simple mistake. The attitude I have principally in mind is that rvhich divides people into the healthy group which consists of those who actually do something and the rest who merely think about what they might do and indulge in endless and often sterile discussion.
a

Human beings
Compute slowly and inaccurately
Tire easily Get distracted

Computers
Compute fast and accurate Never tire Are remorseless, relentless, dedicated, and cannot be diverted Are stubborn Are usually pedantic and rather stupid Always concentrate Can carry oul'if ..., e/se ...' instructions

Sometimes give up Are often intelligent and understanding Are interested in many things at the same time Have ideas and imagination, make inspired guesses, think. Table
1: Some

contrasts between humans

& computers

Julie/July 1989, No.20

According to this view the pioneering spirit requires men

to.doing something, but as an alternative to doing something.

healthy unAmerican trait of hesitaiio; and inaction. Mathematics is not seen - as it should be - as a means

and women of action and the tendeniylo reflect, to ponder, to see two sides to a question, symptomizes an un-

and Alan Schoenfeld; but it is naiVe to suppose that problems suitable for attack by mathematical methods can be solved instead by a display ofgeneral intelligence and native wit. These attributes are valuable, but they are inadequate to the task. We must learn mathematics to be able

People holding this view often have a remarkably warped view of mathematicians. Mathematicians are viewedas sterile, passionless persons, lacking any interest in what is best in life, like personal relationi and sport.

to apply mathematics and be able to recognize the most promising mathematical approach to a given problem. Moreover, we must fully understand the mathematics in
order to appreciate when a problem is ripe for attack. Our mathematical knowledge, in other words, does more than enable us to solve already formulated problems; it tells us how to formulate questions, what questions to ask, and when to ask them. The prescription of the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in the Agenda for Action is well-intentioned but could be dangerous precisely because it gives the false impression that we always proceed in the sequence - find the problem, formulate a problem, solve a problem. Thus it is argued: 'The mathematics curriculum should be organized round problem-solving ... The caniculum should mointain a balance between attention to the applications of mathematics and to fundamental concepts'. The first sentence gives the false impression referred to, the second is banal, since it would not be possible to argue the contrary. The point at issue is where the balance is to be found. The result we want to achieve is that our students have the ability and the will to do mathematics and to use it. If we achieve it, we will have overcome the sterile antagonism between pure and applied mathematics, and shown their interrelations and the importance of both. We will have destroyed certain traditional sacred cows of mathematics education and curriculum - and we will have shown our students not only how to answer interesting questions but also how to ask them (thus we will certainly have emphasized the importance of the geometrical viewpoint, today so often woefully neglected). I repeat - we must give our students the ability and the will to do mathematics. The ability without the will leads to sterility; the will without the ability leads to frustration. We avoid both these pitfalls by teaching all of mathematics as a unity, emphasizing both its unique generality and its immense power.

likely to believe them sturdily male. Following, or even

elitist.

Those holding this view maywell believe, incorrectly, that mathematicians are exclusively male; but they are hardly

preceding, Spiro Agnew, they will believe them effete and

These absurd views spring, ofcourse, from a false view of mathematics, of both its nature and its purposes. We have to dispel that view vigorously and rp"baity. The na-

ture and purposes of mathematics cannot be summarized neatly in a few phrases corresponding to our particular prejudices the question is far too subtle for tliat. Those who hold that mathematics is mere drudgery are only

We should show our studenfs nof

only how to answer interesting guestions but also how to ask them
marginally more wrongheaded than those who hold that it is mere fun. It is, in some of its aspects, simple and natu-

ral, in others subtle and sophisticated. But, above all,

attitudes if we understand better its nature and we should not wish to avoid it since we need it the better to conduct our daily lives. Since mathematics is so important, to each intelligent individual, we must aspire to the attitude that it is simplynot respectable to be ignorant of mathematics. How should we change popular attitudes to the uses of mathematics? Much attention has already been given in this article to the affinity between pure and upin"a

mathematics is not something to be avoided. We should not seek to avoid it from distaste, for we can change our

mathematics; and our attitude towaids mathemitics should include the view that it is useful to learn to think mathematically whether the particular problem under
consideration is pure or applied. Thus pait of this new at_ titude must be a twin respect for mathimatics and for its applicability. The increasing emphasis on applications is a healthy trend, but it must not be allowed to obscure the importance of theoretical mathematics, nor must it be used to justify sloppiness of thought or statement. It is necessary to say yet again (see Hilton:1981) for a previous version of this remark) that problem-solving is not an alternative to setting up mathematical structures. One can

References
Agenila

natics,

for Action. (1980). ilational

Reston.

Council
and

of

Teachers

of

Mathe-

(1981). Th enphasis o,n applied Dathenatics today ard fitto.n,.f lts inplications for the nathenatics -curriculun. In leceot DErreloprenta ia tbe Application of lrhtheratica, Springer. Ihe Corputing. feacher, (1980-).- I-nteraational Council for Conputers in Education, lJniversity of 0regon. Ihe role of rpplicatims ia the uadeorgraduate nthecticr currisufur, (1979). Aa Hoc Comittee on appfi-ea Uaitrenailcs ftiinins-,-[ii-

ii$lil"g::"tii*Tr3t*t&tol*

re have selr lot'hiDs

Ft'

rport, pp 25.

readily approve of the discussion of problem-solving strategies in the hands of such experts as George polyi

l{hat is_a P^roo^f Today?. (1981). Iro nal, Vol 12, 2.

lan

Coltege

l.hthenticr Jour