Lectures on English Grammar

Lecture 1 The English noun phrase

v I qUANG, ph.d. English dep.,CFL - VNU, Hanoi A. Overview 1. What is meant by the noun phrase ? The noun phrase is a group of words in which there is / are one or more noun(s) as the head component modifiable by (an)other preceding or following item(s) as modifier(s):NP NP

The man there is my teacher of English head 2. Possible components of the NP: Premodifier(s) Postmodifier(s) Head head

Closed-system pronoun(s)

item(s)+open-class open-class item(s)

item(s)

noun(s)

3. What is meant by closed-system and openclass items ?

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Lectures on English Grammar

a.Items are closed in the sense that they are (i) reciprocally defining;(ii) reciprocally exclusive. Closed system items: articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc. b. Open-class items are (i) those that possess the same grammatical properties and (ii) constitute the basis for further word formation or paradigms. Open-class items: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. 4. Types of NP in terms of structure: The basic NP vs. the complex NP. a. Structures of the basic NP: + head b. Structures of the complex NP: Patterns other than those of the basic NP are normally considered possible abstract models of the complex NP. 5. Dichotomies inherent in the English NP: (i). Basic vs. complex NPs. (ii) Single head vs. multiple head. (iii) Single vs. multiple modification. (iiv) Restrictive vs. non-restrictive modification. (vi) Dynamicness vs. stativeness. (vii) Premodification vs. postmodification. (viii) Temporary vs. permanent characteristics. (ix) Explicitnees vs. non-explicitness. B. nouns, pronouns and The basic noun phrase. I. The noun as a part of speech. 1. Classification of English nouns in accordance with:
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[Closed-system item(s)]

Lectures on English Grammar

a. Structure: simple vs. compound. b. Types of referents:count vs. noncount. c. Deictic function: proper vs. common. d. modes of naming: dynamic vs. stative. e. Degrees of nominalisation: primary vs. substantivized. 2. Grammatical categories of the noun: Singular: Variable a. Number Invariable Singular: Plural b. Gender: + English makes very few gender distinctions. Where they are made, the connection between the biological category sex and the grammatical category gender is very close, insofar as natural sex distinctions determine English gender distinctions. + Gender classes: A. Masculine: uncle B. Feminine: aunt C. Dual: doctor Personal Common: baby Animate Collective: committee
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Plural:

D. E.

Lectures on English Grammar

F. Masculine higher animal: bull Non-personal Feminine higher animal: cow H. Higher organism: France I. Lower animal: ant Inanimate Inanimate: desk c. Case: + Case system: Nominative Subjective Objective CASE Genitive - sgenitive of- genitive J. G.

Group gen. Double gen. Accusative Dative Instrumental

+ Group genitive: s apostrophe applied to a group of words rather a single noun. Eg. The man in the deckchairs ears are very large. + Double genitive: of-genitive.
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- Combination of the s genitive with the

Lectures on English Grammar

Eg. A friend of Marys is here. - Constraints on the usage: (i) The noun with the s apostrophe must be both personal and definite; (ii) The noun preceding of- must be indefinite. + Genitive meanings:(i) possessive gen.; (ii) subjective gen.; (iii) objective gen.; (iv) genitive of origin; (vi) descriptive genitive; (vii) genitive of measure and partitive gen.; (viii) appositive gen. + The choice of genitives: - Principle: (i) The - s genitive is favoured by the classes that are highest on the gender scale, ie animate nouns, in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics. (ii) The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns that belong to the bottom part of the gender scale. - Exception: The - s genitive is nornally used with the following kinds of inanimate nouns: Geographical and institutional names (eg. Europes future); temporal nouns (eg. a weeks holiday); nouns of special interest to human activity (eg. sciences influence)

Lectures on English Grammar

Lecture 2 The English complex noun phrase

v I qUANG, ph.d. English dep.,CFL - VNU, Hanoi I. COMPONENTS OF THE ENGLISH COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE. 1. Pattern: NP Premodification Postmodification Closed-system item(s) + open-class item(s) Head

open-class item(s) 2. Dichotomies inherent in modification: a. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive: (i) Restrictive: + The head can be viewed as a member of a class which can be linguistically identified only through the modification that has been supplied. Eg. The pretty girl standing in the corner who became angry because you waved to her when you entered is Mary Smith. In this example, the girl is only identifiable as Mary Smith provided we understand that it is the particular girl who is
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Lectures on English Grammar

ptretty, who was standing in the corner, and who became angry. Such modification is restrictive. + Restrictive modification tends to be given more prosodic emphasis than the head (ii) Nonrestrictive: + The head can be viewed as unique or as a member of a class that has been independently identified; any modification given to such a head is additional information which is not essential for identifying the head. Eg. Mary, who is in the corner, wants to meet you.In this example, Mary Smith s identity is independent of whether or not she is in the corner, though the information on her present location may be usefull enough. + Nonrestrictive modification tends to be unstressed in pre-head position. In pre-head position, its parenthetic relation is endorsed by being given a separate tone unit or - in writing - by being enclosed by commas. b. Temporary vs. permanent. + Items placed in premodification position are given the linguistic status of permanent or at any rate characteristic features. + Adjectives which cannot premodify have a notably temporary reference. Eg. We can say The man is ready but we cannot use the phrase the ready man. c. Explicit vs. non-explicit. + Explicitness in postmodification varies considerablly: It is greater in the finite relative clause, lesser in the nonfite
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Lectures on English Grammar

clause, less still in the prepositional phrase and least in the one-head noun / adjective / adverb phrase. + Part of the relative clauses explicitness lies in the specifying power of the relative pronoun: It is capable of (I) showing agreement with the head and (b) of indicating its status as an element in the relative clause structure. + Observe the degrees of explicitness in the following: Eg. The girl who is Mary (1) personal time The girl standing (2) posture position posture position is Mary was standing in the corner

in the corner

The girl in the corner is Mary (3) position The girl there is Mary (4) position The girl is Mary (5)

Lectures on English Grammar

In example (1), the status, the time of action, the posture, and the position of the head noun referent are specified. In example (5), no such properties are indicated. II. Postmodification in the COMPLEX NOUN PHRASE. 1. Items as postmodifiers: Postmodifiers Padj. Finites (to) V Relative Sent. rel. Appositve Note: The types of items in this diagram do not necessarily occur in the order thus mentioned. 2. The relative clause as postmodifier. a. Relative pronouns in English: who, whom, whose which For human(s) inanimate For both animate (humans) and that V-ing V-ed 2 Padv. Pprep. NP. Non-finites

For inanimates

b. Case in the relative pronoun. + Case is used to indicate the status of the relative pronoun in its clause. + If the pronoun is in a genitive relation to a noun head, the pronoun can be whose.
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Lectures on English Grammar

c. Relative pronoun and adverbial. d. Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive relative clauses. e. Functions performed by relative pronouns in the relative clause: S, O, C, A. f. The sentential relative clause: Features: + The only relative pronoun used is which. + The sentential relative clause is separated from the preceding clause by a comma. + The antecedent of WHICH is the whole preceding clause, not any single word. Eg. Mary came home late, which made her mother angry. 3. The appositive clause as postmodifier. Features: + Similarities and differences between the relative clause and the appositve clause: - Similarities: (i) Capable of introduction by that; (ii) distinguishing between restrictive and non-restrictive; - Differences: (i)The particle that is not an element in the clause structure; (ii) The head of the noun phrase must be a factive abstract noun. + Plural heads are rare with appositive postmodification and are regarded as unacceptable. + As with apposition generally, the apposed units can be linked with be (where the copula typically has nuclear

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Lectures on English Grammar

prominence). Eg. The belief that no one is infallible is well grounded The belief IS that no one is infallible. 4. Nonfinite clauses as postmodifier. a.Types of clauses: Head + V-ing V b. V-ing participle clause: + V-ing nonfinite clauses can be interpreted, according to context, as equivalent to one of more explicit versions, typically relative clauses. Eg. The man writing the obituary is my friend will write will be writing writes The man who orbituary is my friend. wrote was writing + Not all V-ing forms in non-finite postmodifiers correspond to progressive forms in relative clauses. Stative verbs, which cannot have the progressive in the finite verb phrase, can appear in participial form. Eg. He is talking to a girl resembling Jane (Who resembles Jane, not * who is resembling Jane ).
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Non-finite clauses V-ed 2 To -

is writing

the

Lectures on English Grammar

c. V-ed2 participial clauses: + The V-ed2 participial clause corresponds to a passive clause construction . + The V-ed2 participle concerned is as firmly linked with the passive voice as that in the V-ing construction is linked with the active. Hence, with intrasitive verbs, there is no V-ed postmodifier corresponding exactly to a relative clause. d. To V clauses: + The to-V nonfinite clause could, in a suitable context, have precisely the same meaning as the relative clause. But, the subject of an infinitive clause need not be the antecedent. It may be separately introduced by the for - device or it may be entirely covert. Eg. The man for John to consult is Wilson / The man to consult is Wilson. + Voice and mood are variable, the latter covertly: Eg. The time to arrive ... (= The time at which you should arrive). The case to be investigated ... = (that will or is to be investigated). 5. Prepositional phrases as postmodifier. + A prepositional phrase is by far the commonest type of postmodification in English: frequent + The than full either range of postmodification. prepositions is involved in postmodification including the complex prepositions. Eg. Passengers on board the ship; Action in case of fire.
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It is three or four times more finite or non-finite clausal

Lectures on English Grammar

Relationships

conveyed

by

the

of

genitive

in

postmodification: appositive, possessive, ... + Restrictive vs. nonrestrictive: - Prepositional phrases may be non-appositive or appositive, and in either function, they can be restrictive or nonrestrictive. Eg. This book on grammar (non-appositive, restrictive). This book, on grammar, (no-appositive, non-restrictive). This issue of student grants (appositive, restrictive). This issue, of student grants, (appositive, non-restrictive). + Non restrictive function would be rare and unnatural, plainly suggesting an afterthought. + Position and varied relationship: When separated by commas, prepositional phrases may be interpreted either as A or Postmodifier, ... + Deverbal noun heads: A deverbal head will not permit premodifying adverbs. Eg. The violent quarrel over pay. * The violently quarrel over pay (unacceptable). 6. Minor types of postmodification. (i) Adverbial postmodification. Eg. The road back was dense with traffic.
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Lectures on English Grammar

(ii) Postposed adjective. Eg. Something strange happened last night. (iii) Postposed mode qualifier. Eg. Lobster Newburg is difficult to prepare. 7. Multiple postmodification. (I) A head may have more than one postmodification; (ii) A modification may be applicable to more than one head; (iii) The head of a modifying phrase may itself be modified. (iv) Miscelaneous types. 8. Ambiguity and constraints on multiple modification. + Frequently, careful ordering of constituents in a NP is essential to communicate all (and only) ones intention. Eg. The man in black talking to the girl ... The man talking to the girl in black ... These two phrases are different in meaning. + One of the chief reasons for preferring the of - genitive to the -s genitive is to avoid discontinuity. Eg. The ears of the man in the deckchair The mans ears in the deckchair. + A special type of multiple modification that requires careful ordering occurs when the premodifying clause becomes itself embedded in a clause. Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom hopes (that) John will write for you.

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Lectures on English Grammar

In this example, the relative pronoun which is object in the underlined relative clause. When, however, a hopes will relative be pronoun is subject, the conjunction that must be omitted. Eg. I will read the poem (which) Tom written for you. * hopes that will (unacceptable) III. Premodification in the complex NP. 1. Types of premodifying items. Premodifiers Closed-system items adjective adverbial sentence + Open-class items -s genitive noun

participle

2. Premodification by adjectives. + A premodifying adjective, especially when it is the first item after the determiner, can itself be premodified in the same way as it can in predicative position: His really quite unbelievably delightful cottage + With indefinite determiners, so would be replaced by such: A cottage which is so beautiful = Such a beautiful cottage or else so plus adjective would be placed before the determiner:
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Lectures on English Grammar

so beautiful a cottage + There are certain adjectives that cannot be used in premodification. 3. Premodification by participles. a. V-ing participle: + Gradability is available. Eg. He has a very interesting mind. + The indefinite article favours the the habitual or permanent, the definite article the specific or temporary. Eg. ? The approaching train is from Liverpool. He was frightened by an approaching train. ? The barking dog is my neighbours I was wakened by a barking dog. + The definite article may be used generically and hence evoke the same generality and permanence as the indefinite. Eg. The beginning student should be given every encouragement. b. V-ed2 participle: + Ved2 participle can be active or passive. The active is rarely used in premodification. Eg. The immigrant who has arrived. * The arrived immigrant (unacceptable). The newly - arrived immigrant.
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Lectures on English Grammar

Our recently - departed friend + Most V-ed2 participles are of the agential type and naturally only a few will admit the permanent reference that will permit premodifying use. Eg. The wanted man was last seen in Cambridge. (The man goes on being wanted by the police) * The found purse was returned to its owner (unacceptable) (The purse was found at a particular moment) + Modifiers in -ed may be directly denominal and not participles at all. Eg. a wooded hillside; the vaulted roof; a fluted pillar, ... Constraints are detectable (perhaps dictated merely by semantic redundancy): Eg. * a powered engine; * a haired girl; * a legged man, ... (unacceptable). The following are possible: a diesel - powered engine; a red - haired giel; a long - leg man, ... 4. Premodification by genitives. Ambiguity is available with this type od premodification. Eg. These nasty womens clothing may be interpreted as The clothing of these nasty women and not The nasty clothing of these women which would require The nasty
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Lectures on English Grammar

womens clothing.

clothing.

An

intermiediate

modifier

will

be

interpretated as referring to the head: This nasty womens 5. Premodification by nouns. + Noun premodifiers are often so closely related with the head as to be regarded as compounded with it. In many cases, they appear to in a reduced-explicitness relation with prepositional postmodifiers. Eg. The question of partition = The partition question. The door of the cupboard = The cupboard door. + Two important features in noun premodifications: (I) Plural nouns usually become singular; (ii) According to the relationsjip between the two nouns, the accent will fall on the premodifier or the head. Eg. An iron

rod but a war story.

6. Multiple premodification. + With single head; + With multiple head; + With modified modifer. 7. Relative sequence of premodifiers. Det. + general + size + shape + age + colour + particple + noun + denominal + head

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Lectures on English Grammar

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Lectures on English Grammar

Lecture 3

The verb and its complementation

v I qUANG, ph.d. English dep.,CFL - VNU, Hanoi I. Classification of verbs in English 1. Verbs classified according to the functions performed by the elements in the verb phrase: Regular: V VED Lexical Irregular: (7 subclasses) Verbs used to. Primary: do, have, be Auxiliary Modal: will, would, shall, should, may, might, ought to, must, can, could. 2. Verbs classified in accordance with the types of complementation: Current:
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Semi-auxiliaries: need, dare,

Lectures on English Grammar

Intensive (SVC / SVA) Verbs Intransitive (SV) Extensive Monotransitive (SVO) Transitive (SVOO) Complex transitive (SVOC / SVOA) 3. Verbs classified according to the number of constituents: One - word verbs Verbs Phrasal verbs Multi-word verbs Prepositional verbs Phrasal - prepositional verbs II. Verb forms 1. The five forms of the lexical verb V VS
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Resulting:

Ditransitive

Finite

Lectures on English Grammar

VED1 VED2 V- ING Non-finite

2. Uses of lexical verb forms: (i) V: Simple present tense - aspect forms except 3rd person singular; mandative subjunctive form. (ii) Vs: Simple present tense - aspect form for 3rd person singular. (iii) Ved1: Simple past tense - aspect form for all persons singular as well as plural; past subjunctive form. (iv) V-ing: Progressive aspect form. (v) Ved2: Perfective aspect form; passive voice form. 3. Auxiliary verb forms & uses: - Eight forms of BE: be, being, been, is, am, was, are, were. - Forms of all modal auxiliaries and the primary auxiliaries DO and HAVE: grouped under three categories (nonnegative; uncontracted negative; contracted negative).
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Lectures on English Grammar

- Usage: operaror function (structural; modal; structural modal). III. Grammatical categories of the verb 1. Tense (i) Tense (linguistic concept; language-specific) vs.Time (universal concept) (ii) Tense system: Present (timeless; limited; instantaneous) vs. past. (iii) Uses of tense - aspect forms (26 forms: active vs. passive). (iii) Ways of expressing future time: will / shall + verb; be + going to +verb; present progressive; simple present; will / shall + progressive; be + to verb; be + about + to verb. 2. Aspect (i) What is meant by aspect ? (ii) Aspect system: simple vs. progressive vs. perfective vs. perfective progressive (iii) Interrelationship between tense and aspect:

INTERMINGLED. 3. Mood (i) What is meant by mood ?

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Lectures on English Grammar

(ii) Types of mood in English: + Forms: - Indicative: affirmative, negative, non-assertive. - Imperative: positive, negative. - Subjunctive: mandative, formulaic (present subjuntive), were (past subjuntive). + Uses of different types of mood: indicative (facive); imperative (non-factive); subjunctive (non-factive / counterfactive), ... (iii) Mood vs. modality. 4. Voice (i) What is meant by voice ? (ii) Voice system: Active, passive, middle. (iii) Uses of the passive voice. (iv) Constraints on active - passive transformation. III. Verb phrase forms: 1. Simple verb form: V; Vs; Ved.

2. Complex verb forms (in relation to aspect and voice):

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Lectures on English Grammar

(i) Modal; (ii) Perfective; (iii) Progressive; (iv) Passive; (v) Modal perfective; (vi) Modal progressive; (vii) Modal passive; (viii) Modal perfective passive; (ix) Modal progressive passive; (x) Modal perfective progressive passive. 3. Contrasts expressed in the VP: Tense, aspect, mood, voice, questions, negation, emphasis. IV. Complementation of the verb. 1. Intensive complementation. a. Clause type: SVC / SVA b. Features: + Morphological features: * Types of copulas: current, resulting. * Realisation of elements: - Noun and adjective phrases as CS - Predicative adjuncts Complementation of by adjective phrase as CS : Adj Adj

complementation to-infinitive clauses.

prepositional

phrase;

complementation by finite clause; Adj complementation by

+ Syntactic features: Word order; transformation.

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Lectures on English Grammar

+ Semantic features: Relations between elements (identifier - identified; carrier - attribute, entity - location, event time, ...). 2. Intransitive complementation a. Clause pattern: b. Features: + SV Morphological features: Realisation of

elements, ... + Syntactic features: Word oder; transformation, ... + Semantic features: Relations between elements, ... 3. Monotransitive complementation. a. Clause pattern: b. Features: + Morphological: - Types of verbs not involved in passivization. - Realisation: NPs as Od; finite clauses as Od; non-finite clauses as Od. + Syntactic: Constraints on active - passive transformation, temporal & voice differences between the two constructions
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SVO

Lectures on English Grammar

of the forms V + to V need,want, ...

and V + V-ing with certain

aspectual verbs: begin, start, stop, remember, deserve,

+ Semantic functions performed by S, V and O: S: Agentive / actor; V: Material / mental ... processes; O: Affected / effected / locative, ... participants. 4. Ditransitive complementation. a. Clause pattern: SVOO b. Features: elements, ... + Syntactic features: Word oder; possible transformations; ditransitive prepositional verb complementation; ideomatic expressions consisting of verb + noun phrase + preposition; NPs as Oi + finite clauses as Od; NPs as Oi + non-finite clauses as Od. + Semantic features: - Semantic relationships between elements. Typical semantic functions: S (actor); Od (affected + Morphological features: Realisation of

participant); Oi (recipient). 5. Complex transitive complementation a. Clause patterns: SVOC / SVOA

b. Featufres: + Morphological features:

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Lectures on English Grammar

* Realisation of elements: - To-infinitive clauses with S; bare infinitive clauses with S; - ing participle clauses with; - ed participle clauses with S; verbless clauses with S. * Types of verbs involved in complex transitive

complemetation. + Syntactical features: Word oder; possible transformations, ... + Semantic features: - Underlying intensive relationship between O and C, between O and A, ... - Typical semantic functions performed by clause elements: S (agentive); O (affected); C (resulting attribute); A (locative). - Semantics of the ideomatic collocation category verb + adjective (push open, pull tight, make clear, ... ): structure, collocations, ... + Passivization as a means of making explicit the cases of ambiguity as regards the differentiation between ditransive and complextransitive complementation. Eg. I wanted Bob to teach Mary. I persuaded Bob to teach Mary.

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Lectures on English Grammar

Lecture 4

The simple sentence

I. Clause patterns: (i) SVO; SVOA; (ii) SVC; (vii) SV (iii) SVA; (iv) SVOO; (v) SVOC; (vi)

Note: S = subject; V = verb; C = complement; O = object; A = adverbial Examples: a. Mary beat Tom. S S S S S S elements. A. Subject 1. Syntactic features: a. Realization: NPs (basic & complex); clauses (finite; nonfinite). b. Positions: + Before V in statements; + After operator in questions.
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V V C

b. Mary is clever. c. Mary is here. V A V V V O O O A d. Mary gave me a book. e. Mary put the book here. f. Mary is singing II. Syntactic and semantic features OF clause

Lectures on English Grammar

c. Possible transformation: passivization with S becoming by-phrase. 2. Semantic roles: agentive, recipient, temporal, locative, instrumental, empty it, ... B. Direct Object. 1. Syntactic features: a. Realisation: nonfinite). b. Positions: After V in SVO; Before Oi in SVOO. c. Possible transformation: passivization. 2. Semantic roles: affected participant; effected participant; locative. C. Indirect Object. 1. Syntactic features: a. Realisation: nonfinite). b. Position: After V and befrore Od c. Possible transformation: passivization. 2. Semantic roles: recipient; affected participant. D. Complement. 1. Syntactic features: a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases; clauses (finite; nonfinite) b. Positions: (i) After V in SVC; (ii) After O in SVOC. c. Typical features: (or O).
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NP (basic & complex);

clauses (finite;

NP (basic & complex); clauses (finite;

No

passivizstion

possible;

NP

Complement is co-referential with S

Lectures on English Grammar

2. Semantic roles: Attribute E. Adverbial. 1. Syntactic features: a. Realisation: NP (basic & complex); adjective phrases; adverb phrases; clauses (finite; nonfinite; verbless). b. Positions: Initial, medial, final. c. Typical features: (i) Mobile; (ii) No passivization possible with A becoming S. 2. Semantic roles: temporal, locative, conditional, concessive, resultative, manner,... III. Concord A. Types of concord in number and person between clause elements: (i) Subject - Verb concord;(ii) Subject-Complement concord; (iii) Object - Complement concord ; (iv) Pronoun concord. B. Subtypes of S - V concord in number and person.
1. Grammatical concord : (i) Ssingular + Vsingular; (ii) Splural
+

Vplural

2. Notional concord : Verb form determined by the actual

number inherent in the S rather than its form.

3. Proximity concord : Verb form determined by the nearest

word (normally as S). IV. Negation. 1. Scope of negation: stretch of discourse over which the negative word operates.

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Lectures on English Grammar

2. Focus of negation: contrastive stress on a certain word in the sentence to signify the place where negation is most available. 3. Interrelationships between scope and focus of negation: (i) Scope of negation normally extends from the negative word up to the end of the sentence or to the beginning of a final adjunct in the sentence. (ii) Scope of negation extends from the negative word to the focus. It is to be driven backwards to include the focus in case the focus is before the negative word. (iv) It then follows from this that the scope of negation can be identified by where the information focus is placed. Eg. morning. Focus of negation V. Sentence types 1. Categories of sentences (classified in accordance with purposes of communication) : (i) Statements; (ii) Questions; (iii) Commands; (iv) Exclamations. 2. Subcategories of questions: (i) Wh-questions; (ii) YesNo questions; (iii) Alternative questions. a. Wh-questions: (i) Wh-word + operator + S + Predication ? (ii) Wh-word + Predicate ? b. Yes - No questions: Yes - No questions proper; declarative questions; tag questions: (i) \Positive statement + /negative tag, (ii) \Negative statement + /positive tag, (iii) \Positive
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Mary didnt break the vase yesterday

Lectures on English Grammar

statement +
\

negative tag, (ii)

Negative statement +

positive tag, (v) \Positive + /positive.

c. Alternative questions: Wh- question form; Yes-No question form. 3. Subcategories of commands: Commands with S; commands without S; commands with let; negative commands; persuasive commands. 4. Subcategories of exclamations: (i) How + adjective phrase !; What + NP ! (ii) Wh-question form exclamations; Yes-No question form exclamations; statement form questions. 5. Semantics of tag questions: (i) Positive assumption + neutral expectation; (ii) Negative assumption + neutral expectation; (iii) Positive assumption + positive expectation; (iv) Negative assumption + negative expectation; (v) Positive assumption + positive expectation. VI. Block language 1. Definition: Block language = language structured in terms of single words or phrases rather than the more highly organised units of clause or sentence. 2. Forms: 3. Features: i.Omission of low-informative words; ii.journalistic style, ... VII. The vocative 1. Definition: Vocative = nominal element added to the sentence to attract the attention of the addressee and to

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Lectures on English Grammar

express

the

speaker

attitude

towards

the

person

addressed. 2. Forms: noun phrases; finite clauses. 3. Characteristic intonations: (i) Fall - Rise for initial vocatives; (ii) Rise for medial and final vocatives.

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Lectures on English Grammar

The complex sentence

I. Coordination vs. subordination. 1. Coordination: Type of relationship between units that stand on equal footing with each other. 2. Subordination: Type of relationship where one or more unit(s) is/are (a) constituent(s) of a larger unit. 3. The complex sentence vs. the compound sentence. Sentences with subordination between clauses (finite, nonfinite and verbless) are termed complex. Those with coordination between clauses are compound. 4. Markers of subordination in the complex sentence: Subordinators (simple, compound, correlative); S-Operator inversion; That-clause; Wh-elements; subordinate clauses that contain no markers within themselves of subordinate status (nominal clause which may or may not have THAT, comment clauses), etc. II. Dependent clauses structurally classified. 1. Finite: Verb element conjugated in number and person with the subject. 2. Nonfinite: Verb element realized by form (to-V, Verb, VED, VING). 3. Verbless: No verb form available; the predicate realized by items of different parts of speech. III. Dependent clauses functionally classified.
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a non-finite verb

Lectures on English Grammar

1. Nominal clauses: THAT- clause; Wh-interrogative clause; Yes-No interrogative clause; nominal relative clause (realization; syntactic functions; semantic roles, posssible transformation). 2. Adverbial clauses: Adjuncts; disjuncts; conjuncts. 2.1. Adjuncts: Time, place, condition, process, result,

concession, etc. 2.2. Disjuncts: Style; attitudinal. 2.3. Conjuncts: Antithesis, contradiction, addition, etc. 3. Comparative clauses (structure; syntactic functions, propositions to be compared). 4. Comment clauses (5 forms; syntactic functions). IV. The verb phrase in dependent clauses. 1. Sequence of tenses: Present tense with subordinators; the modal past; present subjunctive in conditional clauses; direct vs. indirect speech (Backshift; exceptions to the distancing rules; modal auxiliaries and indirect speech; free indirect speech; transferred negation). 2. Types of verbs in dependent clauses as

complentation of superordinate verbs: (i) Factive main verb + indicative verb in the dependent clause.
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Lectures on English Grammar

(ii) Emotive main verb dependent clause.

+ indicative verb

in the

+ should V (iii) Volitional main verb dependent clause. + should V 3. Tense - aspect forms of verbs in Adverbial clauses + subjuntive V in the

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