333

C H A P T E R
Space, Time and Number in the Brain.
DOI: Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. 2011 10.1016/B978-0-12-385948-8.00020-7
How Languages
Construct Time
Lera Boroditsky
Department of Psychology, Stanford University, Stanford, USA
20
Summary
Hov do poopIo conslrucl lloir monlaI roprosonlalions of limo` I focus on vork oxamin-
ing llo roIo llal spaliaI molaplors and basic spaliaI roprosonlalions pIay in conslrucling rop-
rosonlalions of limo across Ianguagos. Tlo rosuIls rovoaI llal llo molaplors vo uso lo laIk
aboul limo lavo boll immodialo and Iong-lorm consoquoncos for lov vo concopluaIizo and
roason aboul llis fundamonlaI domain of oxporionco. Hov poopIo concopluaIizo limo appoars
lo dopond on lov llo Ianguagos lloy spoak lond lo laIk aboul limo, llo curronl Iinguislic
conloxl (vlal Ianguago is boing spokon), and aIso on llo parlicuIar molaplors boing usod lo
laIk aboul limo in llo momonl. Iurllor, poopIo vlo concopluaIizo spaco difforonlIy aIso con-
copluaIizo limo difforonlIy suggosling llal poopIo co-opl roprosonlalions of llo plysicaI vorId
(o.g., spaco) in ordor lo monlaIIy roprosonl moro abslracl or inlangibIo onlilios (o.g., limo).
Takon aII logollor lloso hndings slov llal concoplions of ovon sucl fundamonlaI domains
as limo diffor dramalicaIIy across cuIluros and groups. Tlo rosuIls rovoaI somo of llo mocla-
nisms llrougl vlicl Ianguagos and cuIluros loIp conslrucl our basic nolions of limo.
Ono of llo groal myslorios of llo mind is lov vo aro abIo lo llink aboul llings vo can
novor soo or loucl. Hov do vo como lo roprosonl and roason aboul abslracl domains Iiko
limo, juslico, or idoas` AII of our oxporionco of llo vorId is plysicaI, accompIislod llrougl
sonsory porcoplion and molor aclion. And yol our inlornaI monlaI Iivos go far boyond lloso
llings obsorvabIo llrougl plysicaI oxporionco, vo invonl soplislicalod nolions of numbor
and limo, vo lloorizo aboul aloms and invisibIo forcos, and vo vorry aboul Iovo, juslico,
idoas, goaIs, and principIos. Tlo abiIily lo cognilivoIy lranscond llo plysicaI is ono of llo
vory laIImarks of luman inloIIigonco. So lov is il possibIo llal plysicaI organisms vlo
coIIocl plolons llrougl lloir oyos, rospond lo plysicaI prossuro in lloir oars, and bond
lloir knoos and ox lloir loos in jusl llo rigll amounl lo dofy gravily aro abIo lo invonl and
20. HOW LANGUAGES CONSTRUCT TIME 334
roason aboul llo unporcoivabIo and abslracl` Tlo myslory of abslracl llougll las voxod
scloIars from IIalo lo Darvin.
Ono proposod soIulion lo llis myslory is llal roprosonlalions of llo abslracl migll bo
conslruclod llrougl anaIogicaI oxlonsions from moro oxporionco-basod domains (o.g., |3,5]).
Tlal is, in ordor lo conslrucl monlaI roprosonlalions of abslracl or inlangibIo onlilios, vo co-
opl llo roprosonlalions vo lavo dovoIopod for moro langibIo and concrolo domains. In llis
papor I viII focus on llo domain of limo and llo roIo llal roprosonlalions of spaco pIay in
conslrucling roprosonlalions of limo.
Timo is a lopic of conlraI inlorosl in our cuIluro. Tlo vord limo is llo mosl froquonl
noun in llo LngIisl Ianguago, vill ollor lomporaI vords Iiko day and yoar aIso rank-
ing in llo lop 1O |1,2]. Timo is ubiquilous yol oplomoraI. Il forms llo vory fabric of our
oxporionco, and yol il is unporcoivabIo: vo cannol soo, loucl, or smoII limo. So lov do vo
monlaIIy roprosonl and organizo llis fundamonlaI domain of oxporionco`
To roprosonl limo, poopIo around llo vorId roIy on spaco. Wo spaliaIizo limo in cuIluraI
arlifacls Iiko grapls, limo-Iinos, orllograply, cIocks, sundiaIs, lourgIassos, and caIondars,
vo gosluro lomporaI roIalions, and roIy loaviIy on spaliaI vords (o.g., forvard, back, Iong,
slorl) lo laIk aboul llo ordor and duralion of ovonls (o.g., |35]). IoopIo's privalo monlaI rop-
rosonlalions of limo aIso appoar lo bo basod in spaco, irroIovanl spaliaI informalion roadiIy
affocls poopIo's judgmonls of lomporaI ordor and duralion |611], and poopIo soom lo impIic-
ilIy and aulomalicaIIy gonoralo spaliaI roprosonlalions vlon llinking aboul limo |1218].
Hovovor, llo parlicuIar vays llal limo is spaliaIizod diffor across Ianguagos and cuI-
luros. Rosoarcl dono around llo vorId las uncovorod dramalic variabiIily in roprosonla-
lions of limo across cuIluros and groups. SovoraI aspocls of Iinguislic, cuIluraI, and porsonaI
oxporionco appoar lo slapo poopIo's lomporaI roasoning:
1. Tlo pallorn of spaliaI molaplors llal poopIo uso lo laIk aboul limo |1924],
2. Tlo sol of spaliaI roprosonlalions and roforonco framos llal aro avaiIabIo for co-opling for
llinking aboul limo (oillor in llo Iinguislic or cuIluraI onvironmonl moro gonoraIIy, or in
llo immodialo conloxl moro spocihcaIIy) |61O],
3. OrganizalionaI pallorns in cuIluraI arlifacls (o.g., vriling diroclion) |15,2527],
4. Aspocls of cuIluraI or individuaI disposilion, ago and oxporionco |283O].
In llo foIIoving soclions, I focus on vork rovoaIing llo roIo llal spaliaI molaplors and
basic spaliaI roprosonlalions pIay in conslrucling roprosonlalions of limo across Ianguagos.
Ianguagos around llo vorId roIy on spaliaI lorms lo laIk aboul limo. In somo casos, il is
difhcuIl or impossibIo lo laIk aboul limo villoul invoking spaliaI Ianguago. Hovovor,
Ianguagos diffor in llo spaliaI lorms llal aro mosl commonIy usod lo laIk aboul limo. Ior
oxampIo, doponding on llo Ianguago vo aro spoaking, vo migll laIk aboul llo fuluro as if il
Iios aload of us (in LngIisl), bolind us (in Aymara), or boIov us (in Mandarin Clinoso). Do
sucl difforoncos in molaplors mallor for lov poopIo monlaIIy organizo llo domain of limo`
THE AXES OF TIME
Ono prominonl oxampIo of lov spaliolomporaI molaplors slapo lomporaI llinking
comos from comparisons of LngIisl and Mandarin. Mandarin spoakors aro moro IikoIy lo
THE AXES OF TIME 335
laIk aboul limo using vorlicaI molaplors llan aro LngIisl spoakors |3133]. Aro Mandarin
spoakors aIso moro IikoIy lo llink aboul limo vorlicaIIy llan aro LngIisl spoakors`
To losl llis, Borodilsky |2O] comparod LngIisl and Mandarin spoakors' roprosonlalions
of limo. In llo sludios, LngIisl and Mandarin spoakors mado lomporaI judgmonls foIIov-
ing lorizonlaI or vorlicaI spaliaI primos. Iarlicipanls' rosponso limos lo llo largol quoslions
aboul limo foIIoving oillor llo lorizonlaI or vorlicaI primos voro llo moasuro of inlor-
osl. Tlo rosuIls rovoaIod a bolavioraI pallorn consislonl vill llo Iinguislic obsorvalion:
Mandarin spoakors appoarod moro IikoIy lo llink aboul limo vorlicaIIy llan did LngIisl
spoakors. Boyond comparing LngIisl and Mandarin spoakors, llo sludios aIso comparod llo
rosuIls of Mandarin spoakors vlo lad Ioarnod LngIisl al difforonl slagos of Iifo, and fur-
llor comparod llo rosuIls of LngIisl spoakors loslod vill and villoul lraining lo laIk aboul
limo vorlicaIIy. In oacl caso, moro oxporionco vill laIking aboul limo vorlicaIIy Ioad lo moro
vorlicaI roprosonlalions of limo.
RosuIls using llis paradigm lavo boon claIIongod (soo |3436]), bul moro roconl vork
using a varioly of mollods las conhrmod lloso cross-Iinguislic difforoncos |22,26,37,38].
Ior oxampIo, vlon nalivo LngIisl and nalivo Mandarin spoakors voro askod lo spaliaIIy
arrango lomporaI soquoncos slovn in picluros, Mandarin spoakors arrangod llo pic-
luros in vorlicaI arrays 3O of llo limo (1839 doponding on group), vloroas LngIisl
spoakors novor did so |26]. In a 3D varianl of llis lask, Borodilsky |39] askod LngIisl
and Mandarin spoakors lo arrango limo by poinling in 3D spaco around llom. Mandarin
spoakors (loslod in Mandarin) arrangod limo on llo vorlicaI axis 43.6 of llo limo,
vloroas LngIisl spoakors did so onIy 2.5 of llo limo. Iurllor, llo sludios found llal llo
moro prohcionl llo parlicipanls voro in Mandarin, llo moro IikoIy lloy voro lo arrango
limo vorlicaIIy. MandarinLngIisl (ML) biIinguaIs vlo voro loslod in Mandarin voro
moro IikoIy lo arrango limo vorlicaIIy vlon lloy voro loslod in Mandarin as opposod lo in
LngIisl.
Iai and Borodilsky |24] oxaminod vlollor molaplor uso pIays a causaI in-llo-momonl
roIo in lov poopIo conslrucl roprosonlalions of limo. Tlo rosuIls rovoaIod llal Mandarin
spoakors aro moro IikoIy lo conslrucl fronlback roprosonlalions of limo vlon undorsland-
ing fronlback molaplors, and moro IikoIy lo conslrucl vorlicaI roprosonlalions of limo
vlon undorslanding vorlicaI molaplors. Il appoars llal Mandarin spoakors oxibIy roor-
ganizo limo aIong llo fronlback or updovn axis doponding on vlollor lloy aro procoss-
ing fronlback or updovn molaplors for limo.
IinaIIy, sovoraI sludios lavo usod a non-Iinguislic impIicil spacolimo associalion lask
lo moasuro lov LngIisl and Mandarin spoakors spaliaIizo limo |22,23,38]. Tlo sludios
consislonlIy hnd difforoncos bolvoon llo lvo Ianguago groups aIong llo vorlicaI axis.
Mandarin spoakors slov an impIicil vorlicaI pallorn of spacolimo associalion consisl-
onl vill vorlicaI spacolimo molaplors in Mandarin, vill oarIior ovonls abovo and Ialor
ovonls boIov. LngIisl spoakors do nol slov ovidonco of llis vorlicaI spacolimo associa-
lion. Tlo hndings aro consislonl vill ollor vork sloving llal oxporionco vill spoaking
Mandarin |22], and procossing vorlicaI limo molaplors in parlicuIar |2O,24] loIps cro-
alo and mainlain Mandarin spoakors' roprosonlalions of limo on llo vorlicaI axis. Tloso
rosuIls rovoaI llal poopIo aulomalicaIIy inslanlialo spaliaI roprosonlalions of limo llal aro
consislonl vill llo sol of spaliolomporaI molaplors in lloir Iinguislic onvironmonl, ovon
in nonIinguislic lasks.
20. HOW LANGUAGES CONSTRUCT TIME 336
MOTION IN TIME
Iinguislic anaIysos lavo suggoslod llal Mandarin roIios moro loaviIy on limo-moving
(as opposod lo ogo-moving) molaplors llan doos LngIisl. Tlal is, in Mandarin, molaplors
llal supposo an obsorvor moving aIong a slalionary limoIino aro Ioss IikoIy llan lloso llal
supposo a slalionary obsorvor and a moving limo-Iino. Do lloso difforoncos in molaplors
prodicl difforoncos in llinking aboul limo bolvoon LngIisl and Mandarin spoakors`
Iai and Borodilsky |24] moasurod llo roIalivo cognilivo saIionco of ogo-moving and limo-
moving concopluaIizalions in llroo groups vill difforonl lislorios of Iinguislic oxporionco
vill limo molaplors: LngIisl monoIinguaIs, Mandarin monoIinguaIs, and ML biIinguaIs.
Tlo rosuIls rovoaIod llal LngIisl and Mandarin monoIinguaIs indood lond lo lako diffor-
onl porspoclivos on limo, vill Mandarin spoakors moro IikoIy lo lako llo limo-moving
porspoclivo (consislonl vill llo Iinguislic anaIysos of molaplor uso in llo lvo Ianguagos).
Iurllor, ML biIinguaIs diffor from boll groups of monoIinguaIs. Wlon undorslanding
limo molaplors in LngIisl, ML biIinguaIs aro moro IikoIy lo adopl llo limo-moving por-
spoclivo llan aro LngIisl monoIinguaIs. InloroslingIy, vlon undorslanding limo mola-
plors in Mandarin, ML biIinguaIs aro Ioss IikoIy lo adopl llo limo-moving porspoclivo llan
aro Mandarin monoIinguaIs. Tlal is, for biIinguaIs lloro aro inuoncos of boll lloir hrsl
Ianguago on concopluaIizing limo in lloir socond Ianguago, and of lloir socond Ianguago on
concopluaIizing limo in lloir hrsl Ianguago.
REVERSING THE DIRECTION OF TIME
So far vo lavo discussod vlollor limo can bo Iaid oul on difforonl axos, and vlollor
il is porcoivod as moving or slalionary. Wlal aboul llo diroclion of limo villin an axis`
A numbor of sludios lavo found slriking rovorsaIs in llo diroclion of limo bolvoon cuIluraI
groups.
Ono faclor llal affocls llo porcoivod diroclion of limo is vriling diroclion. IoopIo vlo
road loxl arrangod from Iofl lo rigll, lond lo Iay oul limo as procooding from Iofl lo rigll,
and poopIo vlo road loxl arrangod from rigll lo Iofl (o.g., Arabic, Hobrov) arrango limo
from rigll lo Iofl. Tlis rovorsaI las boon documonlod in picluro arrangomonl lasks |15,25],
in pallorns of oIicilod gosluros or poinls around llo body |15], in impIicil non-Iinguislic
spaliaI associalion lasks |15] and in audilory lasks |27].
Iallorns in spalio-lomporaI molaplors lavo aIso rovoaIod slriking rovorsaIs of llo
diroclion of limo. Ior oxampIo, in Ianguagos Iiko LngIisl and Spanisl spaliaI molaplors
pul llo pasl bolind llo obsorvor (o.g., llo vorsl is aIroady bolind us) and llo fuluro in
fronl (o.g., llo bosl is sliII aload of us). In Aymara, llis pallorn is rovorsod and llo fuluro
is said lo bo bolind llo obsorvor vliIo llo pasl is in fronl |19]. Tlis pallorn in molaplors
is rooclod in pallorns in sponlanoous co-spoocl gosluro. Wlon laIking aboul llo pasl, llo
Aymara gosluro in fronl of llom, and vlon laIking aboul llo fuluro, lloy gosluro bolind
llom, a slriking rovorsaI from llo pallorns obsorvod vill spoakors of LngIisl or Spanisl
(o.g., |19]).
REPRESENTATIONS OF TIME IN ABSOLUTE SPACE 337
DURATION
Boyond ovonl ordoring, inlorosling cross-Iinguislic difforoncos lavo boon obsorvod in
a soparalo aspocl of limo: roprosonlalions of duralion. LngIisl spoakors laIk aboul dura-
lion moro oflon in lorms of Iinoar dislanco (o.g., a Iong limo), vloroas Grook spoakors laIk
aboul duralion moro oflon in lorms of amounl (o.g., poli ora, lr. mucl limo). To dolormino
vlollor llis difforonco in Ianguago corrosponds lo a difforonco in llinking, Casasanlo
et al. |4O] comparod Grook and LngIisl spoakors' abiIily lo oslimalo duralion in llo prosonco
of dislracling informalion aboul dislanco or amounl, using simpIo duralion roproduclion
lasks vill non-Iinguislic slimuIi and rosponsos. Iarlicipanls' non-Iinguislic duralion osli-
malos variod as prodiclod by llo spacolimo molaplors in lloir nalivo Ianguagos: LngIisl
spoakors' duralion oslimalos voro moro inuoncod by irroIovanl dislanco informalion, and
Grook spoakors' by irroIovanl amounl informalion. Noxl, LngIisl spoakors voro lrainod lo
uso Grook-Iiko molaplors for duralion (o.g., a vook is moro llan a day), vlicl rosuIlod in
Grook-Iiko porformanco on a non-Iinguislic duralion oslimalion lask. Tloso hndings dom-
onslralo llal (a) poopIo vlo laIk aboul limo difforonlIy aIso llink aboul il difforonlIy, and
(b) Ianguago nol onIy roocls llo slrucluro of our non-Iinguislic monlaI roprosonlalions, il
can aIso slapo lloso roprosonlalions in fundamonlaI vays llal can bo obsorvod ovon in Iov-
IovoI porcopluo-molor lasks.
REPRESENTATIONS OF TIME IN ABSOLUTE SPACE
Bocauso poopIo lond lo rocruil spaliaI roprosonlalions lo llink aboul limo, roprosonlalions
of limo aIso diffor doponding on vlal spaliaI roprosonlalions aro mosl cognilivoIy avaiIabIo
lo co-opl for limo (oillor in llo immodialo onvironmonl or in llo cuIluro moro gonoraIIy)
|6,7,9,1O,41].
Ono sucl domonslralion comos from spaliaI roprosonlalions of limo in a romolo
AuslraIian aboriginaI communily of Iormpuraav. InIiko LngIisl, llo Iormpuraav Ian-
guagos do nol roulinoIy uso roIalivo spaliaI lorms Iiko Iofl and rigll, and insload roIy
on absoIulo diroclion lorms (o.g., Norll/Soull/Lasl/Wosl), saying llings Iiko movo
your cup ovor lo llo NNW a IillIo bil or llo boy slanding lo llo Soull of Mary is my
brollor|4245]. Mombors of sucl Iinguislic communilios musl aIvays slay orionlod, jusl
in ordor lo bo abIo lo spoak llo Ianguago proporIy. In Kuuk Tlaayorro (ono of llo Ian-
guagos incIudod in llis sludy), lo say loIIo, ono says vloro aro you going` an appro-
prialo rosponso boing a Iong vay lo llo SSW. Tlal is, if you do nol knov vlicl vay is
vlicl, you IiloraIIy cannol gol pasl loIIo. Irovious vork las documonlod llal spoakors of
sucl Ianguagos do indood slay orionlod, slov procision in sponlanoous co-spoocl gosluro,
and oxlibil romarkabIo skiII in doad rockoning |465O]. Hov migll mombors of sucl spoocl
communilios llink aboul limo`
To hnd oul, Borodilsky and Gaby |41] gavo parlicipanls sols of picluros llal slovod
somo kind of lomporaI progrossion (o.g., a man aging, or a crocodiIo groving, or a banana
boing oalon) (soo Iig. 2O.1). Tloir job vas lo arrango llo slufod plolos on llo ground lo
20. HOW LANGUAGES CONSTRUCT TIME 338
slov llo corrocl lomporaI ordor. Lacl parlicipanl vas loslod in lvo soparalo sillings, oacl
limo facing in a difforonl cardinaI diroclion. If you ask LngIisl spoakors lo do llis, lloy viII
arrango llo cards so llal limo procoods from Iofl lo rigll. Hobrov spoakors viII lond lo Iay
oul llo cards from rigll lo Iofl, sloving llal vriling diroclion in a Ianguago pIays a roIo.
So vlal aboul foIks Iiko llo Kuuk Tlaayorro, vlo do nol uso vords Iiko Iofl and rigll`
Wlal viII lloy do`
Tlo Kuuk Tlaayorro did nol arrango llo cards moro oflon from Iofl lo rigll llan from
rigll lo Iofl, nor moro lovard or avay from llo body. Hovovor, lloir arrangomonls voro
nol random: lloro vas a boaulifuI pallorn, jusl a difforonl ono from llal of LngIisl spoak-
ors. Insload of arranging limo from Iofl lo rigll, lloy arrangod il from oasl lo vosl. Tlal is,
vlon lloy voro soalod facing soull, llo cards vonl Iofl lo rigll. Wlon lloy facod norll, llo
cards vonl from rigll lo Iofl. Wlon lloy facod oasl, llo cards camo lovard llo body, and so
on. Tlis vas lruo ovon llougl vo novor loId any of our subjocls vlicl diroclion lloy facod.
Tlo Kuuk Tlaayorro nol onIy knov llal aIroady, bul lloy aIso sponlanoousIy usod llis
spaliaI orionlalion lo conslrucl lloir roprosonlalions of limo.
Tlis oxampIo iIIuslralos llal cross-cuIluraI difforoncos in llougll can bo moro llan a mal-
lor of slyIo or proforonco. Iormpuraavans llink aboul limo in vays llal ollor groups can-
nol (bocauso lloy Iack llo nocossary spaliaI knovIodgo). Many Amoricans simpIy couId nol
Iay oul limo in absoIulo coordinalos ovon if lloy vanlod lo, bocauso lloy Iack llo basic spa-
liaI knovIodgo nocossary lo do so (soo |41]): lvo-llirds of llo Amorican sampIo couId nol
roIiabIy poinl lo llo compass diroclions ovon llougl lloy voro loslod oulsido on a sunny
day in a famiIiar onvironmonl), and ovon lloso Amoricans vlo couId lavo in principIo
dono il, vouId bo liglIy unIikoIy lo sponlanoousIy llink lo do il llal vay. Tlis oxampIo
rovoaIs llal spoakors of difforonl Ianguagos can arrivo al quaIilalivoIy difforonl vays of
conslrucling ovon sucl fundamonlaI domains of oxporionco as spaco and limo (in llis caso,
roprosonlalions llal oporalo in onliroIy indopondonl coordinalo framos).
SUMMARY
Across llo sludios cilod loro, poopIo in difforonl cuIluros or groups lavo boon slovn lo
diffor in vlollor lloy llink of limo as slalionary or moving, Iimilod or opon-ondod, as dis-
lanco or quanlily, lorizonlaI or vorlicaI, orionlod from Iofl lo rigll, rigll lo Iofl, fronl lo back,
FIGURE 20.1 LxampIo of a picluro sorios parlicipanls voro askod lo arrango.
SUMMARY 339
back lo fronl, or in cardinaI spaco (o.g., Lasl lo Wosl). Tlo hndings roviovod in llo hrsl four
soclions abovo domonslralo llal llo molaplors vo uso lo laIk aboul limo (and ollor cuI-
luraI faclors) lavo boll immodialo and Iong-lorm consoquoncos for lov vo concopluaIizo
and roason aboul llis fundamonlaI domain of oxporionco. Hov poopIo concopluaIizo limo
appoars lo dopond on lov llo Ianguagos lloy spoak lond lo laIk aboul limo, llo curronl Iin-
guislic conloxl (vlal Ianguago is boing spokon), and aIso on llo parlicuIar molaplors boing
usod lo laIk aboul limo in llo momonl. Iurllor, llo hndings roviovod in llo hfll soclion
(Representations of Time in Absolute Space) domonslralo llal poopIo co-opl roprosonlalions of
llo plysicaI vorId (o.g., spaco) in ordor lo monlaIIy roprosonl moro abslracl or inlangibIo
onlilios (o.g., limo). Il appoars llal difforoncos in basic spaliaI roprosonlalions may lavo far-
roacling consoquoncos in many ollor knovIodgo domains in llo cognilivo syslom. Takon aII
logollor lloso hndings slov llal concoplions of ovon sucl fundamonlaI domains as limo
diffor dramalicaIIy across cuIluros and groups and rovoaI somo of llo moclanisms llrougl
vlicl Ianguagos and cuIluros loIp conslrucl our basic nolions of limo.
References
|1] H. Kucora, W.N. Irancis, CompulalionaI AnaIysis of Irosonl-day Amorican LngIisl, Brovn Inivorsily pross,
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