Solutions To Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition

Solutions to Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition
Homer Reid August 22, 2000
Chapter 1
Problem 1.1
A nucleus, originally at rest, decays radioactively by emitting an electron of momentum 1.73 MeV/c, and at right angles to the direction of the electron a neutrino with momentum 1.00 MeV/c. ( The MeV (million electron volt) is a unit of energy, used in modern physics, equal to 1.60 x 106 erg. Correspondingly, MeV/c is a unit of linear momentum equal to 5.34 x 1017 gm-cm/sec.) In what direction does the nucleus recoil? What is its momentum in MeV/c? If the mass of the residual nucleus is 3.90 x 1022 gm, what is its kinetic energy, in electron volts? Place the nucleus at the origin, and suppose the electron is emitted in the positive y direction, and the neutrino in the positive x direction. Then the resultant of the electron and neutrino momenta has magnitude |pe+ | = and its direction makes an angle = tan1 1.73 = 60 1 (1.73)2 + 12 = 2 MeV/c,
with the x axis. The nucleus must acquire a momentum of equal magnitude and directed in the opposite direction. The kinetic energy of the nucleus is T = 4 MeV2 c2 1.78 1027 gm p2 = = 9.1 ev 22 2m 2 3.9 10 gm 1 MeV c2
This is much smaller than the nucleus rest energy of several hundred GeV, so the non-relativistic approximation is justied.
Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1
Problem 1.2
The escape velocity of a particle on the earth is the minimum velocity required at the surface of the earth in order that the particle can escape from the earths gravitational eld. Neglecting the resistance of the atmosphere, the system is conservative. From the conservation theorem for potential plus kinetic energy show that the escape velocity for the earth, ignoring the presence of the moon, is 6.95 mi/sec. If the particle starts at the earths surface with the escape velocity, it will just manage to break free of the earths eld and have nothing left. Thus after it has escaped the earths eld it will have no kinetic energy left, and also no potential energy since its out of the earths eld, so its total energy will be zero. Since the particles total energy must be constant, it must also have zero total energy at the surface of the earth. This means that the kinetic energy it has at the surface of the earth must exactly cancel the gravitational potential energy it has there: 1 mMR 2 mve G =0 2 RR so v= 2GMR RR = 2 (6.67 1011 m3 kg3 s2 ) (5.98 1024 kg) 6.38 106 m
1/2
= 11.2 km/s
1m = 6.95 mi/s. 1.61 km
Problem 1.3
Rockets are propelled by the momentum reaction of the exhaust gases expelled from the tail. Since these gases arise from the reaction of the fuels carried in the rocket the mass of the rocket is not constant, but decreases as the fuel is expended. Show that the equation of motion for a rocket projected vertically upward in a uniform gravitational eld, neglecting atmospheric resistance, is m dv dm = v mg, dt dt
where m is the mass of the rocket and v is the velocity of the escaping gases relative to the rocket. Integrate this equation to obtain v as a function of m, assuming a constant time rate of loss of mass. Show, for a rocket starting initially from rest, with v equal to 6800 ft/sec and a mass loss per second equal to 1/60th of the initial mass, that in order to reach the escape velocity the ratio of the weight of the fuel to the weight of the empty rocket must be almost 300! Suppose that, at time t, the rocket has mass m(t) and velocity v (t). The total external force on the rocket is then F = gm(t), with g = 32.1 ft/s2 , pointed downwards, so that the total change in momentum between t and t + dt is F dt = gm(t)dt. At time t, the rocket has momentum p(t) = m(t)v (t). (2) (1)
On the other hand, during the time interval dt the rocket releases a mass m of gas at a velocity v with respect to the rocket. In so doing, the rockets velocity increases by an amount dv . The total momentum at time t + dt is the sum of the momenta of the rocket and gas: p(t + dt) = pr + pg = [m(t) m][v (t) + dv ] + m[v (t) + v ] (3)
Subtracting (2) from (3) and equating the dierence with (1), we have (to rst order in dierential quantities) gm(t)dt = m(t)dv + v m or dv v m = g dt m(t) dt
which we may write as dv v = g dt m(t) where = m 1 = m 0 s 1 . dt 60 (4)
This is a dierential equation for the function v (t) giving the velocity of the rocket as a function of time. We would now like to recast this as a dierential equation for the function v (m) giving the rockets velocity as a function of its mass. To do this, we rst observe that since the rocket is releasing the mass m every dt seconds, the time derivative of the rockets mass is dm m = = . dt dt We then have dv dv dm dv = = . dt dm dt dm Substituting into (4), we obtain or dv = dm g dm + v . m dv v = g dm m
Integrating, with the condition that v (m0 ) = 0, v (m) = g (m m0 ) + v ln m m0 .
Now, =(1/60)m0 s1 , while v =-6800 ft/s. Then v (m) = 1930 ft/s For m0 giving m m0 1 + 6800 ft/s ln m0 m
m we can neglect the rst term in the parentheses of the rst term, v (m) = 1930 ft/s + 6800 ft/s ln
m0 . m The escape velocity is v = 6.95 mi/s = 36.7 103 ft/s. Plugging this into the equation above and working backwards, we nd that escape velocity is achieved when m0 /m=293. Thanks to Brian Hart for pointing out an inconsistency in my original choice of notation for this problem.
Problem 1.4
Show that for a single particle with constant mass the equation of motion implies the following dierential equation for the kinetic energy: dT = F v, dt while if the mass varies with time the corresponding equation is d(mT ) = F p. dt
We have F=p If m is constant, F = mv Dotting v into both sides, F v = mv v = = dT dt 1 d 2 m |v| 2 dt (6) (5)
On the other hand, if m is not constant, instead of v we dot p into (5): Fp= pp = mv d(mv) dt dm dv = mv v +m dt dt 1 d 1 d = v 2 m2 + m2 (v 2 ) 2 dt 2 dt 1 d d(mT ) = (m2 v 2 ) = . 2 dt dt
Problem 1.5
Prove that the magnitude R of the position vector for the center of mass from an arbitrary origin is given by the equation M 2 R2 = M
i 2 mi ri
1 2
2 mi mj rij . ij
We have Rx = so 1 2 Rx = 2 M 1 2 Ry = 2 M
1 M
mi xi
i
2 m2 i xi + i i=j
and similarly
mi mj xi xj mi mj y i y j mi mj z i z j . (7)
2 m2 i yi + i i=j
Adding,
1 2 Rz = 2 M 1 R2 = 2 M
2 m2 i zi + i i=j
2 m2 i ri + i i=j
On the other hand,
mi mj (ri rj ) .
2 2 2 rij = ri + rj 2ri rj 2 and, in particular, rii = 0, so 2 = mi mj rij i,j i=j 2 2 + mi mj rj 2mi mj (ri rj )] [mi mj ri 2 mi mj ri 2 i=j i=j
=2 Next, M
i 2 mi ri = j
mi mj (ri rj ).
(8)
mj
i
2 mi ri
=
i
2 m2 i ri + i=j
2 mi mj ri .
(9)
r , r, (x, y )
Figure 1: My conception of the situation of Problem 1.8
Subtracting half of (8) from (9), we have M

2 mi ri
1 2
2 ijmi mj rij = i
2 m2 i ri + i=j
mi mj (ri rj )
and comparing this with (7) we see that we are done.
Problem 1.8
Two wheels of radius a are mounted on the ends of a common axle of length b such that the wheels rotate independently. The whole combination rolls without slipping on a plane. Show that there are two nonholonomic equations of constraint, cos dx + sin dy = 0 sin dx cos dy = a(d + d ) (where , , and have meanings similar to the problem of a single vertical disc, and (x, y ) are the coordinates of a point on the axle midway between the two wheels) and one holonomic equation of constraint, a = C ( ) b where C is a constant. My conception of the situation is illustrated in Figure 1. is the angle between the x axis and the axis of the two wheels. and are the rotation angles of the two wheels, and r and r are the locations of their centers. The center of the wheel axis is the point just between r and r : (x, y ) = 1 (rx + rx , ry + ry ). 2
If the wheel rotates through an angle d, the vector displacement of its center will have magnitude ad and direction determined by . For example, if = 0 then the wheel axis is parallel to the x axis, in which case rolling the wheel clockwise will cause it to move in the negative y direction. In general, referring to the Figure, we have dr = a d[sin i cos j] dr = a d [sin i cos j] Adding these componentwise we have1 dx = a [d + d ] sin 2 a dy = [d + d ] cos 2 (10) (11)
Multiplying these by sin or cos and adding or subtracting, we obtain sin dx cos dy = a[d + d ] cos dx + sin dy = 0. Next, consider the vector r12 = r r connecting the centers of the two wheels. The denition of is such that its tangent must just be the ratio of the y and x components of this vector: y12 x12 1 y12 2 dy12 . sec d = 2 dx12 + x12 x12 tan = Subtracting (11) from (10), sec2 d = a[d d ] 1 y12 cos sin 2 x12 x12
Again substituting for y12 /x12 in the rst term in parentheses, sec2 d = a[d d ] or d = a[d d ] 1 (sin2 cos + cos3 ) x12 1 = a[d d ] cos . x12 1 (tan sin + cos ) x12
(12)
1 Thanks to Javier Garcia for pointing out a factor-of-two error in the original version of these equations.
However, considering the denition of , we clearly have x12 x12 = cos = 2 2 1 / 2 b (x12 + y12 ) because the magnitude of the distance between r1 and r2 is constrained to be b by the rigid axis. Then (12) becomes a d = [d d ] b with immediate solution a = C [ ]. b with C a constant of integration.
Problem 1.9
A particle moves in the x y plane under the constraint that its velocity vector is always directed towards a point on the x axis whose abscissa is some given function of time f (t). Show that for f (t) dierentiable, but otherwise arbitrary, the constraint is nonholonomic. The particles position is (x(t), y (t)), while the position of the moving point is (f (t), 0). Then the vector d from the particle to the point has components dx = x(t) f (t) The particles velocity v has components dx dy vy = (14) dt dt and for the vectors in (13) and (?? to be in the same direction, we require vx = vy dy = vx dx or so dy y (t) dy/dt = = dx/dt dx x(t) f (t) (15) dy = y (t). (13)
dy dx = y x f (t) For example, if f (t) = t, then we may integrate to nd ln y (t) = ln[x(t) (t)] + C
or y (t) = C [x(t) t] which is a holonomic constraint. But for general f (t) the right side of (15) is not integrable, so the constraint is nonholonomic.
10
l a
Figure 2: My conception of the situation of Problem 1.10
Problem 1.10
Two points of mass m are joined by a rigid weightless rod of length l, the center of which is constrained to move on a circle of radius a. Set up the kinetic energy in generalized coordinates. My conception of this one is shown in Figure 2. is the angle representing how far around the circle the center of the rod has moved. is the angle the rod makes with the x axis. The position of the center of the rod is (x, y ) = (a cos , a sin ). The positions of the masses relative to the center of the rod are (xrel , yrel ) = (1/2)(l cos , l sin ). Then the absolute positions of the masses are (x, y ) = (a cos and their velocities are (vx , vy ) = (a sin The magnitudes of these are 2 + |v | = a2 l2 2 (sin sin + cos cos ) al 4 2 2 + l 2 al cos( ) = a2 4 l a cos l cos ). sin , 2 2 l l cos , a sin sin ) 2 2
When we add the kinetic energies of the two masses, the third term cancels, and we have 2 1 2 + l 2 ). mv 2 = m(a2 T = 2 4
11
Problem 1.13
A particle moves in a plane under the inuence of a force, acting toward a center of force, whose magnitude is F = 1 r2 1 r 2 2 rr c2 ,
where r is the distance of the particle to the center of force. Find the generalized potential that will result in such a force, and from that the Lagrangian for the motion in a plane. (The expression for F represents the force between two charges in Webers electrodynamics). If we take U (r) = then v2 c2 1 (r )2 + 2 r c r
1 r
1+
U 1 r 2 = 2 2 2 r r c r d d U = dt r dt Qr = 2r c2 r = 2 r 2(r )2 2 2 2 c r c r 1+ 2r r (r )2 2 c 2r r (r )2 2 c
and
so
d U 1 U + = 2 r dt r r
The Lagrangian for motion in a plane is L=T V = 1 2 1 2 2 1 mr + mr 2 2 2 r 1+ .
Problem 1.14
If L is a Lagrangian for a system of n degrees of freedom satisfying Lagranges equations, show by direct substitution that L = L+ dF (q1 , . . . , qn , t) dt
also satises Lagranges equations, where F is any arbitrary, but dierentiable, function of its arguments. We have
L L dF = + qi qi qi dt
(16)
12
and
L dF L = + . q i q i q i dt For the function F we may write dF = dt F F q i + qi t
(17)
and from this we may read o F dF = . q i dt qi Then taking the time derivative of (17) gives d L d F d L = + dt q i dt q i dt qi so we have L d L L d L dF d F = + . qi dt q i qi dt q i qi dt dt qi The rst two terms on the RHS cancel because L satises the Euler-Lagrange equations, while the second two terms cancel because F is dierentiable. Hence L satises the Euler-Lagrange equations.
Problem 1.16
A Lagrangian for a particular physical system can be written as L = m K (ax 2 + 2bx y + cy 2 ) (ax2 + 2bxy + cy 2 ), 2 2
where a, b, and c are arbitrary constants but subject to the condition that b2 ac = 0. What are the equations of motion? Examine particularly the two cases a = 0 = c and b = 0, c = a. What is the physical system described by the above Lagrangian? Show that the usual Lagrangian for this system as dened by Eq. (1-56) is related to L by a point transformation (cf. Exercise 15 above). What is the signicance of the condition on the value of b2 ac? Clearly we have L = Kax Kby x so the Euler-Lagrange equation for x is L d L = x dt x m(ax + by ) = K (ax + by ). L = max + mby x
13
Similarly, for y we obtain m(by + cy ) = K (bx + cy ). These are the equations of motion for a particle of mass m undergoing simple harmonic motion in two dimensions, as if bound by two springs of spring constant K . Normally we would express the Lagrangian in unravelled form, by transforming to new coordinates u1 and u2 with u1 = ax + by u2 = bx + cy.
The condition b2 ac = 0 is the condition that the coordinate transformation not be degenerate, i.e. that there are actually two distinct dimensions in which the particle experiences a restoring force. If b2 = ac then we have just a onedimensional problem.
Problem 1.17
Obtain the Lagrangian equations of motion for a spherical pendulum, i.e. a mass point suspended by a rigid weightless rod. Let m and L be the mass of the particle and the length of the rod. Since the particle is constrained to move on the surface of a sphere of radius L, we may parameterize its position by the angles and , in terms of which the particles position and velocity are x = L (sin cos i + sin sin j + cos k) sin sin + sin cos k) . v = L (cos cos )i + (cos sin )j (sin so the kinetic energy is T = 1 mL2 2 mL2 mv 2 = + sin2 2. 2 2 2 V = mgL cos where we take the potential at the height of the fulcrum as the zero of potential. Then the Lagrangian is L=T V = 1 2 + 1 mL2 sin2 mL2 2 + mgL cos 2 2
On the other hand, the gravitational potential energy depends only on :
and the equations of motion are =0 = g 2 cos sin . L
14
If there is no motion in the azimuthal direction, = 0 and the system is the elementary one-dimensional mechanical pendulum with frequency 0 = g/L. But any nite velocity of azimuthal spinning gives rise to an additional eect which we may think of as mitigating the downward force of gravity, yielding an eective gravitational acceleration g = g L 2 cos . The mitigating eect is largest near the trough of the pendulum, vanishes as the particle passes through the vertical height of the fulcrum, and becomes an enhancing eect in the upper hemisphere. For small oscillations about the 2 trough, cos 1 and the pendulum frequency is reduced to = 0 2. Thanks to Tomasz Szymanski for pointing out an error in an earlier version of this solution.
Problem 1.18
A particle of mass m moves in one dimension such that it has the Lagrangian L= m2 x 4 + mx 2 V (x) V 2 (x), 12
where V is some dierentiable function of x. Find the equation of motion for x(t) and describe the physical nature of the system on the basis of this equation. We have dV L dV = mx 2 2V (x) x dx dx L m2 x 3 = + 2mxV (x) x 3 d L d = m2 (x )2 x + 2 mx V (x) + 2mx V (x) dt x dt In the last equation we can use d dV V (x) = x . dt dx Then the Euler-Lagrange equation is d L L =0 dt x x or mx + m2 (x )2 x + 2 mx V (x) + mx 2 dV dx dV dV + 2V (x) dx dx
mx 2 + 2V (x) = 0.
Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1 If we identify F = dV /dx and T = mx 2 /2, we may write this as (F mx )(T + V ) = 0
15
So, this is saying that, at all times, either the dierence between F and ma is zero, or the sum of kinetic and potential energy is zero.
Problem 1.19
Two mass points of mass m1 and m2 are connected by a string passing through a hole in a smooth table so that m1 rests on the table and m2 hangs suspended. Assuming m2 moves only in a vertical line, what are the generalized coordinates for the system? Write down the Lagrange equations for the system and, if possible, discuss the physical signicance any of them might have. Reduce the problem to a single second-order dierential equation and obtain a rst integral of the equation. What is its physical signicance? (Consider the motion only so long as neither m1 nor m2 passes through the hole). Let d be the height of m2 above its lowest possible position, so that d = 0 when the string is fully extended beneath the table and m1 is just about to fall through the hole. Also, let be the angular coordinate of m1 on the 2 /2, while the kinetic energy table. Then the kinetic energy of m2 is just m2 d 2 2 2 of m1 is m1 d /2 + m1 d /2, and the potential energy of the system is just the gravitational potential energy of m2 , U = m2 gd. Then the Lagrangian is L= 1 2 + 1 m1 d2 2 m2 gd (m1 + m2 )d 2 2
and the Euler-Lagrange equations are d ) = 0 (m1 d2 dt = m2 g + m1 d 2 (m1 + m2 )d = l where l is a From the rst equation we can identify a rst integral, m1 d2 in the second equation: constant. With this we can substitute for = m2 g + (m1 + m2 )d l2 m1 d3
Because the sign of the two terms on the RHS is dierent, this is saying that, if l is big enough (if m1 is spinning fast enough), the centrifugal force of m1 can balance the downward pull of m2 , and the system can be in equilibrium.
16
Problem 1.20
Obtain the Lagrangian and equations of motion for the double pendulum illustrated in Fig. 1-4, where the lengths of the pendula are l1 and l2 with corresponding masses m1 and m2 . Taking the origin at the fulcrum of the rst pendulum, we can write down the coordinates of the rst mass point: x1 = l1 sin 1 y1 = l1 cos 1 The coordinates of the second mass point are dened relative to the coordinates of the rst mass point by exactly analogous expressions, so relative to the coordinate origin we have x2 = x1 + l2 sin 2 y2 = y1 l2 cos 2 Dierentiating and doing a little algebra we nd
2 2 2 x 2 1 = l1 1 1+y 2 2 2 2 2 2 l1 l2 1 2 cos(1 2 ) x +y = l + l2 2 2 1 1 2 2
The Lagrangian is L= 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 cos(1 2 )+(m1 +m2 )gl2 cos 1 +m2 gl2 cos 2 (m1 +m2 )l1 1 + m 2 l 2 2 m 2 l 1 l 2 2 2
with equations of motion d 2 2 cos(1 2 ) = (m1 + m2 )gl2 sin 1 (m1 + m2 )l1 1 m 2 l 1 l 2 dt and d 2 l1 1 cos(1 2 ) = g sin 2 . l2 dt
1 = 0, so that the fulcrum for the second pendulum is stationary, then the If second of these equations reduces to the equation we derived in Problem 1.17.
17
Problem 1.21
The electromagnetic eld is invariant under a gauge transformation of the scalar and vector potential given by A A + (r, t), 1 , c t where is arbitrary (but dierentiable). What eect does this gauge transformation have on the Lagrangian of a particle moving in the electromagnetic eld? Is the motion aected? The Lagrangian for a particle in an electromagnetic eld is q L = T q (x(t)) + A(x(t)) v(t) c If we make the suggested gauge transformation, this becomes T q (x(t)) 1 c t +
x=x(t)
q [A(x(t)) v(t) + v (x(t))] c
q = T q (x(t)) + A(x(t)) v(t) + c q = T q (x(t)) + A(x(t)) v(t) + c q d (x(t)). =L+ c dt
q + v (x(t)) c t q d (x(t)) c dt
So the transformed Lagrangian equals the original Lagrangian plus a total time derivative. But we proved in Problem 1.15 that adding the total time derivative of any function to the Lagrangian does not aect the equations of motion, so the motion of the particle is unaected by the gauge transformation.
Problem 1.22
Obtain the equation of motion for a particle falling vertically under the inuence 1 kv 2 are of gravity when frictional forces obtainable from a dissipation function 2 present. Integrate the equation to obtain the velocity as a function of time and show that the maximum possible velocity for fall from rest is v = mg/k . The Lagrangian for the particle is L= 1 mz 2 mgz 2
Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1 and the dissipation function is k z 2 /2, so the equation of motion is d dt L z L F + mz = mg k z. z z
18
This says that the acceleration goes to zero when mg = k z , or z = mg/k , so the velocity can never rise above this terminal value (unless the initial value of the velocity is greater than the terminal velocity, in which case the particle will slow down to the terminal velocity and then stay there).

Homer Reid December 1, 2001
Chapter 3
Problem 3.1
A particle of mass m is constrained to move under gravity without friction on the inside of a paraboloid of revolution whose axis is vertical. Find the one-dimensional problem equivalent to its motion. What is the condition on the particles initial velocity to produce circular motion? Find the period of small oscillations about this circular motion. Well take the paraboloid to be dened by the equation z = r 2 . The kinetic and potential energies of the particle are m 2 2 + z (r + r2 2) 2 m 2 2 + 42 r2 r + r2 2 ) = (r 2 V = mgz = mgr 2 . T = Hence the Lagrangian is L= m 2 mgr2 . (1 + 42 r2 )r 2 + r2 2
This is cyclic in , so the angular momentum is conserved: = constant. l = mr2
For r we have the derivatives L 2 2mgr = 42 mrr 2 + mr r L = m(1 + 42 r2 )r r d L = 8m2 rr 2 + m(1 + 42 r2 ) r. dt r Hence the equation of motion for r is 2 2mgr 8m2 rr 2 + m(1 + 42 r2 ) r = 42 mrr 2 + mr or 2 + 2mgr = 0. m(1 + 42 r2 ) r + 4m2 rr 2 mr In terms of the constant angular momentum, we may rewrite this as m(1 + 42 r2 ) r + 4m2 rr 2 l2 + 2mgr = 0. mr3
So this is the dierential equation that determines the time evolution of r. If initially r = 0, then we have m(1 + 42 r2 ) r+ l2 + 2mgr = 0. mr3
Evidently, r will then vanishand hence r will remain 0, giving circular motion if l2 = 2mgr mr3 or = 2g. So if this condition is satised, the particle will execute circular motion (assuming its initial r velocity was zero). Its interesting to note that the condition on for circular motion is independent of r.
Problem 3.2
A particle moves in a central force eld given by the potential V = k ear , r
where k and a are positive constants. Using the method of the equivalent onedimensional potential discuss the nature of the motion, stating the ranges of l and E appropriate to each type of motion. When are circular orbits possible? Find the period of small radial oscillations about the circular motion. The Lagrangian is
ar m 2 2 + k e r + r2 . 2 r As usual the angular momentum is conserved:
L=
= constant. l = mr2 We have

ar L 2 k (1 + ar) e = mr r r2 L = mr r
so the equation of motion for r is

ar 2 k (1 + ar) e r = r m r2 2 l k ear = 2 3 (1 + ar) 2 . m r m r
(1)
The condition for circular motion is that this vanish, which yields = ear0 /2 k (1 + ar0 ) 3/2 . m r
0
(2)
What this means is that that if the particles initial velocity is equal to the above function of the starting radius r0 , then the second derivative of r will remain zero for all time. (Note that, in contrast to the previous problem, in this case the condition for circular motion does depend on the starting radius.) To nd the frequency of small oscillations, lets suppose the particle is executing a circular orbit with radius r0 (in which case the velocity is given by (2)), and suppose we nudge it slightly so that its radius becomes r = r0 + x, where x is small. Then (1) becomes x = ea[r0 +x] k ear0 k 1 + ar0 (1 + a [ r + x ]) 0 2 m r0 m [r0 + x]2 (3)
Since x is small, we may write the second term approximately as k ear0 x 2 (1 + ar0 + ax)(1 ax) 1 2 r m r0 0 ar0 ar0 k (1 + ar0 ) e k e (1 + ar0 ) 2 + a a(1 + ar0 ) 2 2 m r0 m r0 r0 ar0 ar0 k e k e 2 (1 + ar0 ) 2 2a + + a2 r0 x. 2 m r0 m r0 r0
The rst term here just cancels the rst term in (??), so we are left with x = k ear0 2 m r0 2a + 2 + a 2 r0 x r0
The problem is that the RHS here has the wrong signthis equation is satised by an x that grows (or decays) exponentially, rather than oscillates. Somehow I messed up the sign of the RHS, but I cant nd wherecan anybody help?
Problem 3.3
Two particles move about each other in circular orbits under the inuence of gravitational forces, with a period . Their motion is suddenly stopped, and they are then released and allowed to fall into each other. Prove that they collide after a time /4 2. Since we are dealing with gravitational forces, the potential energy between the particles is k U (r) = r and, after reduction to the equivalent one-body problem, the Lagrangian is L= 2 2 ] + k [r + r2 2 r
where is the reduced mass. The equation of motion for r is 2 k . r = r r2 (4)
If the particles are to move in circular orbits with radius r0 , (4) must vanish at : r = r0 , which yields a relation between r0 and r0 = = k 2 k 2 4 2
1/3
1/3
(5)
where we used the fact that the angular velocity in the circular orbit with period = 2/ . is When the particles are stopped, the angular velocity goes to zero, and the rst term in (4) vanishes, leaving only the second term: r = k . r2 (6)
This dierential equation governs the evolution of the particles after they are stopped. We now want to use this equation to nd r as a function of t, which we will then need to invert to nd the time required for the particle separation r to go from r0 to 0. The rst step is to multiply both sides of (6) by the integrating factor 2r : 2r r = or d 2 d r =+ dt dt from which we conclude r 2 = 2k + C. r (7) 2k r 2k r r2
The constant C is determined from the boundary condition on r . This is simply that r = 0 when r = r0 , since initially the particles are not moving at all. With the appropriate choice of C in (7), we have r = dr = dt = 2k 2k
1/2
1 1 r r0 r0 r . rr0 (8)
1/2
We could now proceed to solve this dierential equation for r(t), but since in fact were interested in solving for the time dierence corresponding to given boundary values of r, its easier to invert (8) and solve for t(r):
0
t =
r0 0
dt dr dr dt
1/2
dr
1
=
r0
dr
0 r0
2k
rr0 r0 r
1/2
dr
We change variables to u = r/r0 , du = dr/r0 : = 2k

1/2
r0
3/2 1
u 1u
1/2
du
Next we change variables to u = sin2 x, du = 2 sin x cos x dx : =2 2k

1/2
r0
3/2
0 /2
sin2 x dx
= 2k Now plugging in (5), we obtain t = 2k = 4 2
1/2
3/2 r0 .
1/2
k 2 4 2
1/2
as advertised.
Problem 3.6
(a) Show that if a particle describes a circular orbit under the inuence of an attractive central force directed at a point on the circle, then the force varies as the inverse fth power of the distance. (b) Show that for the orbit described the total energy of the particle is zero. (c) Find the period of the motion. (d) Find x , y , and v as a function of angle around the circle and show that all three quantities are innite as the particle goes through the center of force. Lets suppose the center of force is at the origin, and that the particles orbit is a circle of radius R centered at (x = R, y = 0) (so that the leftmost point of the particles origin is the center of force). The equation describing such an orbit is r() = 2R(1 + cos 2)1/2 so u() = 1 1 = . r() 2R(1 + cos 2)1/2 (9)
Dierentiating, sin 2 du = d 2R(1 + cos 2)3/2 1 du sin2 2 2 cos 2 = + 3 d (1 + cos 2)5/2 2R (1 + cos 2)3/2 1 1 = 2 cos 2 + 2 cos2 2 + 3 sin2 2 . 2 2R (1 + cos 2)5/2 Adding (9) and (10), 1 d2 u (1 + cos 2)2 + 2 cos 2 + 2 cos2 2 + 3 sin2 2 +u= 5 / 2 d2 2R(1 + cos 2) 1 = [4 + 4 cos 2] 2R(1 + cos 2)5/2 4 = 2R(1 + cos 2)3/2 = 8R2 u3 . The dierential equation for the orbit is d2 u m d +u= 2 V d2 l du Plugging in (11), we have 8R2 u3 = so V so f (r) = 8l2R2 mr5 (14) 1 u = 2l2R2 4 u m V (r) = 2l2 R2 mr4 (13) m d V l2 du 1 u 1 u (12) (11)
(10)
which is the advertised r dependence of the force. (b) The kinetic energy of the particle is T = m 2 2 ]. [r + r2 2 (15)
We have r=
2R(1 + cos 2)1/2
r2 = 2R2 (1 + cos 2) sin 2 r = 2R (1 + cos 2)1/2 r 2 = 2R2 sin2 2 2 1 + cos 2
Plugging into (15), 2 T = mR2 2 = mR2 2 = 2mR2 , this is just In terms of l = mr2 2R2 l2 mr4 But this is just the negative of the potential energy, (13); hence the total particle energy T + V is zero. = (c) Suppose the particle starts out at the furthest point from the center of force on its orbit, i.e the point x = 2R, y = 0, and that it moves counter-clockwise from this point to the origin. The time required to undergo this motion is half the period of the orbit, and the particles angle changes from = 0 to = /2. Hence we can calculate the period as
/2
sin2 2 + 1 + cos 2 1 + cos 2 sin2 2 + 1 + 2 cos 2 + cos2 2 1 + cos
=2
0 /2
dt d d d
=2
0
= l/mr2 , we have Using =2 = m l

/2
r2 () d
0
4R2 m /2 (1 + 2 cos 2 + cos2 2) d l 0 4R2 m 3 = l 4 3R2 m = . l
Problem 3.8
(a) For circular and parabolic orbits in an attractive 1/r potential having the same angular momentum, show that the perihelion distance of the parabola is one half the radius of the circle. (b) Prove that in the same central force as in part (a) the speed of a particle at any point in a parabolic orbit is 2 times the speed in a circular orbit passing through the same point. (a) The equations describing the orbits are 2 l mk r= 1 l2 mk 1 + cos
(circle) (parabola.)
Evidently, the perihelion of the parabola occurs when = 0, in which case r = l2 /2mk , or one-half the radius of the circle. (b) For the parabola, we have r = sin (1 + cos )2 sin = r 1 + cos l2 mk (16)
so 2 v2 = r 2 + r2 2 = r2 2 = r2 sin2 +1 (1 + cos )2
sin2 + 1 + 2 cos + cos2 (1 + cos )2 1 2 = 2r2 1 + cos 2 2mkr3 = l2 2k = (17) mr 2 . On the other hand, for the circle in terms of the angular momentum l = mr 2 r = 0, so 2 = v 2 = r2 l2 k = m2 r 2 mr (18)
10
where we used that fact that, since this is a circular orbit, the condition k/r = l2 /mr2 is satised. Evidently (17) is twice (18) for the same particle at the same point, so the unsquared speed in the parabolic orbit is 2 times that in the circular orbit at the same point.
Problem 3.12
At perigee of an elliptic gravitational orbit a particle experiences an impulse S (cf. Exercise 9, Chapter 2) in the radial direction, sending the particle into another elliptic orbit. Determine the new semimajor axis, eccentricity, and orientation of major axis in terms of the old. The orbit equation for elliptical motion is r() = a(1 2 ) . 1 + cos( 0 ) (19)
For simplicity well take 0 = 0 for the initial motion of the particle. Then perigee happens when = 0, which is to say the major axis of the orbit is on the x axis. Then at the point at which the impulse is delivered, the particles momentum is entirely in the y direction: pi = pi j. After receiving the impulse S in the radial (x) direction, the particles y momentum is unchanged, but its x momentum is now px = S . Hence the nal momentum of the particle is pf = S i+pi j. Since the particle is in the same location before and after the impulse, its potential energy is unchanged, but its kinetic energy is increased due to the added momentum: Ef = E i + S2 . 2m (20)
Hence the semimajor axis length shrinks accordingly: af = k k ai = = . 2Ef 2Ei + S 2 /m 1 + S 2 /(2mEi ) (21)
Next, since the impulse is in the same direction as the particles distance from the origin, we have L = r p = 0, i.e. the impulse does not change the particles angular momentum: Lf = Li L. (22)
With (20) and (22), we can compute the change in the particles eccentricity:
f
= =
2Ef L2 mk 2 L2 S 2 2Ei L2 1+ + 2 2. 2 mk m k 1+
(23)
11
What remains is to compute the constant 0 in (19) for the particles orbit after the collision. To do this we need merely observe that, since the location of the particle is unchanged immediately after the impulse is delivered, expression (19) must evaluate to the same radius at = 0 with both the before and after values of a and : af (1 2 ai (1 2 f) i) = 1+ i 1 + f cos 0 or cos 0 = 1
f
af (1 2 f) 1 . ai (1 i )
Problem 3.13
A uniform distribution of dust in the solar system adds to the gravitational attraction of the sun on a planet an additional force F = mC r where m is the mass of the planet, C is a constant proportional to the gravitational constant and the density of the dust, and r is the radius vector from the sun to the planet (both considered as points). This additional force is very small compared to the direct sun-planet gravitational force. (a) Calculate the period for a circular orbit of radius r0 of the planet in this combined eld. (b) Calculate the period of radial oscillations for slight disturbances from this circular orbit. (c) Show that nearly circular orbits can be approximated by a precessing ellipse and nd the precession frequency. Is the precession the same or opposite direction to the orbital angular velocity?
(a) The equation of motion for r is mr = l2 + f (r) mr3 l2 k = 2 mCr. mr3 r k l2 2 mCr0 3 mr0 r0
(24)
For a circular orbit at radius r0 this must vanish: 0= (25)
12
l = =
4 mkr0 + m2 Cr0
1 l = 2 2 mr0 mr0 = k 3 mr0
4 mkr0 + m2 Cr0 3 mCr0 k
1+
3 mCr0 k 1+ 3 mr0 2k
Then the period is = 2 3/2 2r0

2 C0 2 8 3 mCr0 m 1 k 2k
= 0 1
3/2
where 0 = 2r0 m/k is the period of circular motion in the absence of the perturbing potential. (b) We return to (24) and put r = r0 + x with x mx = r0 :
k l2 mC (r0 + x) m(r0 + x)3 (r0 + x)2 l2 k x x 2 12 mCr0 mCx 13 3 mr0 r0 r0 r0
Using (25), this reduces to mx = 3l2 2k 4 + r 3 mC x mr0 0
or x + 2x = 0 with = = 2k 3l2 4 3 C 2 m r0 mr0 k 2l2 4 mr 3 m2 r 0 0

1/2 1/2
where in going to the last line we used (25) again.
13
Problem 3.14
Show that the motion of a particle in the potential eld V (r) = h k + 2 r r
is the same as that of the motion under the Kepler potential alone when expressed in terms of a coordinate system rotating or precessing around the center of force. For negative total energy show that if the additional potential term is very small compared to the Kepler potential, then the angular speed of precession of the elliptical orbit is = 2mh . l2 The perihelion of Mercury is observed to precess (after corrections for known planetary perturbations) at the rate of about 40 of arc per century. Show that this precession could be accounted for classically if the dimensionless quantity = k ka
(which is a measure of the perturbing inverse square potential relative to the gravitational potential) were as small as 7 108 . (The eccentricity of Mercurys orbit is 0.206, and its period is 0.24 year). The eective one-dimensional equation of motion is mr = L2 k 2h 2+ 3 3 mr r r k L2 + 2mh + 2 = mr3 r L2 + 2mh + (mh/L)2 (mh/L)2 k = + 2 mr3 r k [L + (mh/L)]2 (mh/L)2 + 2 = mr3 r
If mh write
L2 , then we can neglect the term (mh/L)2 in comparison with L2 , and [L + (mh/L)]2 k + 2 3 mr r
mr =
(26)
which is just the normal equation of motion for the Kepler problem, but with the angular momentum L augmented by the additive term L = mh/L. Such an augmentation of the angular momentum may be accounted for by
14
augmenting the angular velocity: L = mr2 L 1+ mh L2 mh L2 2 2 = mr + mr 1+ = mr2
where
= mh = 2mh L2 L2
is a precession frequency. If we were to go back and work the problem in the , but reference frame in which everything is precessing with angular velocity 2 there is no term h/r in the potential, then the equations of motion would come added to out the same as in the stationary case, but with a term L = mr 2 the eective angular momentum that shows up in the equation of motion for r, just as we found in (26). To put in the numbers, we observe that = = = so h = (1 e2 ) ka 2 = (1 e2 ) fprec where in going to the third-to-last line we used Goldsteins equation (3-62), and /2 . Putting in the numbers, we nd in the last line I put fprec = h = (1 .2062 ) 0.24 yr 40 ka = 7.1 108 . 1 3600 1 revolution 360 1 century1 100 yr1 yr1 2 2 2 m (h) L2 mka h L2 ka 1 h 1 e2 ka
15
Problem 3.22
In hyperbolic motion in a 1/r potential the analogue of the eccentric anomaly is F dened by r = a(e cosh F 1), where a(1 e) is the distance of closest approach. Find the analogue to Keplers equation giving t from the time of closest approach as a function of F . We start with Goldsteins equation (3.65): t= m 2 m 2
r r0 r r0 k r
dr
l2 2mr 2
+E
l2 2m
r dr Er2 + kr
(27)
With the suggested substitution, the thing under the radical in the denominator of the integrand is Er2 + kr l2 l2 = Ea2 (e2 cosh2 F 2e cosh F + 1) + ka(e cosh F 1) 2m 2m l2 2 2 2 2 = Ea e cosh F + ae(k 2Ea) cosh F + Ea ka 2m
It follows from the orbit equation that, if a(e 1) is the distance of closest approach, then a = k/2E . Thus = k 2 e2 k 2 e2 l2 cosh2 F 4E 4E 2m k2 2El2 2 2 = e cosh F 1 + 4E mk 2 k 2 e2 k 2 e2 = cosh2 F 1 = sinh2 F = a2 e2 E sinh2 F. 4E 4E
Plugging into (27) and observing that dr = ae sinh F dF , we have t= m 2E

F F0
a(e cosh F 1) dF
ma2 [e(sinh F sinh F0 ) (F F0 )] 2E
and I suppose this equation could be a jumping-o point for numerical or other investigations of the time of travel in hyperbolic orbit problems.
16
Problem 3.26
Examine the scattering produced by a repulsive central force f = kr 3 . Show that the dierential cross section is given by ()d = k (1 x)dx 2E x2 (2 x)2 sin x
where x is the ratio / and E is the energy. The potential energy is U = k/2r 2 = ku2 /2, and the dierential equation for the orbit reads d2 u m dU mk +u= 2 = 2 u d2 l du l or d2 u mk + 1+ 2 u=0 2 d l with solution u = A cos + B sin where = 1+ mk . l2 (29) (28)
Well set up our coordinates in the way traditional for scattering experiments: initially the particle is at angle = and a great distance from the force center, and ultimately the particle proceeds o to r = at some new angle s . The rst of these observations gives us a relation between A and B in the orbit equation (28): u( = ) = 0 A cos + B sin = 0 (30)
A = B tan .
The condition that the particle head o to r = at angle = s yields the condition A cos s + B sin s = 0. Using (30), this becomes cos s tan + sin s = 0
17
or cos s sin + sin s cos = 0 sin (s ) = 0 or, in terms of Goldsteins variable x = / , = Plugging in (29) and squaring both sides, we have 1+ 1 mk = . l2 (x 1)2 1 . x1 (31)
(s ) =
Now l = mv0 s = (2mE )1/2 s with s the impact parameter and E the particle energy. Thus the previous equation is 1+ or s2 = 1 k = 2Es2 (x 1)2 k (x 1)2 . 2E x(x 2)
Taking the dierential of both sides, 2s ds =
(x 1)2 (x 1)2 k 2(x 1) 2 dx 2E x(x 2) x (x 2) x(x 2)2 k 2x(x 1)(x 2) (x 1)2 (x 2) x(x 1)2 = 2E x2 (x 2)2 k 2(1 x) = . 2E x2 (x 2)2 | s ds | . sin
(32)
The dierential cross section is given by ()d = Plugging in (32), we have ()d = as advertised. k (1 x) dx 2 2E x (x 2)2 sin

Homer Reid April 21, 2002
Chapter 7
Problem 7.2
Obtain the Lorentz transformation in which the velocity is at an innitesimal angle d counterclockwise from the z axis, by means of a similarity transformation applied to Eq. (7-18). Show directly that the resulting matrix is orthogonal and that the inverse matrix is obtained by substituting v for v . We can obtain this transformation by rst applying a pure rotation to rotate the z axis into the boost axis, then applying a pure boost along the (new) z axis, and then applying the inverse of the original rotation to bring the z axis back in line with where it was originally. Symbolically we have L = R1 KR where R is the rotation to achieve the new z axis, and K is the boost along the z axis. Goldstein tells us that the new z axis is to be rotated d counterclockise from the original z axis, but he doesnt tell us in which plane, i.e. we know but not for the new z axis in the unrotated coordinates. Well assume the z axis is rotated around the x axis, in a sense such that if youre standing on the positive x axis, looking toward the negative x axis, the rotation appears to be counterclockwise, so that the positive z axis is rotated toward the negative y
axis. Then, using the real metric, 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 cos d 0 0 sin d 0 L= 0 sin d cos d 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 cos d 0 sin d 0 cos d sin d = 0 sin d cos d 0 0 sin d cos d 0 0 0 1 0 sin d cos d 1 0 0 0 0 cos2 d + sin2 d ( 1) sin d cos d sin d = 0 ( 1) sin d cos d sin2 d + cos2 d cos d 0 sin d cos d
0 cos d sin d 0
0 0 .
0 sin d cos d 0
0 0 0 1
Problem 7.4
A rocket of length l0 in its rest system is moving with constant speed along the z axis of an inertial system. An observer at the origin observes the apparent length of the rocket at any time by noting the z coordinates that can be seen for the head and tail of the rocket. How does this apparent length vary as the rocket moves from the extreme left of the observer to the extreme right? Lets imagine a coordinate system in which the rocket is at rest and centered at the origin. Then the world lines of the rockets top and bottom are xt = {0, 0, +L0 /2, } xb = {0, 0, L0 /2, } .
where we are parameterizing the world lines by the proper time . Now, the rest frame of the observer is moving in the negative z direction with speed v = c relative to the rest frame of the rocket. Transforming the world lines of the rockets top and bottom to the rest frame of the observer, we have xt = {0, 0, (L0 /2 + v ), ( + L0 /2c)} (1) (2)
xb
= {0, 0, (L0/2 + v ), ( L0 /2c)} .
Now consider the observer. At any time t in his own reference frame, he is receiving light from two events, namely, the top and bottom of the rocket moving past imaginary distance signposts that we pretend to exist up and down the z axis. He sees the top of the rocket lined up with one distance signpost and the bottom of the rocket lined up with another, and from the dierence between the two signposts he computes the length of the rocket. Of course, the light that he sees was emitted by the rocket some time in the past, and, moreover, the
light signals from the top and bottom of the rocket that the observer receives simultaneously at time t were in fact emitted at dierent proper times in the rockets rest frame. First consider the light received by the observer at time t0 coming from the bottom of the rocket. Suppose in the observers rest frame this light were emitted at time t0 t, i.e. t seconds before it reaches the observer at the origin; then the rocket bottom was passing through z = ct when it emitted this light. But then the event identied by (z, t) = (ct, t0 t ) must lie on the world line of the rockets bottom, which from (2) determines both t and the proper time at which the light was emitted: ct t0 t = (L0 /2 + v ) = ( + L0 /2c) 1+ 1
1/2
t0
L0 2c
b (t0 ).
We use the notation b (t0 ) to indicate that this is the proper time at which the bottom of the rocket emits the light that arrives at the observers origin at the observers time t0 . At this proper time, from (2), the position of the bottom of the rocket in the observers reference frame was zb (b (t0 )) = L0 /2 + vb (t0 ) = L0 /2 + v 1+ 1
1/2
t0
L0 2c
(3)
Similarly, for the top of the rocket we have t (t0 ) = and zt (t (t0 )) = L0 /2 + v 1+ 1
1/2
1+ 1
1/2
t0 +
L0 2c
t0 +
L0 2c
(4)
Subtracting (3) from (4), we have the length for the rocket computed by the observer from his observations at time t0 in his reference frame: L(t0 ) = (1 + )L0 = 1+ 1
1/2
L0 .
Problem 7.17
Two particles with rest masses m1 and m2 are observed to move along the observers z axis toward each other with speeds v1 and v2 , respectively. Upon collision they are observed to coalesce into one particle of rest mass m3 moving with speed v3 relative to the observer. Find m3 and v3 in terms of m1 , m2 , v1 , and v2 . Would it be possible for the resultant particle to be a photon, that is m3 = 0, if neither m1 nor m2 are zero? Equating the 3rd and 4th components of the initial and nal 4-momentum of the system yields 1 m1 v 1 2 m2 v 2 = 3 m3 v 3 1 m1 c + 2 m2 c = 3 m3 c Solving the second for m3 yields m3 = 1 2 m1 + m2 3 3 (5)
and plugging this into the rst yields v3 in terms of the properties of particles 1 and 2: 1 m1 v 1 2 m2 v 2 v3 = 1 m1 + 2 m2 Then 1 m 1 1 2 m 2 2 v3 = c 1 m1 + 2 m2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 m + 21 2 m1 m2 + 2 m2 [1 m 1 1 + 2 m2 2 21 2 m1 m2 1 2 ] 2 1 3 = 1 1 (1 m1 + 2 m2 )2 2 2 2 2 2 m2 (1 1 ) + 2 m2 (1 2 ) + 21 2 m1 m2 (1 1 2 ) = 1 1 (1 m1 + 2 m2 )2 m2 + m 2 2 + 21 2 m1 m2 (1 1 2 ) = 1 (1 m1 + 2 m2 )2 3 = and hence
2 3 =
(1 m1 + 2 m2 )2 1 = 2 . 2 2 1 3 m1 + m2 + 21 2 m1 m2 (1 1 2 )
(6)
Now, (5) shows that, for m3 to be zero when either m1 or m2 is zero, we must have 3 = . That this condition cannot be met for nonzero m1 , m2 is evident from the denominator of (6), in which all terms are positive (since 1 2 < 1 if m1 or m2 is nonzero).
Problem 7.19
A meson of mass comes to rest and disintegrates into a meson of mass and a neutrino of zero mass. Show that the kinetic energy of motion of the meson (i.e. without the rest mass energy) is ( )2 2 c . 2
Working in the rest frame of the pion, the conservation relations are
2 1/2 c2 = (2 c4 + p2 + p c c )
(energy conservation) (momentum conservation).
0 = p + p
From the second of these it follows that the muon and neutrino must have the same momentum, whose magnitude well call p. Then the energy conservation relation becomes c2 = (2 c4 + p2 c2 )1/2 + pc (c p)2 = 2 c2 + p2 p= 2 2 c. 2
Then the total energy of the muon is E = (2 c4 + p2 c2 )1/2 = c 2 2 + = ( 2 2 )2 4 2

1/2
c2 4 2 2 + ( 2 2 )2 2 c2 2 = ( + 2 ) 2
1/2
Then subtracting out the rest energy to get the kinetic energy, we obtain K = E c2 = c2 2 ( + 2 ) c2 2 c2 2 = ( + 2 2) 2 c2 = ( )2 2
as advertised.
Problem 7.20
A + meson of rest mass 139.6 MeV collides with a neutron (rest mass 939.6 MeV) stationary in the laboratory system to produce a K + meson (rest mass 494 MeV) and a hyperon (rest mass 1115 MeV). What is the threshold energy for this reaction in the laboratory system? Well put c = 1 for this problem. The four-momenta of the pion and neutron before the collision are p, = (p , m ), p,n = (0, mn )
and the squared magnitude of the initial four-momentum is thus

2 2 p,T p T = |p | + ( m + mn ) 2 = m2 + mn + 2 m mn
2 2 = |p |2 + m + m 2 n + 2 m mn
= (m + mn )2 + 2( 1)m mn
(7)
The threshold energy is the energy needed to produce the K and particles at rest in the COM system. In this case the squared magnitude of the fourmomentum of the nal system is just (mK + m )2 , and, by conservation of momentum, this must be equal to the magnitude of the four-momentum of the initial system (7): (mK + m )2 = (m + mn )2 + 2( 1)m mn = = 1 + (mK + m )2 (m + mn )2 = 6.43 2m mn
Then the total energy of the pion is T = m = (6.43 139.6 MeV) = 898 MeV, while its kinetic energy is K = T m = 758 MeV. The above appears to be the correct solution to this problem. On the other hand, I rst tried to do it a dierent way, as below. This way yields a dierent and hence presumably incorrect answer, but I cant gure out why. Can anyone nd the mistake? The K and particles must have, between them, the same total momentum in the direction of the original pions momentum as the original pion had. Of course, the K and may also have momentum in directions transverse to the original pion momentum (if so, their transverse momenta must be equal and opposite). But any transverse momentum just increases the energy of the nal system, which increases the energy the initial system must have had to produce the nal system. Hence the minimum energy situation is that in which the K and both travel in the direction of the original pions motion. (This is equivalent to Goldsteins conclusion that, just at threshold, the produced particles are at
rest in the COM system). Then the momentum conservation relation becomes simply p = p K + p and the energy conservation relation is (with c = 1)
2 1/2 2 1/2 2 1/2 (m2 + mn = (m2 + (m2 . + p ) K + pK ) + p )
(8)
(9)
The problem is to nd the minimum value of p that satises (9) subject to the constraint (8). To solve this we must rst resolve a subquestion: for a given p , what is the relative allocation of momentum to pK and p that minimizes (9) ? Minimizing
2 1/2 2 1/2 Ef = (m2 + (m2 . K + pK ) + p )
subject to pK + p = p , we obtain the condition p pK = 2 )1/2 2 + p2 )1/2 (m2 + p ( m K K Combining this with (8) yields p = m p mK + m pK = mK p . mK + m (11) = pK = mK p m (10)
For a given total momentum p , the minimum possible energy the nal system can have is realized when p is partitioned between pK and p according to (11). Plugging into (8), the relation dening the threshold momentum is (m2 +
1/2 p2 )
+ mn =
m2 K
mK mK + m
1/2
p2
m2
m mK + m
1/2
p2
Solving numerically yields p 655 MeV/c, for a total pion energy of about 670 MeV.
Problem 7.21
A photon may be described classically as a particle of zero mass possessing nevertheless a momentum h/ = h/c, and therefore a kinetic energy h . If the photon collides with an electron of mass m at rest it will be scattered at some angle with a new energy h . Show that the change in energy is related to the scattering angle by the formula = 2c sin2 , 2 where c = h/mc, known as the Compton wavelength. Show also that the kinetic energy of the recoil motion of the electron is T = h 2 1+2
c c
sin2
sin /2
2 2
Lets assume the photon is initially travelling along the z axis. Then the sum of the initial photon and electron four-momenta is 0 0 0 0 0 0 . (12) p,i = p, + p,e = h/ + 0 = h/ mc + h/ mc h/
Without loss of generality we may assume that the photon and electron move in the xz plane after the scatter. If the photons velocity makes an angle with the z axis, while the electrons velocity makes an angle , the four-momentum after the collision is pe sin (h/ ) sin + pe sin (h/ ) sin 0 0 0 = p,f = p, + p,e = (h/ ) cos + (h/ ) cos + pe cos pe cos h/ m 2 c2 + p 2 (h/ ) + m2 c2 + p2 e e (13)
Equating (12) and (13) yields three separate equations: (h/ ) sin + pe sin = 0 (h/ ) cos + pe cos = h/ h/ + From the rst of these we nd h sin = cos = 1 + sin = pe h pe
2 1/2
(14) (15) (16)
m 2 c2
p2 e
= mc + h/
sin
and plugging this into (15) we nd p2 e = h2 h2 h2 + 2 cos . 2 2 (17)
On the other hand, we can solve (16) to obtain

2 p2 e =h
1 1
+ 2mch
1 1
Comparing these two determinations of pe yields cos = 1 or sin2 mc ( ) h
mc 1 = ( ) = ( ) 2 2h 2c
so this is advertised result number 1. Next, to nd the kinetic energy of the electron after the collision, we can write the conservation of energy equation in a slightly dierent form: h h = mc + 1 1 = ( 1)mc = K = h =h mc + =h = where we put = c /. h 2c sin2 (/2) [ + 2c sin2 (/2)] 2 sin2 (/2) 1 + 2 sin2 (/2)
Problem 7.22
A photon of energy E collides at angle with another photon of energy E . Prove that the minimum value of E permitting formation of a pair of particles of mass m is 2m2 c4 . Eth = E (1 cos ) Well suppose the photon of energy E is traveling along the positive z axis, while that with energy E is traveling in the xz plane (i.e., its velocity has
10
spherical polar angles and = 0). Then the 4-momenta are p1 = p2 = 0, 0, E E , c c
E E E sin , 0, cos , c c c E + E cos E + E E pt = p 1 + p 2 = sin , 0, , c c c
Its convenient to rotate our reference frame to one in which the space portion of the composite four-momentum of the two photons is all along the z direction. In this frame the total four-momentum is pt = 0, 0, 1 c E 2 + E 2 + 2E E cos , E+E c . (18)
At threshold energy, the two produced particles have the same four-momenta: p3 = p4 = 0, 0, p, (m2c2 + p2 )1/2 (19)
and 4-momentum conservation requires that twice (19) add up to (18), which yields two conditions: 2p = 2 m 2 c2 + p 2 =
1 c
E +E c
E 2 + E 2 + 2E E cos
p 2 c2
= =
m2 c4 + p2 c2
1 2 4 (E
1 2 4 (E
+ E 2 + 2E E cos ) + E 2 + 2E E )
Subtracting the rst of these from the second, we obtain m2 c 4 = or E= as advertised. 2m2 c4 E (1 cos ) EE (1 cos ) 2

Homer Reid October 29, 2002
Chapter 9
Problem 9.1
One of the attempts at combining the two sets of Hamiltons equations into one tries to take q and p as forming a complex quantity. Show directly from Hamiltons equations of motion that for a system of one degree of freedom the transformation Q = q + ip, P = Q
is not canonical if the Hamiltonian is left unaltered. Can you nd another set of coordinates Q , P that are related to Q, P by a change of scale only, and that are canonical? Generalizing a little, we put Q = (q + ip), The reverse transformation is q= 1 2 1 1 Q+ P , p= 1 2i 1 1 Q P . P = (q ip). (1)
The direct conditions for canonicality, valid in cases (like this one) in which the
transformation equations do not depend on the time explicitly, are Q q Q p P q P p p P q = P p = Q q = . Q =
(2)
When applied to the case at hand, all four of these yield the same condition, namely 1 = . 2i For = = 1, which is the case Goldstein gives, these conditions are clearly 1 not satised, so (1) is not canonical. But putting = 1, = 2 i we see that equations (1) are canonical.
Problem 9.2
(a) For a one-dimensional system with the Hamiltonian H= p2 1 2, 2 2q pq Ht. 2
show that there is a constant of the motion D=
(b) As a generalization of part (a), for motion in a plane with the Hamiltonian H = |p|n arn , where p is the vector of the momenta conjugate to the Cartesian coordinates, show that there is a constant of the motion D= pr Ht. n
(c) The transformation Q = q, p = P is obviously canonical. However, the same transformation with t time dilatation, Q = q, p = P, t = 2 t, is not. Show that, however, the equations of motion for q and p for the Hamiltonian in part (a) are invariant under the transformation. The constant of the motion D is said to be associated with this invariance.
(a) The equation of motion for the quantity D is D dD = {D, H } + dT t The Poisson bracket of the second term in D clearly vanishes, so we have 1 {pq, H } H 2 1 1 = pq, p2 4 4 = The rst Poisson bracket is pq, p2 = (pq ) (p2 ) (pq ) (p2 ) q p p q = (p)(2p) 0 = 2p2
pq,
1 q2
H.
(3)
(4)
Next, pq, 1 q2 (pq ) q2 (pq ) q2 q p p q 2 =0 3 q q 2 = 2 q =

1 1
(5)
Plugging (4) and (5) into (3), we obtain dD p2 1 = 2 H dt 2 2q = 0. (b) We have

2 2 n/2 2 2 n/2 H = (p2 a(x2 1 + p2 + p3 ) 1 + x2 + x3 )
so H 2 2 n/21 = anxi (x2 1 + x2 + x3 ) xi H 2 2 n/21 = 2npi (p2 . 1 + p2 + p3 ) pi Then {p r, H } = =

i
(p1 x1 + p2 x2 + p3 x3 ) H (p1 x1 + p2 x2 + p3 x3 ) H xi pi pi xi
2 2 2 n/21 2 2 2 n/21 np2 anx2 i (p1 + p2 + p3 ) i (x1 + x2 + x3 )
2 2 n/2 2 2 n/2 = n(p2 an(x2 1 + p2 + p3 ) 1 + x2 + x3 )
(6)
so if we dene D = p r/n Ht, then D dD = {D, H } dT t D 1 = {p r, H } n t Substituting in from (6), = |p|n arn H = 0.
(c) We put Q(t ) = q t 2 , P (t ) = 1 p t 2 . (7)
Since q and p are the original canonical coordinates, they satisfy H =p p H 1 p = = 3. q q q = On the other hand, dierentiating (7), we have dQ 1 = q dt 1 = p = P (t ) dP 1 t = 3p dt 2 1 1 = 3 t q 2 1 = 3 Q (t ) which are the same equations of motion as (8). t 2 t 2
(8)
Problem 9.4
Show directly that the transformation Q = log is canonical. The Jacobian of the transformation is M= =
Q q P q Q p P p
1 sin p , p
P = q cot p
1 q cot p cot p q csc2 p
Hence MJM = = = = =J
1 q cot p cot p q csc2 p
cot p 1 q cot p q csc2 p

2
0 1 1 0
0 csc2 p cot2 p 2 cot p csc p 0
cot p q csc2 p 1 cot p q
0 1 1 0
cot p 1 q cot p q csc2 p
so the symplectic condition is satised.
Problem 9.5
Show directly for a system of one degree of freedom that the transformation Q = arctan q , p P = q 2 2 1+ p2 2 q 2
is canonical, where is an arbitrary constant of suitable dimensions. The Jacobian of the transformation is M= =
p 1 1+(
q p
Q q P q
Q p P p
1+( q p )
q p2
1 1+( q p ) p
2
so MJM = = =J
.
p
q
2
q p2
1 1+(
q p
q
p 1 1+(
q p
q p2
1 1+(
q p
1 0
Problem 9.6
The transformation equations between two sets of coordinates are Q = log(1 + q 1/2 cos p) P = 2(1 + q 1/2 cos p)q 1/2 sin p (a) Show directly from these transformation equations that Q, P are canonical variables if q and p are. (b) Show that the function that generates this transformation is F3 = (eQ 1)2 tan p. (a) The Jacobian of the transformation is M=
Q q P q Q p P p 1 2
MJM =
Hence we have
q 1/2 sin p + 2 cos p sin p 2q 1/2 cos p + 2q cos2 p 2q sin2 p q 1/2 cos p q 1/2 sin p 1 1 / 2 1 / 2 2 1+q cos p 1+q cos p . = q 1/2 sin p + sin 2p 2q 1/2 cos p + 2q cos 2p
q 1/2 cos p 1+q 1/2 cos p q 1/2 sin p 1+ q 1/2 cos p 1 2
q 1/2 cos p 1+q 1/2 cos p
q sin p 1+ q 1/2 cos p
1/2
q 1/2 sin p + sin 2p 2q 1/2 cos p + 2q cos 2p
= = =J
q 1/2 sin p + sin 2p 2q 1/2 cos p + 2q cos 2p

2
1 2
q 1/2 cos p 1+q 1/2 cos p
q 1/2 sin p 1+q 1/2 cos p
0
p+sin2 p+q 1/2 cos p cos 2p+q 1/2 sin p sin 2p 1+q 1/2 cos p
cos2 p+sin2 p+q 1/2 cos p cos 2p+q 1/2 sin p sin 2p 1+q 1/2 cos p
cos 0
1 0
(b) For an F3 function the relevant relations are q = F/p, P = F/Q. We have F3 (p, Q) = (eQ 1)2 tan p so F3 = 2eQ (eQ 1) tan p Q F3 q= = (eQ 1)2 sec2 p. p The second of these may be solved to yield Q in terms of q and p: P = Q = log(1 + q 1/2 cos p) and then we may plug this back into the equation for P to obtain P = 2q 1/2 sin p + q sin 2p as advertised.
Problem 9.7
(a) If each of the four types of generating functions exist for a given canonical transformation, use the Legendre transformation to derive relations between them. (b) Find a generating function of the F4 type for the identity transformation and of the F3 type for the exchange transformation. (c) For an orthogonal point transformation of q in a system of n degrees of freedom, show that the new momenta are likewise given by the orthogonal transformation of an ndimensional vector whose components are the old momenta plus a gradient in conguration space.
Problem 9.8
Prove directly that the transformation Q1 = q 1 , Q2 = p 2 , P1 P2 = p1 2p2 = 2q1 q2
is canonical and nd a generating function. After a little hacking I came up with the generating function F13 (p1 , Q1 , q2 , Q2 ) = (p1 2Q2 )Q1 + q2 Q2
which is of mixed F3 , F1 type. This is Legendre-transformed into a function of the F1 type according to F1 (q1 , Q1 , q2 , Q2 ) = F13 + p1 q1 . The least action principle then says 1 + P2 Q 2 K (Qi , Pi ) + p1 q 1 + p2 q 2 H (qi , pi ) = P1 Q + whence clearly F13 = Q1 p1 F13 P1 = = p1 2Q2 Q1 = p1 2p2 F13 = Q2 p2 = q2 F13 P2 = = 2Q1 q2 Q2 q1 = F13 F13 p 1 + Q1 p1 Q1
F13 F13 q 2 + Q2 + p 1 q 1 + q1 p 1 q2 Q2
= 2q1 q2
Problem 9.14
By any method you choose show that the following transformation is canonical: x= 1 ( 2P1 sin Q1 + P2 ), 1 y = ( 2P1 cos Q1 + Q2 ), px py ( 2P1 cos Q1 Q2 ) 2 = ( 2P1 sin Q1 P2 ) 2 =
where is some xed parameter. Apply this transformation to the problem of a particle of charge q moving in a plane that is perpendicular to a constant magnetic eld B. Express the Hamiltonian for this problem in the (Qi , Pi ) coordinates, letting the parameter take the form 2 = qB . c
From this Hamiltonian obtain the motion of the particle as a function of time. We will prove that the transformation is canonical by nding a generating function. Our rst step to this end will be to express everything as a function
10
of some set of four variables of which two are old variables and two are new. After some hacking, I arrived at the set {x, Q1 , py , Q2 }. In terms of this set, the remaining quantities are 1 1 1 x 2 py cot Q1 + Q2 2 2 1 px = x py cot Q1 Q2 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 x xpy + 2 p2 csc2 Q1 P1 = 8 2 2 y 1 P2 = x + p y 2 y= (9) (10) (11) (12)
We now seek a generating function of the form F (x, Q1 , py , Q2 ). This is of mixed type, but can be related to a generating function of pure F1 character according to F1 (x, Q1 , y, Q2 ) = F (x, Q1 , py , Q2 ) ypy . Then the principle of least action leads to the condition F F F 1 + P2 Q 2 + F x px x + py y = P1 Q + p y + Q1 + Q2 + y p y + py y x py Q1 Q2 from which we obtain F x F y= py F P1 = Q1 F . P2 = Q2 px = (13) (14) (15) (16)
Doing the easiest rst, comparing (12) and (16) we see that F must have the form 1 F (x, Q1 , py , Q2 ) = xQ2 py Q2 + g (x, Q1 , py ). (17) 2 Plugging this in to (14) and comparing with (14) we nd g (x, Q1 , py ) = 1 1 xpy + 2 p2 cot Q1 + (x, Q1 ). 2 2 y (18)
Plugging (17) and (18) into (13) and comparing with (10), we see that 2 = x cot Q1 x 4
11
2 x2 cot Q1 . (19) 8 Finally, combining (19), (18), (17), and (15) and comparing with (11) we see that we may simply take (Q1 ) 0. The nal form of the generating function is then (x, Q1 ) = F (x, Q1 , py , Q2 ) = 1 x + py Q2 + 2 2 x2 1 1 xpy + 2 p2 cot Q1 8 2 2 y
or
and its existence proves the canonicality of the transformation. Turning now to the solution of the problem, we take the B eld in the z , and put direction, i.e. B = B0 k A= Then the Hamiltonian is H (x, y, px , py ) =
2 1 q p A 2m c qB0 1 px + y = 2m 2c
B0 2
y i + x j .
+ py
2
qB0 x 2c
2
1 2m
px +
2 y 2
+ py
2 x 2
where we put 2 = qB/c. In terms of the new variables, this is H (Q1 , Q2 , P1 , P2 ) = 1 2m 2 = P1 m = c P1

2 2
2P1 cos Q1
2P1 sin Q1
where c = qB/mc is the cyclotron frequency. From the Hamiltonian equations of motion applied to this Hamiltonian we see that Q2 , P1 , and P2 are all constant, while the equation of motion for Q1 is 1 = H = c Q Q 1 = c t + P1 for some phase . Putting r = 2P1 /, x0 = P2 /, y0 = Q2 / we then have x = r(sin c t + ) + x0 , y = r(cos c t + ) + y0 , px py = mc [r cos(c t + ) y0 ] 2 mc = [r sin(c t + ) + x0 ] 2
in agreement with the standard solution to the problem.
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Solutions To Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition

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Solutions To Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition

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Solutions to Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition

Homer Reid August 22, 2000

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

1m = 6.95 mi/s. 1.61 km

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

which we may write as dv v = g dt m(t) where = m 1 = m 0 s 1 . dt 60 (4)

Integrating, with the condition that v (m0 ) = 0, v (m) = g (m m0 ) + v ln m m0 .

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

On the other hand,

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Figure 1: My conception of the situation of Problem 1.8

Subtracting half of (8) from (9), we have M

and comparing this with (7) we see that we are done.

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Figure 2: My conception of the situation of Problem 1.10

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

The Lagrangian for motion in a plane is L=T V = 1 2 1 2 2 1 mr + mr 2 2 2 r 1+ .

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

L dF L = + . q i q i q i dt For the function F we may write dF = dt F F q i + qi t

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

On the other hand, the gravitational potential energy depends only on :

and the equations of motion are =0 = g 2 cos sin . L

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 1

q [A(x(t)) v(t) + v (x(t))] c

q = T q (x(t)) + A(x(t)) v(t) + c q = T q (x(t)) + A(x(t)) v(t) + c q d (x(t)). =L+ c dt

Solutions to Problems in Goldstein, Classical Mechanics, Second Edition

This is cyclic in , so the angular momentum is conserved: = constant. l = mr2

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

= constant. l = mr2 We have

so the equation of motion for r is

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

where is the reduced mass. The equation of motion for r is 2 k . r = r r2 (4)

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

We change variables to u = r/r0 , du = dr/r0 : = 2k

Next we change variables to u = sin2 x, du = 2 sin x cos x dx : =2 2k

= 2k Now plugging in (5), we obtain t = 2k = 4 2

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

2R(1 + cos 2)1/2

r2 = 2R2 (1 + cos 2) sin 2 r = 2R (1 + cos 2)1/2 r 2 = 2R2 sin2 2 2 1 + cos 2

sin2 2 + 1 + cos 2 1 + cos 2 sin2 2 + 1 + 2 cos 2 + cos2 2 1 + cos

= l/mr2 , we have Using =2 = m l

4R2 m /2 (1 + 2 cos 2 + cos2 2) d l 0 4R2 m 3 = l 4 3R2 m = . l

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

For a circular orbit at radius r0 this must vanish: 0= (25)

Homer Reids Solutions to Goldstein Problems: Chapter 3

1 l = 2 2 mr0 mr0 = k 3 mr0

4 mkr0 + m2 Cr0 3 mCr0 k

Then the period is = 2 3/2 2r0

k l2 mC (r0 + x) m(r0 + x)3 (r0 + x)2 l2 k x x 2 12 mCr0 mCx 13 3 mr0 r0 r0 r0

Using (25), this reduces to mx = 3l2 2k 4 + r 3 mC x mr0 0

or x + 2x = 0 with = = 2k 3l2 4 3 C 2 m r0 mr0 k 2l2 4 mr 3 m2 r 0 0

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