Baur, F. - A Philological Introduction To Greek and Latin For Students (1883)

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A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION
TO
GREEK AND
LATIN.
AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECHCRAFT.

BARNES.
By WILLIAM
By WILLIAM
Crown
8vo.
Cloth, price
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THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF LANGUAGE.

DWIGHT WHITNEY,
in Scientific Series.
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology Yale College, New Haven. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 55. Copyright Edition. Volume XVI. of the International
GRAMMAR. By WILLIAM DWIGHT ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH "

WHITNEY, Author of
Cloth, price
3$. 6d.
Life
and Growth of Language."
Crown
8vo.
ENGLISH
Author of " Studies
GRAMMAR FOR
BEGINNERS.
in English," etc.
By. H. C. Bow EN, Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price is.
LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, &
CO.
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO GREEK AND LATIN
FOR STUDENTS.
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF
FERDINAND BAUR,
Professor in Maulbronn.
DR.
PH.,
C.
KEGAN PAUL,
AND
E.
M.A., OXON,
M.A.,
D.
STONE,
Late Fellow of Kings Collegf^muArMgi^ **
Assistant-Master at Eton
THIRD EDITION REVISED.
LONDON:
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE
I
LONDON AND AYLESBURY

HAZELL, WATSON,
AND
VINEY, PRINTERS.
(Thf rights of Translation and Reproduction are
reserved.)
PREFACE.
THE
translators
of the following
little
treatise
have simply endeavoured to put Professor Baur's

ideas before English students.
The only
liberty
they have
taken
is
that
of
breaking up the
in
German
sentences,
and
thus
some degree
making the work

although
it
less difficult
than the original,

the doubtful merit
has not even
now
of easiness.
English equivalents
are given for
Greek and Latin words wherever Professor Baur

has given
German
renderings.
The
translators'
best thanks
are due to the
Rev. A.
for
H. SAYCE
valuable
and the Rev. G.
W. Cox
many
suggestions while the work

press.
was passing through the
CONTENTS.
I.
The Nature and The Elements

The
Origin of Language
II.
of Language
.
4
6
7
III.
Divisions of Philology
IV.
Classes
and Stages of Language

or Aryan Family of Languages
V.
VI.
The Indo Germanic,
The Gmcco-Latin Language
.....
.
PART I. THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTOLOGY.

I.
VOWELS.
in
.
VII.
VIII.
Analysis of
Sounds
Greek and Latin

. .
'
J?
.
II
Changes of Vowels
.-
.12
.
*
IX.
Change of Vowels under Consonantal Influence

II.
14
CONSONANTS.
. .
.
.
X.
XI.
XII.
The Greek Consonantal System

Spirants and Aspirates
.
17
18
,
Significance of Consonants to Philology
20
viii
Content*.
PAGS
'
SECTION
'
XIII.
Etymolu-y
.*
V>
21
XIV.
Consonantal Change in the Indo-Germanic Languages Consonantal Relation between Greek and Latin
23
XV.
25
THE CONSONANTS AS ROOT CONSONANTS.

A.
MUTES.
K. T.
II.
I.
TENUES.
XVI.
The
Guttural Tenuis K, corresponding to the Latin

also to Gothic g>
c, q,
and H. G. and E. h
/,
27
XVII.
The Dental Tenuis T, Latin
Gothic
..
th, II.
'
G. d,
.
tmdE.t
XVIII.
tti,t.
II,
30
The
Labial Tenuis
Latin/
for this
H. G. and
.
.
E. have/" in the beginning of a word
31
XIX.
Change
K,
of the Guttural, Labial, and Dental Tenuis,
II,
T, in Greek and Latin
....
g
t
.
34
2.
MEDIALS.
T. A. B.
XX.
The
Guttural Medial F, corresponding to the Latin

*
Gothic kt English k
'
...
t
37
XXI.
The Dental Medial
A, corresponding to the Latin d,

/,
Gothic and Lower German
German z English t
.
38
41
XXII.
The Labial Medial B.
3.
ASPIRATES X. 9. $.
Aspirate
9 ,
XXIII.
The
Guttural
X, corresponding to the
Latin k,
in the beginning of a
word
.
g,
.
Gothic g
42
Contents.
SECTION
ix
PAGE
account of the want
XXIV.
The Dental
Aspirate 6.
On
of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for this

is
often/ in the beginning of a word,

it
;
d and
b in
the body of
Gothic
<!?,
d,
German
/,
English
to
45
XXV. The
Labial
Aspirate
corresponding
the
b,
Latin/
= M, at
the beginning of a
b
.
.
word
v
in
.
German and English

B.
46
SEMI-VOWELS. PERSISTENT SOUND OF CONSONANTS.

i.
LIQUIDS.
XXVI.--The Nasal and Dental Liquid
49
50
51
XXVII.
The Nasal and
Labial Liquid
/
XX VIII.
The Lingual Liquid A.
XXIX. The
Lingual Liquid P. r
53
2.
ORIGINAL SPIRANTS.
Sibilant
(SPIRITUS ASPER).
its
f.
JOD.
XXX. The
XXXI. The
and
Substitute the
Rough
.
Breathing
Labial, Semi- Vowel Spirant
z>,
56
f,
correspond-
ing to the Latin
sporadically represented
by
the rough breathing in Greek, at the beginning
of a word
.60
Semi- Vowel Spirant Jod has
dis-
XXXII.
The
Palatal,
appeared in Greek,
Latin/, English
y,
and
is
retained as the
.
.61
,
XXXIII.
Greek Pure Vowel Roots

Consonantal
XXXIV.
Laws
of Sound
'
....
'
*'
63 63
XXXV. The Laws of
the Ending
.;
,'.'
.
[
68
Contents.
PART
SECTION
II.
FORMATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS.

PAGE
Conception
of
XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XXXVIII.
Roots and
their
Formation
70
Reduplication
Primary and Secondary Roots
Marks and
Peculiarities of the
.
Root
.'
',
v. .
"'
.
74 76
78
Stems of Words
(i)
(2)
XXXIX.
XL.
Verbal Stems
v ."..',
.
.
Nominal Stems, including

.
Participle
..
and
.
*
Infinitive
81
XLI.
XLII.
Comparative and Superlative Stems
83 85
Stems of the Numerals
PART III. WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION.

XLIII.
The Word
".
,.
87
I.
THE NOMINAL INFLEXION. DECLENSION.

XLI V.
XLV.
XLVI.
Elements
..'...
. .
.
....
.
88 89
Signs of Gender
Declensions
..
90
.
XLVII.
Case-endings
>
91
XLV 1 1 1.
XLIX.
Pronouns and Pronominal Declension
.97
.
Adverbs and Prepositions
'
..
99
II.
THE INFLEXION OF VERBS. CONJUGATIONS.

L.
Elements
ioi
Contents.
I.
xi
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
PAGE
SECTION
LI.
Primary
and
Secondary
,
Personal
'
Endings.
Augment.
LIT.
Imperative
v
...
,
.
.
IO3
105
Personal Endings of the Active
LIII.
Greek Middle-Passive
Latin Middle- Passive
LIV.
,112
2.
MODAL ELEMENTS.
.
LV.
LVI.
Greek Conjunctive and Optative

Latin Conjunctive-Optative
.
113
.115
3.
TENSE-STEMS.
.
LVII.
Idea and Classes of Tense
117
(i)
SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS.
Perfect
LVIIL
LIX.
The Greek Simple
and Pluperfect
.
-
.119
122
125 127
Latin Simple or Strong Perfect
LX.
LXI.
LXII.
Greek Simple or Strong,
so-called Second, Aorist

.
Greek and Latin Present Stems
V
.
'
Greek Imperfect
134
(2)
COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS.
GREEK COMPOUND TENSES.
Aorist.
A.
LXIII.
Compound
'
Weak
.
or Sigmatic (so-called
. .
First
')
Aorist
..
135
LXIV.
The Greek Future

or
..
137
LXV.~The Compound
Weak Greek
Perfect
and Plu.
perfect, together
with the Futurum Exactum

.
140
141
LXVL
The Greek
Aorist and Future Passive
xii
B.
Contents.
LATIN COMPOUND TENSES.

PAOR
.
SECTION
LXVIL Summary
LXVIIL Weak
LXIX.
*,."
.
'-*
.
H3
Latin Perfect
/ *
.
.144
,
Tenses and Moods formed from the Perfect

-Future in bo
.
146
LXX.
LXXI.
LXXII.
v
.
Imperfect Indicative
./..
.
:
..
148
149
Imperfect Conjunctive
150
The
E.
following abbreviations are used
English.
O. H. G. Old High German. O. L.
H. G.
O. E.
High German.
Old English.
Old
Old
Latin.
O. L. G.
Skr.
Low German.
O. G.
Old German.
Sanskrit
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION
GREEK AND LATIN

I.
THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE.

is
i.
T ANGUAGE
J
It is
^
the phonetic representation of
thought
thought vocalized.
art,
no work of human
arbitrarily invented for
the purpose of communicating thought;
but a product
which has grown naturally out of the essential develop-
ment of human reason

the
it
has originated
<vo-ei,
not
decree,.
There are two current theories on the

guage
(a)
origin of lan-
onomatopoeic, which refers language to the mere imitation of sounds, as cuckoo

so-called
',
rataplan,
it
to
tomtom; the sounds
(ft)
the interjectional, which refers
arising
from sensation, mere animal
cries
ah, ache, axs.
Neither of these can independently and alone explain

the origin of language.
Reason and language are inseparable. Without language, there is no reason; without reason, there is no
I
An
and
Introduction to Greek
and Latin.
no
language.
definite
Or, to put this in other words, there are

clear
thoughts, except such as can find

there are
expression in articulate sound;
no
articulate
sounds except such as are intimately connected with definite conceptions and ideas. Thought which can be
grasped
ceptions
is
impossible without language.

exist only
for
Words and
con-
each other,
words being the
phonetic embodiments and the only exponents of conceptions.
2.
All phonetic expressions are originally the reflex

is
of impressions on the senses, and this
true whether
we
consider them under the form of an imitation of sounds,

or of interjections,
i.e.
sounds arising from a sensation.
The phonetic
expressions which, primarily, are either
imitations of sounds, or interjections, are, secondarily,
tokens of the object which produces the sound, or causes

the sensation.
A number of phonetic
sions
pression,
expressions for identical impresinto
on the senses are fused

and
this
one collective ex-
becomes a
all.
sign of a general conception
which includes them
From an
selection
is
unlimited
number of such
possible concep-
tions, together with their
made
phonetic expressions, a limited by language; each of these selected
expressions, or phonetic types,
becomes the
sign of
some
one conception or object essential to human life. The process by which these are selected is instinctive and
rational,
not arbitrary or conventional.
These phonetic types are the fundamental elements
Phonetic Types or Roots*
of language ; and to discover them is the goal and result of philology. They form, for us, the irreducible residuum
of linguistic analysis, or, in other words, that which cannot be further explained.
3.
originally impressions
These elementary phonetic types or roots represent on the senses, and convey concrete
of ideas, which, though wide and general, and may extremely
signs
material meanings.
They then become

concrete,
are
therefore be called abstract.
The same
objects
some
idea being connected with a variety of all such concrete, others abstract objects
may be ranged under

Thus,
for
a general category.
IKKOS,
example, equus, LOTTOS, anciently from the root ac, sharp or quick, a$vas, pared with, acus, a needle.
Sanskrit
may
be com-
All abstract words, which express immaterial conceptions,
had
originally material
concrete meanings,
and
are borrowed
by metaphor from phenomena of the world
of sense.
Thus compare avc/xos, animus ; spiritus, spirare; 0v/xo<, 0i'o), / boil; cutov, aevum, time, which last originally came
from the root
/,
to go.
Metaphor
is
the
it
transference of a
name from
the
object to which
properly belongs to
other objects
which appear in some measure to participate in the

peculiarities of the
first.
This
is
done by means of the imagination, which
is
especially vigorous in the early periods of language.
An
and Latin.
Metaphor is an essential implement of language, a powerful means of linguistic development.
II.
THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

and consonants, are not the
1.
Single letters, vowels,
elements of language.
;
Letters in themselves have nc
meaning they contain no intelligible principle. Lingual sound only can be analysed in them, not language
itself.
The
full
elements of language are those sounds which are
of significance, or complex sounds, the so-called roots, or " exponents of conceptions/' Through the union of
these,
in one word, or in a number of words, can find thought expression.
whether
Complete lingual sound, however, as exhibited in one any language, expresses two things (a) Meaning, that is to say, perceptions, ideas, and
2.
conceptions.
(/?)
Relation to something else which and is not contained in the sound.
lies
beyond,
radical,
Complete lingual sound then contains a material, or and a formal element, a predicative and a
;
demonstrative root
and
to discover these is the
work
of a complete grammatical analysis.
Complex sounds, which express meaning

which remain when
all
only,
and
principle of relation
is
abstracted
from a given word-form, are roots, in the narrow sense of the word. Roots are tne indivisible atoms of Ian-
Formation of Words.
guage, the primitive and ultimate elements of words,
which cannot further be analysed. But the word, the complete form of language, is composed of meaning and relation, predicative and demonstrative
t>.e
elements united in a phonetic whole.
The
root
and
word are the two poles between which the

root
is
analysis
of language moves.
The
the expression of a general idea.
If
on
the one side
we
consider this analytically,

it is
and from the
stand-point of complete language,
a pure abstraction
It
is,
of diffused and indistinct meaning.
therefore, not
used by
itself in
more developed language.

if
On
the other side, however,

its
considered synthetically,
and followed from

it
origin through all its phases and an It existed for itself in original word. changes, the creative period of language it is a real living germ,
is
;
growing, and ever thrusting forth
new
shoots.
But when words are formed, whatever is added to the root as an affix, was itself, originally, an independent,
self-existent word.
It has<\coalesced with the root as its
suffix, in virtue of the innate
by the root, and in worn down to mere
power of growth possessed the process of amalgamation has been

syllables
and
letters.
3.
The word
is
the single phonetic expression of a
complete and independent perception. It allows this perception to appear either as an existing entity or as
an incident of time, as a noun or as a verb. The noun and the verb are both, for
original forms of lingual expression.
us,
equally
In
itself,
however,
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.
the distinction between the parts of speech must be con-
sidered as a product of the development of language.
The
root,
considered abstractedly,
is
not concerned
with this distinction.
It necessarily takes to itself further
of
elements of language, and thus out of the universality its meanings it gradually assumes nominal and verbal
;
expression
differentiates itself into
noun and
verb.
All the relational elements of the
noun and of the

suffixes, all
verb
that
is
to say
all
nominal and verbal
inflexions,
whether of cases or persons are themselves demonstrative or pronominal. roots, originally
4.
Between the root and the word

after
lies
the stem, that
which remains
the inflexional endings.

is
grammatical analysis has taken away It is not a mere root, therefore it

over and above the root, a general
is far
not unconcerned with the difference between noun and

;
verb
it
has in
itself,
nominal or verbal formative element. This

tive than the root,
more rela-
and
is
negative only to the
more definite
conceptions.
Thus
then
there are nominal
and verbal stems.
The word
may be
defined as the complete com-
bination of sounds which express meaning and relation.

It contains, so far as root
and stem
are not coincident, the
Sec.
38,
2,
three elements
the Root,
Stem,
the
Inflexion.
III.
THE
DIVISIONS OF PHILOLOGY.
is
The
as
its
material basis of sound, which
originally phy-
siological, underlies the complete linguistic form as well
elements.
Divisions of Philology.
It is
organs of speech, and
conditioned by the constitution of the human is again, in each language, indi-
vidually modified by usage.
The sounds which
are
its
separate constituents, enter into union with each other

in part, only according to the definite laws of each lan-
guage and the laws of sound. The science of sound treats these laws as
ary part,
the
its
element-
and thus
results the division of Philology into
science of sound
Glottology,
and the science of
form
Grammar.
latter,
considered generally, in the widest sense of the science of lingual form, is in part the science of
root
The
and stem formation,
in part the science of
word
formation or inflexion.
IV.
1.
CLASSES AND STAGES OF LANGUAGE.

or radical languages.
Isolating
These consist of
sounds of unalterable meaning, susceptible of no modification
mere
roots.
There
is
in
them no
difference
between root and word, or between noun and verb; Such is every word is a root ; there are no inflexions.
Old Chinese.
2.
Agglutinative languages.
roots
grow
together in a single word.
In these, two or more One of these main-
tains its radical
independence, and remains unaltered by phonetic decay. The others constitute a dependent
affix,
as prefix, suffix, or infix, that
is
to say the addition
of a sound of relation at the beginning, at the end, or in
An
and Latin.
thus a conglomerate
the middle of a word.
The word
Such
is
is
without
guages.
strict unity.
the Turanian family of lan-
3.
Inflexional languages,
of which the following are

in
it
the steps.
The
is
root
and the modifications made
by
the sounds of relation are blended together, Sec.
2, 2, ft.
The
root
capable of a regular alteration with a view to
the expression of relation, and of the addition to the root
of the sound expressing relation. These are the Semitic and
Indo-Germanic branches of language. The two branches

are thoroughly different in grammatical construction, but
this
does not exclude the possibility of an original identity

is
of their material elements, that
to say of the roots.
The
(a)
characteristic tokens of these languages are
A regular change
The
of the root vowel,
strictly limited
to a definite order of vowels.

(ft)
addition of the expression of relation exclu-
sively at the
end of the root
in the
form of
suffixes.
To
this the only exceptions are the verbal
augments and the
reduplications, of which
(y)
more
hereafter.
That
all their
roots are monosyllables.
V.
THE INDO-GERMANIC, OR ARYAN FAMILY or

LANGUAGES.
[The word Aryan
is
here used in
its
widest sense.]
The
original
is
of which
inferred from
Indo-Germanic language the existence a consideration of known allied
languages
divides into,
Aryan
1.
The
Asiatic or
its
Aryan group,
here used in
(a)
narrower sense.] The old Indian language of the Vedas, which
was afterwards the written language Sanskrit. This was the elder sister and not the parent of
the other languages of the family.
(/3)
The
Eran
Iranian languages.
is
The word
Iran
or
derived from Arya.
These are the

Iranic),
old Bactrian or
Zend (East
the
and old
language of the (West Iranic, Achaemenid cuneiform inscriptions).

Persian
2.
The
south-western European group
Greek, Italian
Keltic.
including Latin,
3.
Umbrian and Oscan, and

:
The
northern European group
Slavo-Lithuanian
and German, this last including Gothic, Low German and English, High German and Scandinavian.
VI.
i.
THE GRÊCO-LATIN LANGUAGE.

is
The
Grasco- Italian group of languages
a link in
the chain of language which extends from India to
Western Europe. It is further removed from the original Indo-Germanic language than is the old Indian, but is
nearer to
it
than
is
the Slavonic-German group.

.
Sanskrit, Greek,
and Latin are
sisters,
the same order and class of languages, but the

character of greater originality.
belonging to first has a
Greek, however, exhibits
high antiquity, especially in the preservation of the old

tense and
mood
forms.
io
2.
An
and Latin.
In the Greek language the Doric and Êolic dialects
are older than the Ionic- Attic.
The Greek
forms, as
we
find
them
in classical authors,
have arisen through phonetic decay, through degradation and mutilation of an older and fuller form. They have
gone through a series of processes of paring and decomposition, by which the meaning of the language is refined
same proportion as are its forms. Its historical development, at the same time, lies under the physical law of vis inertia. The original simple and fundamental
in the
vowels become changed and modified.
3.
The sounds
of Latin and the Italian languages are
so far as the
consonants are concerned
in
much
closer relation with the original sounds than those of the
Greek.
Compare,
fcoT/u/u,
for instance, ves in vestis with I in e^w/xt =.

^//,i,
Sanskrit vas ;
semi, originally semis ;
CTTTOI,
septem, Skr. saptdn ; reWapcs, quattuor,

TI,
Skr. katvaras ;
vc'os,
quid, originally ki ; fyrap, jecur, Skr.jakrt;

7ro/xat,
novus,
Skr. navas ;
sequor, Skr. root sak ;

t/cfos,
ITTTTOS,
nearly
the original IKKOS ==

105,
equus, Skr. a$vas ; ovAe, salve ^
virus etc.
)
On
the other hand, in the case of the vowels, Latin
is monotonous and weak, in comparison with the manifold development and subtle divisions of the Greek vowel It is poor in diphthongs, and original old Latin system.
diphthongs become modified into single sounds.
PART L
THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTO LOGY.
I.
VOWELS.
VII.
1.
ANALYSIS OF SOUNDS IN GREEK AND LATIN
The
first
The Indo-Germanic fundamental vowels are a, i, u of these, made by opening the lips as widely
is
as possible,
clear
and hard, and incapable of any
The last two, made by conmore and more the tracting opening of the lips, are weak and fluid, nearly related to the semi-vowels /, or
transition into consonants.
jod,
and/ or vau. [N.B. The letter/ is retained throughout the following pages because of necessity so printed in Latin words. It answers, however, to the sound of the
English yJ\ These fundamental vowels are originally short, and
therefore short in all roots
they have been gradually
extended and lengthened by the reception of formal
The diphthongs ai and au are made by the combination of the hard a with the weak / and u.
elements.
2.
A
ot,
was
first
modified into e and

e, o.
0,
or rather was difet
ferentiated into a,
Then
<u
;
arose further diphthongs,
and
connected with
cv
and ov connected with
av.
12
An
and Latin.
to
a,
77,
From
the gradual change of
a,
c, o,
w, there
arose
other spurious diphthongs from the combination of these hard vowels with i. These had a/ sound, which is now
wholly
lost,
and hence the
iota subscript a,
7;,
a>.
Others
;
arose through the combination with v

Attic- Doric,
rjv
dv,
rp, cm;
dv
Attic- Ionic, cov Ionic.
3.
ci ;
The old Latin diphthongs were au, ou, en ; ai, which were modified into the single sounds o, u;
Compare Claudius
:
oi,
ae,
oe, e, 1.
Clodius ; jous
-jus ;
Lucius
Aermos
aquai
;
poena
punio
aquae; ploirumeplurinn ; 71-00/77 oenus unus ; populei populi ; foidos

otvos
foedus ; hoi
hi;
vinum ;
OIKOS
vicus ;
am em
amaim, an archaic form.
VIII.
i.
CHANGES OF VOWELS.
original
A-Series.
The
from
a vanishes
in the
TrtTTTco
TrtTTCTco
7TCT = pat /
altogether, as in
from ycv
It is
= gan.
into
/,
:
same way, ytyvo^cu
weakened or thinned
to-^t,
generally before two

OTCO
consonants
the root
cs
connected with
Icrrtr]
asdhi from
cori'a,
as ;
Ion. connected with
Vesta
from vas
us in uro
uso ;
j
LTTTTOS,
Sec.
7TtTV77/Xt
- 7TTaVW/X.l
rtKTw
6,3;
TTtAl/a^ttt, TTtXl/aO)
Ktpny/xt
TTcXaÔ)
\
((TKCLTr)
tr/Ct/XTTTO),
l/<TKt/X7TT(0, II.
XVII. 437
tak.
TTccrcti/
-/^/,
/^z//
TCK,
This takes place
regularly in the present reduplication, Sec. 61, 3;

in Latin
and
compounds:
facto 9 conficio,
compare Juppiter.
Changes of Vowels.
It
is
13
modified into e : c&o

l<rn = asti ;
;
= admi,
from
apx*
o/x,ai
from
c8
sed= sad ;
FLKO.TL
into o
;
: TroSo's
pad ;
ayKwv
cucoo-i
=
;
Êol.
6/jtov.
aKpts
o/cpis
opâ/xos
oy*os
a/A
The
original
A.a/2
;
is
retained in
OKCOKT;
(*w)
ayo>
(ag)
Aa//,j9av<0
TrarT/p,
Stem
:
Trarcp,
patar.
crepes
;
a and
ITC/AOV
;
are interchanged
Tpe<<o erpa<t>ov
;
in arcpos Dor.
era/xov
icrciva) (KTCV/'CO)
:
eKravov, Kravoi.
o,
Gradual changes.
First stage
:
to
especially in the
formation of noun stems
</>opos
^
from T/< ^ Xoyos from Xey (a the older and Doric
from <epw bhar ; TOKOS c/crova from KTCI> ^ a to a, 77

77
lon.-Att.
form gradually
;
descended from a) ; XtXrjOa, \y6rj from Xa^ from fay ctAâ from Xa^ ctA.r/<a from Xay5.
; ;
laya,
oyya
Compare
Second
TTTWO-OTCO,
plango, pldga ; ago, ambages, egz; tango, contdgio.

Stage
:
d,
r;
to
Ippwya,
prjywfju.,
fpay
Trra/c
;
TTTW,
dpwyos,
TTTaxTKa^cD
rpaiyo),
II.
IV. 372
j
TTTT/cra-a)
dpr/yco
erpayov
dfCWKTy,
WKVS from
d/<
in
a/c?y,
aKpos.
Com=fall
pare a^V^,
J#/.r, ^//^?, ^<?r,
J^r /
labare, labi, Idbes
and jtoX XW^T; shame.

2.
I-Series.
The fundamental vowel

t
/^?
is
in
imasi,
Wi from the root

iriO.
go ;
is
eXiTrov
,
from
ITTIÔV
from
The
ortx o?
t ;
first
-
stage
into
J / el/ is
orctô),
ot/u,os
o-rt^ in
c7/xt,
The second
XIV.
stage
>
into ot
from
XcXotvit, TrtiroiOa, oroTôs

tSca), II.
otSa
is
ciSai.
ctScw
connected with
235, as tSma
*
con-
nected with ctSma
= wr/xev
tS/x,ei/,
5t8
a[Wi/3r}
d/At)8(o.
Compare
/^fer, fid, perfidus, fldo =feido,
infzdus, foeincus,
dus, foidos; Xts, Atros, smooth, Xetos, lev is, leivis ;

fotKos
;
vlnum,
otvos
Fotvos.
14
3.
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

v,
U-Series.
////
The fundamental vowel

c^vyov,
<vyiy,
</>vy,
in
o-v,
///,
originally
.//<gv
:
fvyoV, yV/g<cvyo>,
in
jugum,jungo. pcv/x,a, from the root

into ov,
.
The
first
stage
is
into cu
TTW.
cvywp,i,
pu, 7rvcu/xa
The second
;
stage
is
;
\vO
cAcvcro/xat
c 1X77X0 v#a
<rirov&rj
o-TrcuSa)
<o
:
connected with o-cvopu, root o-u ; or into == faxrr?7p, from the root ^v ^vy in ^vyw^L
;
<oi/-
from
êto
= x*Fa> = x c^ w
>
ot
u<
Compare /$,
,
7^<f, bond=.jous,
jus,
fromju =jug= v vy, to bind, \njungo ; soup =jous, from ju = fu, to mix, in
<?^^,
uro
from
us,
compare
evw, cvco,
singe.
IX.
CHANGE OF VOWELS UNDER CONSONANTAL

INBXUENCE.
i.
The vowels were
affected
by the
original
Indo-
Germanic spirants j,
v, s,
Sec.
n.
The Greek language

:
re&isted their influence,

(a)
suffix
and hence,
/into
t
:
They were changed into vowels

ja
in TraTpios, ayios
;
nominaltoi/,
comparative-suffix
;
origi-
nally jans, in ^SiW,
stem TÎQV
genit. sing, of the

;
O-stems
optative-
into oio from ojo, originally osjo, Sec. 47, 2
element
it]
from ja
ctrjv
cor/V/v
cq/'^/x,
= asjam ;
Z/
Doric future into

spirant
f
<no>
:
from
&x>,
cr/w,
Trpa^to)
8fa>,
7rpayor/a>.
to v
vowel
^w^
=
=
Sanskrit dva, bis

TrvcFo),
;
^/W / x 6^'
wveiJai
II.
-ôl.,
from X*^,
dftfax
;
x1
^?
7n/r
d.
;
>
compare avta\os Od. IX. 464

co/xat
KCI/CO?
z/
XIII. 41
tavw from
ravafTro
cr/bfiai
raXavptvo?.
to
SO
also
<^>evfotJ/xat ;
compare
(b) /,
KCV/'O?,
o-rcpcos, fjvoptrj.
t,
were transposed as the vowels
v before con-
Changes of Vowels.
sonants
Xatva
:
t,
15
in KTiVo>=KTi//a>
J
so </>awo, <0ip, 6<i'Xa>

Xeaiva, ScVTrotva
; //,c-
= av/a
SO again
(jiuLKaipa,
,
SCCTTTOT-
v/a, vciaipa, ^/^

,
abdomen
Soretpa,
Tcpewi
Kpcicnrtov
icpcr/cov
xeipa>v=xp/W, from the Stem Kpar in

J
t is epena doubled power of // it affects the consonant, which becomes a mixed sound, Sec. 34, 3, and at
y/,
o-o-
= T/), strictly speaking therefore
thetic, or is
t into the preceding syllable ; from <ovos, connected with </>otvos II. compare <otVios XVI. 159- V F yowds = yovFos from ydi/v, yowa,
'
the
same time passes over as
compare genna, Bovpa ; old Latin sollus; cXaww

(c) y,
z/,
ovXos, Ion.
= oXfos,
0X09, salvus^
= cXavfw;
whence
it
compare nervus,
vcvpov.
j disappear,
follows that vowels are

s,
^
massed together and contracted,

fJL&ovs from
<f>tprj
fjLV<ros j
CTCTT,
ctryv from
CCT/T/V
CITTO/XT/V
from
from
epTro)
CTT
=
FCTT.
o-cpTra).
CITTOI/,
compare sequor ; CI/STTOV eo-cprrov from == Z/ = f, 1IOVUS Vos vefo?, ; flpyacrdfjLrjv

ICITTOV
=
co),
efcpy;
cfefcTroi/,
redupl. aor.
from the
ao>
root
y, in so-called
a/o),
/o>, q/(o.
contracted verbs in
cw
from
2.
syllable
the
loss
of
was lengthened in compensation for consonants: of f; the lon.-Ep. genit.

1/770$
/ôo-tXôs, To/djos,
= ySao-tXefos, vafos,
and thence with
a change in quantity came the Attic form ews; of j in
= TroXc/bs, Attic TrdXews of v in Ionic from Êolic fcwos = Doric Attic eVos of êtvos, = = = v before rovs TOV? c^cpovcri <^>epovTt <j>ipov<n
Homeric
7rdX?;os
;
êi/fos,
^
<r
TTCI?
contracted TI/^S, not
rt/x^?, II.
IX. 605, since the
is
not organic, = TI/XWOTS
of
cr
ct/xt
from
eV/u,
connected
An
and Latin.
compound
cvc/xcra
;
with the Êolic
c/x/xi,
t/xat=eo-/Aat
X,
/A,
i/,
in the
o/ci/â
aor.
when
(r
disappears after
cî/a
in
<av(ra from the root <av
eoretXa
crreX<ra, crreX
orcXXco
= orcX/co,
connected with the Êolic coreXXa with

o;
assimilation of the
cKaOapa
in the
;
nomin.
singul.
Trareps
;
when
disappears
TTOI/X^V
= TTOI^CVS
Trarrjp
Compare
cadtum
/<^f
/#&
connected with pedis ; cdsum
; abies, abietis ;
examen, exdgmen ; flamen, flagmen,
compare
agio ;
= contagmen; ajo = = from ; magior jumentum major jug j on the other

flagrcre, Âcy; contamen
stilus,
hand, stimulus,
connected with
instlgare,
from J//g/
/0>z0 from posno, posino.

3.
syllable
rots
The sound of t was introduced into when the word ended in en in the
:
the preceding
dat. plur. rats,
tost,
from
rato-i, roto-t,
o-i ;
lon.-Ep.
Trjo-i,
=tast,
pronoun-
stem
ta, suff.
in 2 pers. sing.
<epee,s
</>epco-t,
4.
vowel was inserted
after p
and X:
6peyo>
con-
nected with opy in opywa; dpT/yw from dp/c apa/c in dp/<eo) ; Tapacroro) from the root Tpa^, Tcrprâ rpa^vs ; ^Xvôv or
Â0ov;
5.
dXefco,
dX in
dXaX/ceti/;
compare
/xoXvySo? plumbum
vowel was prefixed occasionally before one, oftener before more than one, consonant: a<rraxvs
s>
do-TT^p
)
Stella,
root
II.
o-rop, ^/^r,
Sec. 17, do-rpaTrra)

</>Xotor/2os
II.
;
d<Xoi07/,09
>
XV.
607,
weak ;
lyvvri,
poples,
XIII. 212,
;
liquid,
H. G. braue; E. brow; i^Qis, \6^ before simple and nasal letters: d/xwo) /XWT;, d/âXo? ^^taXa/co?,
ea,
ci/vcfa,
i?^w,
j/
being doubled after
Greek Consonants.
prefixed
;
17
oyu
unguis,
H. G.
nagel, E. nail; ovo/xa, origi-
nally oyvo/xa, noinen ; cpetVw, piVrw; cpvOpos, rubcr ; epeiryecr#ai,
ructare ;
dpao-cra), pr)(rcrw
tpwij, pcoo/xat
opeyw, rcgo ;
before f:
/oy<o,
cpcn;,
fepoTy,
cepoT;
fpa^,
or
before
8vpo/xat
;
II.
XXIII. 598;
;
Sec.
2o
LKO<ri,
cfeucoo-i,
etKocri, {[KCLTI
ceSvov,
connected with
6Saf,
ISvov,
;
FcSvov;
gutturals
080^9,
:
SoKva)
oSvpo/xat,
before
labials
II.
CONSONANTS.
X. THE GREEK CONSONANTAL
The consonants
fall
naturally into classes regulated

;
by
the nature and duration of their sound
that
is
to say,
according as they are audible or inaudible without a

vowel, and according as their sound
lasting.
(
is
momentary or
These
These
classes are,
Mutes, or soundless, momentary consonants.
are divided (a) according to the organs which produce
hem, into Gutturals,

/5,
K,y,,\; Dentals, T,
their harder or
8,
Labials,
TT,
<.
(b)
According to
weaker pronun-
ciation or degree of sound, into Tenues, i/aAa=" without a breathing," *, T, IT ; Medials, or weak, y, 8, (3 ; Aspirates,
or mutes with a breathing added, x 6, <. These last do not exist in Latin, and are designated as foreign sounds
by
ck,
th,ph (on
</>
= /j
%
Sec.
u,
4).
An
and Latin.
(a) Liquids,
(2) Semivowels, or lasting sounds.
These are
and are
dental,
/x,
partly
nasal,
also a labial
y (before gutturals), v also a and partly lingual, X, p. ;
(b) Spirants
'
and
<r s.
Sibilants, breathing
and
hissing sounds,
(h\ p
(v),
To
7T<r,
these must also be added Double

era-
Consonants, double sibilants or mixed sounds,
(ss),
= ks) (x
=
\l/
ps,
80-.
XI.
1.
SPIRANTS AND ASPIRATES.

original spirants of the Indo-
J,
one of the three
Germanic languages,
J, V, S, has disappeared in Greek,

its
only to be recognized by sometimes turned into a vowel, Sec.

is
and
now
effects.
i
;
It is
9,
sometimes
assimilated,
Sec.
34,
sometimes fused down with

;
other consonants into a mixed sound, Sec. 34, 3
some-
times changed at the beginning of a word into the
rough breathing; sometimes

the beginning, Sec. 32,
Sec. 9,
i, c.
ic
disappears altogether in
and
in the middle of a word,
2.
V is
retained as
f,
the digamma, the old vau, in

is
the older language
that
to say, in the
Doric and
find
it
Êolic dialects.
the
In the
later language, as
we
in
Homeric
text, the
digamma becomes an
is
it
aspirate
at the beginning of
t/>ta,
a word, or
altogether absorbed,
is
ayw/xt.
019
In the body of a word
sometimes
absorbed,
ovis,
vcos
novus,
1/1709
=
J,
i/??fos ;
somej/avs,
times weakened into the vowel v

v,
\_y
9,
-as
;
in
/3ovs,
Zcv9,
compare
Jov, Sec.
sometimes
Spirants
and Aspirates.
i,
19
assimilated in contracted syllables, Sec. 34,

thrust aside
or
it is
by the strengthening of the preceding vowel,
oSAos
6Xfos,
yowa; compare
syllabic
Sec. 9,
i,
b.
its
This spirant, however, f

partly in
o>voôt,
= v,
survives in
effects,
eayiy,
the
augment before a vowel,

dialect, eoXcDv,
<opo>v,
even in the Attic
eon/ov/^v,
partly in the dialect of the

its
influence
syllable,
Homeric poems. In these both in the quantity of the preceding and in the elision. In this latter case, howis felt
ever,
and more recent Ionic

fai/o.
some wavering may be noticed between the older for example, in avaf and dialects
Digammated words originally made the preceding syllable long by position II. I. 108; IV. 18, 214; V. 7, 836; XIII. 495; XVI. 502; Od. IX. 196; XIV. 479; long vowels at the end of a word
remained long before
it
II.
III.
392
VI. 91
VIII.
513; XVIII. 473;

56
;
Od. X. 510;
XL
108; XVIII.
II.
XXI. 405
161,
short vowels were not cut off
I.
757; IX. 40; XV. 288; XVI. 178, XXI. 424; 309, and there was instead only an apparent 462; V.
elision.
3.
The
original s remains
the end of words only, compare Sec.
predominant in Greek at 35, and before
mutes.
into h,
9, i, c,
At
the beginning of a
it
word
is
it is
usually
changed
and between vowels

Sec. 30.
elision
wholly thrust out, Sec.
The
and excision of the
original spirants
their
alteration, assimilation,
and fusion with other consonants
cause
remarkable
changes in the character of the
2O
An
and Latin.
peculiarity of
<r s.
original sounds,
and are a very noteworthy
the Greek language.
All the dentals disappear before
So also does
v,
with a compensatoiy lengthening of the
preceding vowel, Sees. 9, 2 ; 34, 7. In Latin, s, between vowels and at the end of a word,
Lases, eram from simply changed into r : Lares arbor esam 9 erit '-estt, quaero arbos ; it disquaeso, in of a word the middle before m, ;z, /, d, appears
is
compare cano, Camena (Casmena), connected with car?nen, at the end idem^ and between vowels, diet, spei, Sec. 47
;
of a word, parricida(s\ familiai(s), Sec.

/,
47,
and
after
#, r, sol, vigil)
puer,
leo
Icons.
4.
Greek
;
is
averse to the accumulation of aspirates,
Sec. 34, 5
9;
Latin has no aspirates
their place
is
taken by the
corresponding breath-sounds.
aspirate
0,
Instead of the dental
we have
25.
in Latin at the beginning of a
word
used
simply f, Sec.
This
is
not an aspirated tenuis,
ph
but a labial breath-sound
bh* and
often
for
dh and gh.
<,
Only
25.
in later periods of the language
Sees.
<j>
22
For the difference of sound

xii. 10,
between
XII.
i.
andyj see Quintilian
29.
SIGNIFICANCE OF CONSONANTS TO PHILOLOGY.
as
it
Consonants are the stable element, the skeleton, were, of language, which remains generally the
all
same through
the changes of a root.
This
is
true
* Therefore the ellit notpefclli. reduplicated perfect \sfef
Consonants in relation
to Philology.
21
not only within each single language, but also in the
languages which are akin to each other.
Consonants not only form, phonetically, the fixed

bodies of words, but they are also the exponents of thought, the significant elements, which have naturally
become interwoven with the conception of a word. They

make,
therefore, stronger resistance to phonetic
changes
than do the vowel elements of words.

to far greater changes
into each other,
;
Vowels are exposed
they are fluctuating, tend to melt

less easy to grasp.
and are therefore
2.
But the consonants of the same root are also
subject to numerous changes.

sition
These occur
in the tran-
from one Indo-Germanic language, group of lan-
guages, or stage of linguistic development, to another, as

well as within the
same language, during the process of

These changes can be reduced
relate
word formation.
These laws
in
to laws.
3.
to the consonantal
change of
sound
a root or a stem, partly in the passage from one

to another, according to their
Jndo-Germanic language
grades, partly within each separate language.
The
first
is
the law of sound- shifting
the last
is
the
consonantal law of sound in Greek and Latin.
These laws are the foundation of
scientific
etymology.
XIII
i.
ETYMOLOGY.
is
Etymology
is
the science of what
true and genuine
in language, of vrhat is ITU/XOV; it is the
knowledge of the
22
true
An
and
and Latin.
a word in conformity with its derivation, and the tracing it down from its stem-word and root-word.
original signification of
does not merely show by analysis that a word is generally derived from one which is more original and
It
simple,
that
is
to say
from a root
but, starting
from
the root, follows the

tracing
it
word
its
synthetically
and
genetically,
through
all
wanderings, both within the

to
several languages,
and from one

It explains
another of those
has been
which are
related.
how one word

by
gently and gradually altered
into another
It
the regular
law
of
phonetic
change.
discloses especially the
laws or analogies which regulate and direct the consonantal changes of sound in the history of language.
2.
as well as of the
Therefore the identity or resemblance of the sound, meaning of two words, are only of sub-
ordinate importance for methodical etymology.
Words
be
of quite different sounds, which have not a single letter

in
common, may be shown by

;
scientific analysis to
words of the same origin

fundo, Sec. 23, wqp
others,
again,
compare, for example, \i&

t)ua
ventus,
vestis.
Sec.
31;
as,
and
for
of wholly
TrwrrcD
different
peto, Sec.
meaning,
1 8,
example,
esculent
Trero/Aeu
37,
<?7yos,
the
oakfagus,
the beech.
The
last is
an example
of the
which a word may alter its meaning by change of language, time, and country. In the development of language the successive changes
way
in
of meaning go hand in hand with phonetic change.
Grimnfs Law.
3.
23
But through
all
changes of form and meaning the

essential elements.
original condition of a language, or family of languages,
remains unaltered in
stantly
its
These con-
produce new forms
with modified meaning, and
language with words and conceptions, but can be arbitrarily added to them. whatever nothing The observation of these changes of form and meaning
enrich the
is
a peculiarly delightful study, and opens a glimpse into
the wondrous household of

to subsist
human language which
is
able
on such simple means.
XIV.
CONSONANTAL CHANGE IN THE INDO-GERMANIC

LANGUAGES.
Almost the
entire consonantal structure of the Indois
Germanic languages
conditioned by the phonetic law
discovered by Jacob Grimm.
This law of sound- shifting concerns the

changes of sound gradually
common
roots
or words of this family of languages, and explains the
made
in
the mutes from

It also
tenues to aspirates, from aspirates to medials.

explains the changes of sound
in the guttural, dental,
and
labial
groups of consonants in the various stages of
language.
1.
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Keltic.
2.
Gothic, with
Low German and
English.
3.
Old High German.

rules are
These
especially valid for consonants at the
beginning of words, and in a far less degree for those in
24
An
and Latin.
:
the middle
and
at the
end of words
they are thus ex-
pressed
i.
Where
there
is
a tenuis,
/,/, in the
first
stage of
development
stage
in language, its place is taken in the
second
in the
is
by
the corresponding aspirate or spirant,
and
third stage
by the corresponding medial.

//
The medial
however retained only in the dental class ; compare Sec. 1 7,

r-;
in
O. H. G.
and /were used instead of g and
b.
2.
Where
b
aspirates, x> #>

is
&
occur in the
first
stage,
their place
g,
taken in the second stage by medials,
d,
and
0?/p,
in the third
Ovydrrjp
;
by tenues,
/,
/.
Compare
But instead
b often
Sec. 24,
Sec. 20, pay
-frag.
of the k and /, which might be expected,
g and
;
remain in H. G.
compare
Sec. 25, root
<v
Sec. 23,
^;
/.
the dental d, on the contrary,
becomes changeable
occur in the
into
3.
When
medials, g, d,
b,
first stage,
the
corresponding tenues appear in the second stage, and

aspirates in the third
;
compare
Sa/cpv,
Sec.
21
duco,
Gothic tiuhan, O. H. G. ziohan, H. G. ziehen ; z

the dental spirant for the dental aspirate.
.
ts,
This law undergoes modification through the want of
strict aspirates in Latin, Sec.
n,
4,
and Sec.
15, as well as
to
some extent
also in Gothic
and Old High German.

by the
The
aspirates thus lacking are generally replaced
corresponding breath-sounds or spirants.
Relation of the rteio fcangtiages. 7

'
2$
XV.
CONSONANTAL RELATION BETWEEN GREEK AND

LATIN.
The
consonantal differences between identical roots or

related,
words of these two languages, which are

in regard to their relation with
and
stand on the same linguistic stage of development, are,
each other, mainly con:
ditioned by
1.
the following characteristic peculiarities
By
the fact of the exchange of the guttural, labial,

,
and dental tenues
/,
/,
both in the transition from one
language to the other,
and within the boundaries of each

connected the development of the
of the two languages, Sec. 19.
With
this is closely
guttural tenuis k in Latin into the guttural tenuis with a labial secondary sound ; that is to say into qu kv,
which often
fact that c
arises within the
bounds of Latin from the

a transitional sound from
is,
= k.
This qu
is
the guttural to the labial tenuis, that
from k to /,
and explains the frequent interchange of k and Latin and Greek.

2.
in
the want of a proper aspirate in Latin, Sec. In the place of the Greek aspirates, x, 0, <, the corresponding breath-sounds are used in the beginning of
By
ii, 4.
middle of a word
a word, often/, or even the medial, for x and 0. In the d and b are found in the place of 0.
For examples,
Sees. 23
25.
3. By the tendency of the Greek language to dispense with spirants, and the entire absence of the spirant /,
26
An
and Latin.
n,
i.
which has only a latent
effect,
Sec.
is,
on
the contrary, very prevalent in Latin, both in the beginning and in the body of a word, as in the root jug, and
in ajo, major.
It
often however
becomes a vowel, and

obids
disappears both between vowels and after consonants,

cuncti
cojuncti ;
deicit
deficit;
obex,
= objex,
objicis ;
minor
minjor.
4.
By
the frequent transition of s in Greek into the
may
3
;
rough breathing at the beginning of a word, though it also pass into the smooth breathing, Sees, n,
30.
On the other hand, s is changed into r between and at the end of a word in Latin, Sec. n, 3. vowels, H. G. war, waren = was, wasen; E. was, were; Compare
H. G.
kiiren
= kiusen ;
E. choose.
5.
By
the continuance of the old vau.
This was a
was frequently weakened into vowels in the body of a word, as in the diphthongs au and ou, and disappeared altogether between vowels.
half-vowel,
and
as such
But
it
remained
it
at the beginnings of
words
in Latin,
Sec. 31, while
completely disappeared in the written
language of Greece, or passed into the rough breathing,

Sees,
n,
By
31.
6.
the sporadic weakening of d in Latin to
/.
lacrima ; lingua
=
;
Sa*pv
zunge,
odor,
dingua, Gothic tuggo,

Ulysses;
Sarjp
H. G.
E. tongue ;
o8a>8a
;
'OSvo-crevs
levtr ; olor
silva
1877
for the
change of ft
compare conversely adeps dXei^xo ; and g, ft and v, ft and /, see Sec. 22.
Root Consonants.
7.
27
By
the different law in regard to the endings oi

for
words in the two languages. Compare lact and yaXa yaAa/cr, Sec. 35.
example
lac
as the elements of
In the following chapters the consonants are arranged Greek and Latin roots and words,
which partly remain unchanged, and partly change in the passage from one realm of language to another, according
to
known
laws.
A survey
is
made
of the roots and stems
common
of Greek.
analysis.
to two or
cording to
more Indo- Germanic languages, acthe classes of consonants arranged on the basis
This
is
the etymological part of linguistic
THE CONSONANTS AS ROOT CONSONANTS.

A.
i.
MUTES,
K. T.
II.
TENUES.
XVI.
Latin
THE GUTTURAL TENUIS K,

c,
corresponding to
q, g, Gothic,
H. G. and
E. h.
aK
OK?;,
oKax/xepog, irporjiajs, CV^KT/S, ve^K^s,

piT/KTys, d/cawa;, a/c/Ltiy, a/cony, d/cpos,
Doric
veafoys,
aKpis and o/cpis,
acus, acuo, acies, deer, odor.

dp/coo,
;
dpK
dX/c
apKios,
dp^ya),
Sec.
9,
4\
aXicij,
dXoAKctv, dA.â)
arceo, arx, area,
Herculus, originally god
of hurdles or sheep-folds.
I 2.
K O CT
FlKOO-l
= SflKCKTl,
Êolic FiKOTLj
viglflti,
K a T 6 v, centum ; Gothic
huna ; E. hundred.
28
F
An
K
aCKCDV
and Latin.
CK^X
CKOn>,
(ZKWV, CKIJTl,
dc/O/Tl,
invltus *= invic(i)tus ?
K v p o s,
for
<rf,
ftta?r
as
flK
I,
fc
<rfc, JZtf,
Gothic svaihra, Greek rough breathing thence se.

^tKTO,
IK
iK
II.
COlKtt, flKnrjV,
(from a prCSCnt
;
CIKO)
?)
XVIII. 520,
cto-Ko)
causative, ctKa<o
tKcXos, ct/ccXos,
cVtctKcXos, diKois II.

cwcwv.
XXI I.
336,
dctK7ys, /xcvoct/o;?,
FlK
tKO), IKCLVO), lKVCO/W,at, tKCTT/S,
IKnjp, tKCT^CTtO?,
l/c
TrpotWo/xai
IK/XCVOS.
(on the other hand see below irpol),
Kaâpd K a
K a
t
s, KaOaLpd)
i,
casttlS
^//^
= Cddtus.
re.
with locative
see below
;
Sec. 19, 3.
/caXco), KXô-ts etc.
calare, kalendae, nomenclator,
dassis, clamare.
K a
TT
KWTH;
capw^ capulum ;
KCKtt^WS,
/
H. G. and
E.
//d[/?,
^^/?.
tt 7T
KttTTVW,
77
/CttTTI/OS.
Kd
TT
X o s,
<rtf///0
H. G. kaufen, without any
shifting
of sound at the commencement, which proves that the
word
is
strange to the language.

Kaprj etc., Kpyvij',
KT}P,
/cap a,
cerebrum;
;
H. G. him.
(coni), cordajus,
KapS
vecors ;
Kcap, KapStia, KpaSti;
<r^r
Gothic hairto ; H. G. ^<?rz/ E. ^^r/.

/caf
cKTâ,
Kav
Kai^/xcvat,
II.
Kavo"a,
Kai'co,
Kavyuia,
K^Xov
KaXov, KTyXcos, K^'Xctos
XV. 744
II.
;
K^wSiy
reduplicated and with a nasal sound,

K
XXI.
364.
KeX^s, KcX^rtô)
II.
XV. 679
^/fr, Celeres ;
Sec. 19.
<
a X 17;
r^////, cctpillus;
Gothic haubith; H. G.
E. head.
Root Consonants.
K
i
29
;
KCI
Kt/x,ai, Kcarai,
Kearo,
fcotrry, icoifiaa), KOJ/AOS, KM/XT?
//ir,
quiesco,
KtO),
avis ;
H. G. helm ;
j
E. ^0;#s.
#0,
/<?<?,
K K K K
KIWI/,
//.TKia#OV, K(,V0)
CltUS*
\a
/cXaco,
K\aSo5, /cX^pos.
/cXt/xa, KXlfjiat;,
Xt \v
fcXtW,
fcXvco,
K\LTVS
inclino, etc. , ctivus.

KXeo/>tat,
/cXvros,
^r/7^,
xXeos
/cXefos,
c^Xco
II.
XXIV. 202;
H. G.
K
PI.
inclutus,
cliens,
= gloria
dosia
(?)
hint, laut ; E.
/^^.
;
Xv
KXva>, KXvSwi/
lauter.
clueOy
duo, cloaca, fossa Cluilia
G. hlutar,
Ko
KoXovco, KoXos
K07TTO), KO7TOS
;
incolumis.
KOTT
fatigUC
= Striking
doWH,
Gothic haunjan
KOCT
H. G.
;
praeterite hieb, E. hew.
KOO-/X05, KOO-/X(I)
como
Cosmo, comptus.
KpL
KV
7T
KpLvo)
KUTTTO),
cerno, certus, crimeii.
most,
and
the
KVTTcXXoV, KVâÔ'S = KVTTTJ, crown of a hdmet ; cupa, cumbo, cubare :

coif.
*=
H. G. kufe;
KV p
E.
Kvpos, Kvpws, KVp6<a, KOVptScos, KovpiSirj 0X0^05

Kovprj, Koprj.
housewife, not from
^
V,
curvus.
cants ; Gothic
e\a/cov, Xa<TKa>
Xa/cos, XaKe/309
;
hunds ; E. hound.
loquor, Locutius.
XaK XaK
o7K o
(T
/^^r, lacero, lacuna.

;
5,
FOIAC,
fwc,
see above
vicus ; E. w/V/^
J
= a village.
SptClO,
7T
<TK7TTO/Xat, (TKOTTTJ, (TKO7TO5
J^tf"
SpeCW
specula, spedes, suspido

/<f/<^,
conindum
is
is
from suspedo, as subfill's from In Greek convodtim, not == suspidtio.
there
a metathesis between
the original
and c y the Latin
root-
form
3O
K
is
An
from
into
and Latin.
<pacr<ra>
weakened
y ; typdyyv from
</>paK/a>,
7r\dyrjv
XVII. THE DENTAL TENUIS
T, Latin
/,
/,
Gothic
th,
H. G.
OTTO,
crru
d,
and E.
th, d.
Zfrrqv, to-Tr//xt
oracris, wrros^
= co-ear., = crtcmy/xt, = CTri-ora/jKU without reduplicaCTrtbra/MU

ciemy/ceii/
tion,
for
the meaning compare the
H. G.
ver-stan,
verstehen; OTCVTCU,; formations from the extended stem
oTa0
ora^/Aos,
orafyw;,
etc.
j/^?,
^f/^>,
status,
static,
stamen, stabulum,
place, forecourt ;
stabilis,
vestibulum
/^
st
outstanding
in
/#<;#.$,
disappears in tabula,
anciently stlocus from the extended root
j/0/, .r//#
stilts,
Sec. 37
= stlocus ; compare
strit,
cr
Its,
originally stlis
O. H. G.
Sec. 29, 3
e TT
H. G.
stan, stelle, stuhl ; E. stool, stand.
OTC'<O>,
(rTM-)iia,
oT(âvos
stipare,
stipator,
stipulari.
o-TL y
<ma>
orty/o),
;
(TTty/ia,
(mypfj
distinguo,
instlgare, stimulus, stilus
H. G. j/&#/ E.
CTTOpeWVjAl,
;
(TT
Op
J//'^,
;
i'/^/',
OTOpW/U,
o-rpco/Aa,
orparos
dcrr^p, Sec. 9, 5
sterno, stratus, stramen,
stella
= sterula, H. G. stern;
E.
J/^r, strew, straw.
sirages, struo, strues ;
H. G.
5/r^ /
ra
rav
rev
-riy,
rao-t?, Taw//,cu,
ravvo), TtTatVo),
j
rctVa),
TOVOSJ ravaos, Tavav?ro8es Sec. 9,

cTrtnySctos
,
I, a, ravr;Xcyiys
CTri-r^Scs,
/<?^?,
/ifta?,
/^//^, protinus, tonare, tonitru ;
H. G. donar, donner ; E. thunder.
ray
taminare.
reraycut/
Homeric;
toflgv, contagio>
contdmen, con-
Root Consonants.
Ta
*c
31
Tiy/co) ;
td- bes, tabes co.
TaX
rXa
tol
;
rX^vat,
tuli,
raXa?,
eraAacra, raXai/rov,
raXavpivos, roX/x-aoj
anciently
tetuli, latus,
from
tlatus
= rXrjrds, tollo, tolero.

ra<
era<ov, ra<os
;
variation of the root in 0a?r
T^7ra, nasalized into

T T
e
â/x^8os, 0a/A/2ea>.
y y CD,
K
//flfgtf,
//^Z/^.
IrCKOV,
TCKVOV,
TV\TfJ
t
TOKOS, T^K?/
TVy^CtVa),
TVK
j
- TVâxilla,
TCTV/CCtV,
TTVKOVTO, CTUÔV,
teclum, texo, tela
TVp(<i)
HgHUm,
tclllM
/6#/<z
(compare
a/<^
mala
subtelis,
maxilla,
Sec.
1 6.
velum
vexillum), subtemen, subtilis
//,
rap.
r/xa
re/xvw, lra/>tov, T/xiyya)
simple form of
II.
the present without consonantal suffix, re/m,
XIII.
707; to
C,
this
also certainly belongs TCT/XCIV

in spite of the difference of
& M,
meaning
r p
T c p cr
torreo ;
Tcpryv, Tctpo),
rtperpov, TtrpcuVa), rpav^s
tercbra; E.
^jr/7/, //^r/7/.
Tcpo"o/x,at,
Tpo"atvo>, rapo-os
raptôs,
Gothic thaurstei
= durst ;
O.
H. G. darru, H. G.
H. G.
a
dbrre ; E. /^/rrf.
/^/w^, Gothic thiuda, people, thiudisko ;
diutisk,
popular, thence
deutsch ;
E.
dfo/,
assembly.
XVIII.
THE LABIAL TENUIS H, Latin// for this H. G, and E. have /in the beginning of a word.
fX?r
eXTrofuu, loXTra
cAir
FeFoXTra,
cXirts
allied to
32
An
and Latin
this, cXS, FeXS in
IXSo/xcu,
ccXStop, IXSwp, 8 for TT; volupis
archaic, voluptas.
p7ra>,
serpo ; repo from j/r^?
by metathesis
XiTrapr;?,
XITT
Xnra,
Xirrog,
;
X-nrapos,
XtTrapeco,
dXci<a>,
aXet<ap, aXctâ
0dfc^f,
an unusual
transition,
into
</,
and on the contrary

Sec. 15, 6, Sec. 21.
?ra
TraT /b
/^7
8 is
weakened
into /in Sa*pv, lacruma,
nourish
TTOT
Trarco/xat,
cTracrajiL^v,
awao-j
TO9, TraojLtat
acquire^ 7r7ra/xat,
t?/"
CTraora/XTyv,
Tra/r^p
Trocrt?
/#
/<?r^/
M^
^^//J<?,
M^
husband,
Sco-TrorTy?,
TTorva; /fl&r,
Juppiter, pasco, pascor inceptive,
pastor, panis, penus, penates ; compos, potis, potens, possum^
potior ; Gothic fadar; O.
H. G.fatar;
Tra/croa)
E. father.
Tray
Tra*
cTrayr/v, Trfjywî, -Trayog, Trayy^, TTTûXt?,
Od.
XIV. 476,
7ra#
?ra
TracrcraXos
=7raK/aXo5,
;
paciscor, panô,
pax, pignus, pinguis, Tra^v?

-iraOtiv, Trao-^to
= 7raôr/cw,
TTO,
E. ^/.
or
= 7ra07c<o?
;
wa^
a further extension of the root

TrcS
compare Tnjâ patior.

pes
St.
WSov,
TreStov,
Trors St. TroS,
^^/,
/X7rcSov
oppido,
oppidum
-Trevo/Aai,
H. G. /#0s, ///^/ E. ^/.

TTC^^S,
7TV
Trevt^pos,
Trevta,
Trcvcarat,
(
TTCtva, Tretvaw
\penuria; compare cnrav
in cnrdvis,
Sec. 30.
Trcp
Trepaa),
;
to press
through,
?ropo9,
"Jmpa,
StaTrpro-tos
porta,
portus, experior, peritus, periculum ;
Gothic faran;
H. G.
;
erfahrung, gefahr,
/d7
wohlfahrt,
is
compare
cvTropta
;
Trcp
in Trcpaw,
^r/;?^ ^7'^r,
(Trpa),
cerTTi-
tainly identical
Trpa/xat (?)
/<?
7rcpv^/At,
TrtTrpaovco)
Trpta/xat
^r/;/^ A? oneself, to buy.

Trero/xat,
TTCT
Trra
CTTTO^V, eTrraro,
TTTT/V, etc.,
cvr
Root Consonants.
II.
33
XXI.
169, a later
CTTCTOl/,
j
and kindred form

SuTTCT^S, TTtTTTO)
7TWTT.
7T(TCtV,
DOT.
=
,
TTtTTCTO), TTtn/CCD, TTTOJ/Aa, 7rT<0(rt9, TTOTftOS
TreTTT^WS See
TTTttK
//<?, impetus,
praepespets, on the other hand bipennis pitna, a pinbipinnis from /zVz^fl nacle, compare TITTVS, Sec. 19, 3 ; H. G. fedara, feder,
penna
= petna,
fittig;
E. feather.
TTLTVrjfJLLf
TTCTttVVV/Al,
patitlus,
SeC. 8,
I,
7TTOCrO5, TTCTttXcV
pateO,
patina.
;
TTVKfi,pinus
7T t
- 7TO
H. G.fiuhta,fahte, Sec.
TTCTTtOKO,
7TO(rt9,
19, 3, TTIK
TTCO/Att ;
TTCT.
TTtVCO,
7TOTOS,
pdtUS,
potare, potio,
poculum
; bibo
weakened and reduplicated.
t^w
yfokr, Fidius, foedus, Sec. 8, 2.

,
i/f //Ztf ; H. G. //2, E. /^//.

TTtwv, Triapos, Trtetpa, Trtap,
?rt/>tcAr/,
TTtatW^ Opimus.
7T\a
7r\r)0v<5,
TrXeos,
TrXcto?,
TrAcws,
TrifJLirX'irjpJL.
TrX^w,
locuples, plebes,
7rX?7p?7s;
//^, plenus, plerusque,
populus, publicus, Publicola, plus, plurimus.
TrXaK
weakened
TrXay,
reduced to ?rXa
=f=
TrXiyo-o-w
7r\rjK/\i)j
7rXay7yv, TrXrjyrj, 7rXtta>
TrXayjw I strike offfront

torch- swinging,
TreXas,
the path,
Tc^co-tTrXTyr^s,
;
SacrrrX^Tts
Od.
con-
XV. 234
TreX is
interchanged with this in

TrcXafw
;
nected with
Tr\7j(TLov,
TrcXayos
/^
5^z laidflat (f)\
plango, plaga, plecto ; E.flat.
TrXv
TrXoos,
TrXvvco
;
TrXea)
TrXoi)?,
=
=
TrXefca, TrXcva)
\
ÊollC Sec. 9,
I, 7rXeu(ro//.at,
TrXotov
TrXoko
TrXofa),
eTrXwv,
CTrtTrXw?
pluit, pluvia ;
Tired)
a/uiTrvuc
O.
H. G. fliozan,
Tircv/xa,
fluot ;
*&.
float.
TTW
form,
TTvcFco, 7rvV(ro//,at, TreTrwfJicu,
a/ATTVuro, pres.
7rtrvo-<r(u
II.
XXII. 222,
TTIVVTOS,
34
to
An
II.
and
Latin.
make prudent^
XIV. 249,
TrowiWo),
with diphthongal,
reduplication.
TT/DOtKCl,
,
TTpOlKTrjS,
TrpOUTCrOfUU, 866 SeC.
1 6,
FlK
'
precor, proco, procus, procax.

TTTtt
TTTttK
CTTTaKOV, TTT^CTOra)
TTT^/C/O),
KaTOLTmfrnjV
II.
VIII. 136,
TTCTTTT/WS, TroTtTTCTrnyvtat
Od. XIII.
98,
TraTrraivct),
7TTO>|, TTTOKTO-a), TTTOXTKOÔ).
Gothic fairzna ; H. G.ferse. TTTvo) ^^7, pituita, s has disappeared at the beginning of the word as in Greek ; H. G. spihan, speien ; E
TTTe'pva,
irvovpus;
7TVK
puteo, putidus ;
H. G.
TTuf , TTU/CTTyS, TTVy/Aiy
pUgHUS, pUgH, ptlHgO,
pugio; O. H.
G.ftist; E./rf.
XIX. CfHANGE OF THE GUTTURAL, LABIAL, AND DENTAL

TENUIS, K, n, T,
i.
in
Greek and Latin.
Greek
K in the middle of a
word
Latin/.-
O-KCTT
spec
by
metathesis, see Sec. 16.

(r/cvXeuo)
a-KvXov,
0-KvA.ao),
spoliuM) spoliare,
on the
other hand
O-UK
sepelio.
O-KT>TOS
scutum.
sap
OT;KOS,
Doric
o-aKos
saepes^ saepio, praesepe,
XVKOS, lupus ; Gothic vulfs ; E. wolf.

OK
ocro'e
;
OK/,
ocrcro/xai
OAC/O/JUM,,
Tr/oortoo'orcTO
Od,
XIV. 219
Greek K
opinor, inopinus^ opinio, see
below
OTT.
/
at the beginning of a
);
/<?//<?,
word
Latin /
appello,
connected with
procella.
Root Consonants.
2.
35
for the original
The Greek
c,
TT is still
more common
k, Latin
C7T
FeTT
7TOS,
CITIW,
IctTTOV
== eFcFcTJW,
Ol/T
Stem 6V,
o,
=
oK/a;
invidto from
far- sounding ; z/#r =
vec in zwc
stem zw, zw0,
FCTT,
convlcium by assimilation
of vowels from convocium ; so too the Greek * in ocnra

to-Kcv,
he spake, Homeric, Od. XXII. 31,

0-67T
from
(T/C
FCTT,
COmpare
n/7r
= = o-wrc/ccv = eVO-7T, &T7TCTC =

Oicnri^ Occnriis
<reo'7rT,
<rtos
;
ertoTrcs,
evtcrTre,
?
evtcrTnyora)^ cvicTTrctv,
c^
<rex
n ^X00
^^^j ^"X
?r
^ ^^j
analogous to
this variation of roots

7T
O-CTT.
0-67T
7T(D,
7TO/Xai
(TeTTO/Aat,
6OTTOV,
COTTO/AT^/
XIII. 543 j XIV. 419, with syllabic augm. on account of the original cr at the beginning of a word, a instead of c as era/x/^v from T/>TTO/A(U,
II. o-co-cTro/xryv, ea</>^7/ (?)
OTT\OV; sequor, seats, secundus^ socius ; so too the

in
Greek *
Homeric
0,00-0-77x77/0
do-oK/TTr^p,
compare
l/7rt7TT
as-sec-la.
rJ7rap,jecur, see Sec. 6, 3.

t^TT
tTTTO/Xat,
CVtWa), ^VtVaTTC,
kvilff]^
II.
;
XV. 55 2;
jacio,
*V0 /
so too the Greek K in

4.
;
c^to-o-w
cvt/c/w
ta7rr<o,
see Sec. 32,
tTrTros, ticKos
<?^^, Sec.
6, 3,
connected with Epcma
Juven. VIII. 157.

A.ITT
//V
0)1^,
Awrctv, XctVco, Xot7ros;

OTTOWra, OTTOWny, O7TIS,
II.
Unquo, reliquus
OTT/Att,
(lic\ licet.
O7T
OJJLfJLO.
OTTTTp, OlÔ/Xttt,
6^to), desiderative,
IL
XV.
320,
CISCOTTOS
IL
XIV. 37, 6<0aX/A05, CVCDTTT/, cva)7ra XV. 653, vTrawria, 6Vt7Tva> redupli;
cated, mip0a/o7rt7ra
K in
oo-o-c, oo-o-o/Attt
;
II.
XI. 385
#:#/*tf /
so too the Greek
Latin
in opinor.
Êolic
TTCjLtTre,
Tre/xTTTos, -TreftTTctô) ;
the Oscan ad-
36
An
and Latin.
,
verb of time fomptis, compare the Sabine Pompihus
quinque; Gothic fimf ; E. five.

7TC7T
o\l/ov
;
TTeTTTO),
TTG/fO),
TTCTTWV
OTTTCMO,
O7TTOS
;
7TO7TTO5,
connected with
TTCK in Trcoro-w
TTCK/CD
coquo, cocus,
coquina ; connected with doubled
in popa, popina,
popanum,
TTO
TTOTTOLVOV,
pastry.
interrogative pronominal- stem
j
relative
and
whence
7TOV, 7TO01, TTtoS, 7TO>, 7TOT, 7TO06V
Ionic KOU, KW5,

;
KOTC, KOOTO?,
KOTcpog
Latin stem ^#0

enclitic
^
=
quod, quid
Oscan fid,
ubi=quobi,
cubiinalicubi, sicubi, necubi; necunde,

ne-cuter, alicunde ;
quantus, uter
quoter, neuter
Oscan
stem po
rpcTT
K
is
TpcTTw
torqueo
by metathesis
if
so too the Greek
retained in arpcKcws, arpcKes, perhaps also in rpcwenys

',
a sharper, not greedy as
from
rpa)ya>
Od. XIV. 289
tricae, trico, intricare, extricare.
3.
=
;
TT
and stands
for the original
k:
Trofca,
draXos
TTOTC, ore
=
TC
aTraAos; Trerrc, quinque ;

/cat
o*a,
Doric
îcwrra,
7TIT
- TTtK
= ^^ see above = ^crcrwv

T^K/.
Sec. 16,
compare ^TTWV,
TTlKpOS, 7TU-
TTtTVS, TTCVJtt/, TTLCTVOL

j
TTITJOL
Or TTtK/tt,
icdXt/xos,
7reuK8avo9, C^CTTCVK^S
pinus, pix Stem^/V/
H. G.
fiuhta^fichte ; peek
4.
without shifting of sound, a foreign word,

of
to
TT,
The change
:
/,
and from
TT,
to T takes
place in
quattuor,
lic,
Skr.
chatur
rriVupcs
Homeric,
TreTTapcs Boeotian, Attic Terrors, rcVo-apc?
quinque
^
/j-
TTC/ATTC
/,
Êolic, irerrc, see above.
stem
^)/>, Neuter//^,
Oscan and Umbrian,
rt9.
Root Consonants.
2.
37
MEDIALS.
P. A. B.
T, corresponding to the
,
XX. THE GUTTURAL MEDIAL

Latin g, Gothic
English
k.
dy ay
Fay
dyo>, dyayciv, dyos, dyivc'u), fjycla-Oai
ago, COgO^ COdgO,
cogito, coagito,
agmen, exdmen Sec.
9, 2, exiguus.
ay
ayo?, Ion. dyos, ayios, OO/ACU
= dy/o/uu, cvayiys;
^ya,
cdyjyv,
aya/LUU see below.

dyFu/Jii,
dyiy,
Idya
a/en/, twy?; Od. XIV. 533 ftfcoyT/ with reduplication, = wofy from df, Sec. 31, Kv/Aarwyiy. compare wo?;
= =
Fcfaya,
Ion.
dpy
dpyds,
dpyiys,
dpyewos, dpyvpos, d/^ylXos
argUO,
argutus, argentum, argilla.
ya
yaf
yav
yatco, /Souydi'e
yrj^co),
vocative
yeyjyâ;
II.
XIII. 824,
ydvufuu,
yovdw, ydvos,
this
is
gaudeo, gaviSUS.
dydo/ât,
Related to
the Stem dya in dyaj*at,
dyato/xat, acprjTos, ay?/, dyav, dyavos, dyavos, dyavpos.
y ap
y^pvs,
y>7pv'a>
garrio, garrulus.
yei/os,
yv
vT/ydrcos,
yva
ya
yty()vo/xat, yn/erto?, ycya<o9,
kuni
ywry; ^wf, gig(e)no, gnascor, natura ; Gothic O. H. G. chunni, chunning, H. G. konig; E.
originally
= father
^/.
;
O- H. G.
#&/,
H. G. kind =
H. G.
E. ^/w.
yews, yeWov,
/##/ E.
yydflos;
^//^/ Gothic kinnus
y v ycvojitat ^/5/^7, gustus ; Gothic kiusan, kustus O. H. G. Musu, chust ; H. G. kiese, kiise, koste.
yvo
yi/ajcrts,
Originally gna,
yvwfji.-rjy
lyi/cov, ytyi/oxr/co), ovofjia

;
==
oy/o//,a,
yj/ai/Ltcov
gnosco,
gnarus,
ignorOy
archaic
gnarigare, narrare, nobilis ; agnitus, cognUus with weaken-
38
An
and
Latin.
ing of the vowel, ndtus, ignotus, gndrus with strengthening of the vowel; Gothic kannjan^ "kunths^kunthi ; E. hen.
y 6 v v, yvv
genu ;
7rpo^yv9
yowo
cpyov,
O/MU,
yowos,
i-yvvy,
Sec. 9, 5
Gothic kniu ; E.
Fpcy
ctopyei
TZ^.
epy Fepy XIV. 289 =

pc^w
copya
;
=
;
FcFopya,
ewpyci
for
Od.
p<*>,
from
eFeF.
IpSw
Fepy/a),
Fpcy/a),
dpyos
from dcpyos
Gothic vaurkjan
H. G. werk ;
E. m>r/.
pyo>,
Fcpy ctpyw, XIV. 15; if/go;.
ôârat,
ccp^Tat, cpâTocovro Od.
vyjugsee
Xvy
pay
Fpay
;
Sec. 32,
i.
X v y p o s,
AcvyaAco?, Xotyos
/gft?, luctus.
;
p7yyKU/*t, pr/y/AtV,
pcoyaXcos
pax
in
p^(rcra>,
fragfrango,fragilis; Gothic brikan ; O. H. G. prichan ; E. ^r^^.

cTTtppô-ora)
pcy
CTT
&,
opeyw, opyuta
r^?, r^C, ra/^, ^r^, <^ r^Z,
/fo direction ;
H. G.
recken> richten.
j
ey
rcy
areya), rcyos
fegO ;
O. H. G.
dfo
H. G.
decke ; E. //^, thatch.
XXI. THE DENTAL MEDIAL A, corresponding to the Latin */, Gothic and Low German ^, German 2, English
/.
FaS
SVad
eaSov
FcFaSov, euaSoi/
II.
cFaSov, IdSa,
avSavw, eeSvov
(rFcSvov,
cSavos
XIV.
172, ^Sos
from
which the rough breathing has disappeared, compare below tSos oo-fievos, a participle become an adjective, like
Sorty, ^So/Aat, ^Svs,
iS)
yvp,o$
= vr^Sv/ios (?)
suavis
=
8,
suadeo.
apS
paS
apSco,
Homeric
cppaSarat with the radical
Root Consonants.
compare
the
ep^pe'Sarai, veapSifc, patVw
39
Instead of
= pa8i//a).
medial the aspirate appears in
pa0a/xiyf, pa0<uva>,
8a
SeSac,
Sa?Jvai, Saigon/,
dSa^/xwv, 80/80X09, SaiSaXXa),

8oi<jf>po)v
with diphthongal reduplication, root Sox in

disco
8i8ao-Ka>
prudent, Odyss.
8i8ax-o-Ka>,
St*.
SiSax>7,
compare
dfor
in
dfofttf, dfom?,
see below
8a
Saia>,
I divide,
cSacrapyv, 8019, Saa), Sarco/xat, 8cur-
fios, Satrpos.
3 a /L_Sata)>
8a^9,
I kindle,
see
SCOTCH
II.
XX.
316,
ScSrya, 0<T7ri1 8,
Sao-TrX-^ris
above
TrXcuc
?rXa
Sec.
Safe,
apocop. warlike ;
dat. 8af, SaAos, Saves
Od. XV. 322,
&u<p<oj/ II.
Srytos, S^toa), S^tonys, Sr/Xco/xat; d??/^.
SaKp v, lacruma
zahar ; E.
Sa/x,
/tor.
Sa//,7}r<u,
see Sec. 15, 6
Gothic fogr; O. H. G.
Sa/âco,
Sa^tafa),
Sa/xny/ti,
8a/wip,
dS/A^?,
8/Aak;
domare,
dominus,
dominari ;
H. G. zahm ;
E.
tame.
8 e K a, dfeim / Gothic taihun ; O. 8
//,
H. G. 0^^7
/ jS. /^.
Sc/AtD,
Se/xa?,
SO/AOS,
8w/xa
domus / Gothic
timr-
jan; H. G. zimmer;
817
E. timber.
= jam = dja-m,
stem
See in
compare Janus, Diana.
584,
SeSta,
StVu II. XXIII. 475, /StWv XVIII. SiWai XVII. no, SIOITO Od. XVII. 317; perf.
SaSia
;
pres. SctSo)
SaStw, thence ScSoiica, 8Sio--
oô/jtat.
81F
^//V,
dju
;
=
Zcvs
light,
God, heaven, day

Atos, AtoSv?/,
STos,
eVStos, cvStos, 8tt7rcT>/9
= A/Vus,
kindred
form with nasal
suffix Zip/, ZT/VOS, ace.
Zfy
II.
XIV.
Searo
265,
from the stem
dja, as in
Janus ;
877X09, SecXos,
Od.
40
VI. 242,
fidius,
An Introduction
Soaoro-aro,
to
Greek and Latin.
stem dev ; deus, divus, divinus, Dius
Dialis, Juppiter
in
Djuppiter, the
vowel being
weakened
consequence of the deeper sound of the
second word in composition, Jovis Djovis, Diana divana, the heavenly one ; Janus, Janus-pater ; dies, diu,
by day in noctu diuque,
diutius, diutinus,
a day long, long time, interdiu, stem diuto, dum = dium ; O. H. G. Zio,
Tuesday.
dido, condicio, diets in diets causa,
Dienstag
81K
indtco,
= Ziestag ; E.
Sctfcw/u
;
81*17,
duo, causidicus, maledicus, judex
jusdecs ; disco
;
dicsco, doceo see
above 8a; Gothic ga-teihan
H. G.
zihan, zeihen, zeigen.
So
SiSayu, originally da,
dadami ;
Sonjp,
800-15, 8cupov;
stem da
in do, dos,
for the
;
Moods
15, 2
donum ; duim, duam ; see below under relation between 80 and 0e = dha, see Sec.
A.
Sec. 24, Of, cedo, give here,

ce
compounded of the
ce-dite
demonstrative
8 vo, 8ts
fas
;
and do
da ;
cette
= Sfis;
18/Acvat,
duo, bis as
bellum from duellum
= date. = dvis,
= =
Gothic tvai ; H. G. zwei, zer

?So),
/ E. twain, two.
e8
est,
without tach-vowel, compare below

;
80)877,
c8^n;5, co-^to, co-^to)
nJo-Tt?, w/AryonJs
^<?, est
edt, esurio
edsurio, esca
e8o?,
cto-a
= edsca.
re8o-a,
co-o-at,
c8
o-cS
co-at,
ceo-o-aro
cVcSo-., cô/Aai (8/'.) ; -8o{5/xat,
ta> with present reduplication
te8/o>,
cSpa; sedsedeo, sido
= sisedo,
=
a8ov,
sedes, sella (sedla)}
Gothic
1
sitan, sitls ;
fc.8
O. H. G.
sizan, sezal;
E.
sit, settle.
tSctv,
cT8oi/
cftSov
oT8a, ?8/xev, Ion.
tcr/ACV, tcrrcDp, 18/315, t8/3t^,
tv8aXXo/xat, atoros, atOToo), 'Aufys,

;
08175, 1^15
H. VII. 198, Od. VIII. 179
video, visus, viso,
vitrum.
Root Consonants.
5,
,
41
tfyck,
iMu, j&ov
Od. XX. 204,
sudor; O. G. jw/s/ E. sweat.

nothing to do with â^? K^Sw,
passive
oS/Ltry
S
o9,
KocaSov,
/oJSos,
active
68
= careful, oSwSd, ow =
/,
=
;
of value, dear.
68/0),
odor, oleo,
d being weak9, 5
;
ened into
see Sec. 15, 6.

oSoi/T
68ov?, stem
with vowel prefixed, Sec.
dens ;
Gothic
crKcS
tunthus ; II.
cr/ccSavi/v/xt,
G. zand, zahn
(r/aSv^/u,
; E. tooth.
(T/ctSvajitat
for
the
weak
vowel see Sec.

o-Kt8
f/^/ see
8, i
scandula.
scindo, sddi,
cr^w, (rxâ ; (T^t^ below simple Latin
anciently
j-
perfect, scida ;
root cid
caedO)
caementum, caespes ; O.
H. G.
sceidan, sceit,
H. G.
schdt; E.
^/.
z;^
water.
8<op;
v8
/^^z, Gothic z/^/^/
O. H. G.
wazar ; E.
XXII. THE LABIAL MEDIAL B.

In Greek
/? is
seldom
original,
and then = Latin b; more
often
j8a
tion,
= an
^vat,
original g.
)8tâs with pres. -reduplica/&J/xa,
fidSrjv,
fiato
/Jao-Ke,
pay/t*,
/Sifidfa,
/3i/3d(r6<i)v,
)8c/?at05,
ySe^Xos;
qiman ;
original
^/^^, arbiter ; instead of ^, z; in zwwb/ Gothic O. H. G. koman, kommen y points back to the
Sanskrit, root gd, to go.
g in
stem bov ; /?ovs, Doric )8o)9, /frwyai'e, Sec. 20, ya; O. H. G. chuo, which points back to the original g in
Sanskrit,
)8
gaus ; E.
<rê/.
b in /?Xr;x^
balare ;
Ppaxvs,
brevis
bregvis,
42
compare
balbus.
ft ft
An
levis
and Latin.
23
\
IXaxys,
legyis
Sec.
ftapftapos,
=
i
Latin
g in
/?
;
ftaXavos, glans ;
fta.pv<s,
gram's.
is
in
ftios, ftiow
= yh, =
the y disappears and the f
hardened into
tense-letter
Epic future without the characteristic

/2eio/xeu,
/?e'o//,at,
vivam,
ftey II.
XVI. 852;
with the
quick
wiw? reduplicated verb
gvigvo, vixi, vig-si,
guttural retained, #Jmj,
vita, victus ;
//fo
H. G. $w&r,
in erquicken, quecksilber ; E.
^^/V^
^^ ^^,
quickset-
hedge ; Sanskrit root jiv.

ft
original
and Latin v :
II.
fto\,
ft6Xofj.oLL
XL
;
319, Od.
I.
234,
XVI. 387,
ftovXofjiai,
ftovXy etc.
volOj nolo
= ne-volo,
malo
;
= magi-
volo, voluntas ; voluptas, see Sec. 18, I\TT
O. H. G.
wellan, willo ; E. will.

aftetySo), Doric
d/xeva),
apoifty
original root w/z/ in
moveo, motuS) momentum, muto.

ft
<^>
=f:
ftao-Kawto, ftdcrKavos
fascinare, fascinum^
from the root
<t>a,fa, Sec. 25
= fascination.
X.
.
3.
ASPIRATES
<. to
g,
XXIII. THE GUTTURAL ASPIRATE X, corresponding the Latin h, f, g, in the beginning of a word
Gothic
O,K
-.
dyx
09(09,
**'X
olJLaL y
aKayy)<Tt, d/cd^/xttt, dKa^/jtcvos, dfc^cSarat,
with change of
ayOop.a.i y
quantity, d/caxciWo, ouca^SaTO,

a-xOos, dyxtj
&<r<rov
d/ca^tôj,
dî^/iai,
;
ayx/ov, cTracrcn/rcpos
^^v, angor,
angustus, anocius ;
H. G. ^^f/.
Root Consonants.
X a % v 5,
eXacrcrajv,
43
hgvis. via (vea\ vexo,
XJ^V
>
^^s ~
j
x
velum
Fex
OXQS, oô/>uxt,
o\rjfjLd
veho,
= veglum,
X<*>,
vexillum, vectis ;
H. G. wagen, weg ; E.
X
torxto
-<TX =
(TXOV
present reduplication
(T\0(D tCTâvao),
9
= o-re;(a>
doâXaa)
;
further formation
in <r\c6<a *=
oâ compare o^w/ca
o/cwâ, e^vpo?, o^vpo?, (r^/xa, erêSov, CTTio^cpco, c^ct-^5.

Xeix<o, At^/xaa), Xt^vos
;
Xt^
claigon
//Vj^?,
ligurio ;
Gothic
^/*
H. G. /;&ia / E.
o"1"^ 09*
crretxa),
//V^.
O-TLX
see (rra
steg ;
orotôs;
vestigium,
vestibulum
steig
,
Sec. 17 , fa-stigium ; Gothic

step.
and H. G.
E.
â
\av
X*&**9
x ^ (TK(t)
<
xa-frp-O'
/caâ^w reduplicated,
Kayxofw,
KayxaXaw
reduplicated
with nasal sound

(?)
;
achinno ; hio, hisco, hiatus, hiulcus ; fatisco

kin
O. H. G.
gin
G. gahnen
âvSavo),
;
; E.
yawn.
II.
X<x8
eâSov,
KâvSoTa
XXIII. 268, *-
XavSct XXIV.
192
prehendo =prae-hendo, praeda
= prat
hida,
praedium
= praehendium,
de-hibere.
compare praebere =prae-
hibere, debere
\aB
necesse,
X**!* *'
KCKaSovro
II.
XV. 574
câo-arro
cedo,
successus from
ne-ced-tis, suc-ced-tus.
X a ft at, feminine
locative, â/ia8i9
X^wv ; humus; humt, humilis ; homo, anciently ^1 ne-hemo ; Gothic ^/w^ / O. H. G. ^w<?, H. G.
#w
in
brdutigam
E. groom.
Xap
tct?
;
9(a^, x^paTO IL XIV. 270, X^P^J X gratus, gratia ; O. H. G. ^r, giri, gerdn.
hirundo ; compare x<iXafa> grando.
aiv,
44 X P
An
introduction to Greek
and Latin.
X*W> XtPî according to the meaning
ircro
compare mancipium, x*petW,

)
^ctpwi/, cv^cp^s, xpd<>> to attack^
herus, heres, herctum, herds co.
yv'}
ansertoi hanser ; O. H. G. kans, H. G. gans ;

E. goose.
Bohemian hus;
adfatim, adequate, according to fatisco (?), see above x<*.
desire,
fames
fatigo, fessus ;
X^9,
ex#s; ^^r/
for te/,
15, 4, hesternus ; Gothic gistra ; O.
compare eram = esam, Sec. H. G. kestre, H. G.
gestern ; E.
yester.
^l
JLa i
L JL{*)V >
\tiiAafy) hieniS) hibernus.

kalla,
= hel; O. H. G.
X
o p 8 77,
H. G. galle ; E. gall.
in
chorda,
^w/,
a foreign
haruspexj
word
hariolus
Latin
stem
^#ra,
/^
in
connected with
fanolus.
Xopros;
hosti s,
Xp i
gold.
hortus, cohors,
close
army
;
corps ; Gothic
gards ; O. H. G. karto, H. G. garten

also fostis, hospes
E. garden.
=
7<J7
hostipes ;
Gothic gasts
O. H. G. kast, H. G. gast ; E. guest. xP t/w

>
XpV
01
x/
"7"/*
^ ^^> fricae, frivolus.

O. H. G.
hold,
Xpvo-ds; Gothic
Xv
x&a
^/M/
H. G. and E.
=X
01
?
6 ^00 ?
Êolic
>
\ev<D,
9(va, cxca
=
compare ^T
Xc
Va
XO17>
to
toxâtpa, xô/>tat,
confundoT)
be
troubled ;
Latin stem
^^
in
nSyfutiSy futilis, confuto, refuto, effutio ;
Gothic
giutan ; O. H. G. kiuzu^
H. G.
giesse,
guss ; E.
Root
XXIV. THE DENTAL ASPIRATE
On
account of the
want of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for this is often /in the beginning of a word, d and b in
the body of
it
;
Gothic
d,
German
/,
English
d.
al0
flfl&r,
originally 20
ai$o>,
at#a>v,
aiOrjp,
aWoij/,
Al6Co\ff
originally
meaning a
c
fireplace,
aestus
aedtus,
aestas.
IpvOpos, with
robigo, ru-tilus ;
prefixed, Sec. 9, 5
red,
r#&r,
r#/^.r,
O. H. G. n?// E.
ruddy.
II.
aOipOai Homeric
OrjXrjy
= to suckle,
TiOrjvrj,
Oâ-aro
XXIV.
58,
01/Xus,
1 06,
yaXaOrjvos,
nOacro^
rtât/ôjcrcra)
,
Od.
XIII.
aTtTaXXw; femina, films, fetus fenus, fecun-
dus (?) see below <v.

Bav
Ova
Oavtiv,
Odvaros,
Ovrj(TK^
Ovrjros,
reOvrjKa
Gothic dauthus
O. G. tod ; E. dead.
rt'&j/u,
Of
Skr.
dha
#ca>
So,
in
Trpotfcoucrtv
II.
I.
291, êo-ts, 0e/xis etc.
compare
Sec.
A?
21
in the Latin
root da> to give, and dha

this last
= 0c,
^, have
coalesced
meaning
is
retained in condo, abdo, trado, etc.
= f in famulus, familia,
certainly also facto, with the

c
;
root extended
by the addition of c, compare jacio, root O. H. G. tuom, a judge's sentence, tat ; E. doom.
B v
p
0ciVw
0po>,
;
fendo in
offendo, defendo.
;
^cpos, 0/3/*os
O. L. formus, formucapes,
,
thence forceps, fornus, furnus, fornax ; Gothic varmjan O. H. G. waram, H. G. and E. warm.
Orjp,
<f>Yip,
JEolic
ferus, fera, ferox ; Gothic dius ; O.
H. G.
tior,
H. G.
;
tier; E. deer.
fingo, figulus, figura, fictile.
46
Op a
fortis.
An
Oap
and Latin.
;
Opapvs, Odpcros, Oapptiv
E. dare ; fretus,
@v
fire,
0uo),
OveXXdy
OvjJLOSy
OvfJLa,
Ovos,
flv^zis,
Ovoeis
suf-
fumus, funus, burning dauns ; O. H. G. town, H. G. dunst.

tochter ; E. daughter.
incense
for the
dead ; Gothic
Sec. 37.
Compare
Ovydrrjp; Gothic dauhtar ; O. H. G. tohtar, H. G.
Ovpa;
O. H. G.
fores, foris, foras,

turi,
French
Jiors ;
Gothic dauro
H. G.
;
thor, thure ; E. door.
ovOap;
vrvOprjv
E. bottom.
uber
;
O. H. G.
Mar;
E. udder.
fundus ; O. H. G. bo dam, H. G. Bodensee ;
XXV. THE LABIAL ASPIRATE

Latin
<, corresponding to the
/=
bh,
in
the
b.
middle of a
word
b,
in
German and English

v, cLX^xxvo),
aXîycrnys, dA.</>eo-tôtat II.
XVIII.
arbeit.
593 ; a ft $ CD ambo ; H. G.
;
labor (labos), laboro ; O.
H. G.
arabeit,
d/A<^t,
H. G.
d:/^
^/^/
<?/
E. both.
am
an
a
in composition, ambio, ambages, amplector, anquiro.

<^>
v o
s,
d<î/etos
stem
in ops,
</>
in the
middle of a
z/^7,
word =/,
Sec.
coepi
1
opulentus, vol-up-tas(f)
see Sec. 22 /?oX
cATr,
= coepi
r^/^ = coopia ; stem from the original coapio.
in apiscor, aptus,
v<^>os, vcêXry; nebula, nebulo, nubes, nubo, but on the other hand, pronuba, nubilus, nubila, nimbus;
O. H. G.
**&i/,
H. G.
nebel.
o/AâXo?;
E.
umbilicus; O.
H. G.
nabulo,
H. G.
nabel ;
Root Consonants.
47
op<avds; orbus, orbare ; O. H. G. arbja, H. G.erbe. o<pvs; O. H. G. prawa, H. G. braue ; E.&row.

<j>a
<aF
<av
^>T//xt, <j5>aros,
<
ac
Od. XIV. 502,

7rat</>a(rcr(i),
I flash,
^>atVa),
II.
II.
450,
<ai/pos,
Trc^TyorcTat II.
XVII.
from
155, Tra/xâtW with nasal reduplication, <aoyxa;
sound,
by hardening the digamma, giving a nasal and changing the a into e, comes <eyy in <eyyos; <^>a is further formed into <a\ in <f>a\.rjp6s, Doric
<^>aF
</>aAapo5,
<t>aX.TrjpL6(tiVTa
II.
XIII. 799
fari,
fama, fanum,
fatum, Bonifatius, compare E<^/uo5, fatuus, fas, fateor,

fetialis,
a speaker
<ev
herald, infitias (ire), infitiari, fabula,
praefica, facundus, facetus ; fax, fades.

</>
<^>aTos,
Trcârat,
Treâvrat,
Trc^curât,
TTC^-
cro/xat,
7rpos<aT09, oSvF^âros, dp^t</)aTO5, /ivXâros;
cTrec^voi/,
<ovos, <^>o/tos,
=
(?)
<#)oj//*
with epenthetic
on account of the
;
retention of
it
in the following syllable
O. H. G<
/##<?,
murderer
E. &z/z.
<^>epw, <^>epT
<cp, Skr. M0r,

ferte,
^>eperpov,
without tach- vowel

</)opro5
;
</>aperpa,
</>opos,
y^r^, ferculum,
Feretrius, jertilis, ferax, fors,
fortuna, fortuitus ; Gothic
burde ; Gothic ; O. H. G. //># =fero, purdi H. <^nz H. G. G. &*A/v, ^r, in composigabaurths; O. tion ; E. ^r, iVrM.
bairan
,
<Hyos>
buche ; E.
fagus;
&?<?<r^,
Gothic
^^/
O. G. poucha, H. G.
Sec. 13, 2.
48
Sec. 9, 5
An
;
and Latin.
;
flare, flos,floreo,fluo ;
Gothic uf-btesan
O. H.
G.pldsan; Gothic bloma ; O. H. G. pluomo, H. G. blume , E. bloom; O. H. G. pluohan, H. G. bluhen.

<
Xcy
<Ae'yo>,
<Xo
flagrare, flamma, flamen ; fulgeo,
fulgur,fulmen.
<f>pa K
</>ptto-cro)
= <pox/a>,
</>pay/xa
farcio, farcimen,
berg,
frequens ;
Gothic baurgs ; O. H. G. puruc, H. G.
burg ; E. borough. a T a) p, <f>paTr)p, <f> p
<^>parpa,
Ionic
ffrpryrprj,
(frparpiOL
rater, Gothic brothar ; O.
H. G.pruodar, H. G. bruder ;
E. brother.
Gothic brunna; O. H. G. prunno, <f>pap, Sec. 37, i from brinnan, to burn.

;
/>v
c<w,
<^>i;(o,
^>v>y,
Averts, <^>ws
fufuam,
</>vto), ^/Kff/,
fui, fore; fi
in /f^?
= /^ breeder^) = /zw compare
ÎTIXO;
Êolic
;
anciently fiere, fierem not a passive form

effetus
fe
fevo; fecundus, femina, filius, felix,fenum,fenus see above Sec. 24, 0a; Gothic bauan, to dwell ; O. H. G. /zw, H. G. and E. bin.
fev
fetus,
feo,
from
II.
XXI.
6,
^Ca/civo's
II.
XIII.
102;
j^,
fugio;
Gothic biugan ; H. G.
blatt; E.
biege.
flto/,
<l>ijX\ov; folium ; O. L. G.
O. H. G. flat, H. G.
Root Consonants.
B.
49
SEMI-VOWELS.
PERSISTENT SOUND OF CONSONANTS.

i.
LIQUIDS.
N.
XXVI. THE NASAL AND DENTAL LIQUID

The Greek
v is primitive
radical, answering to the Latin n, and in the following roots, stems, and words corresponds to the n of the other Indo-Germanic languages : dv avcftos ; animus, anima.
and
dvr/p, stem drop, dvSpcios, for the 8 in di/Spos Sec. 34,

6, rjvoperj, dy^vcop, avflpawros the
countenance of man.
vjyvs,
vrjios,
vaF
vdtos
;
vav
vavs,
Epic and Ionic
Doric
navis, nauta, nausea.

veo>,
vrjfjia,
vry0a>,
\pvfjri<s
II.
XII.
433;
neo ;
O. H. G. naan.
Vf
vctoiTOS,
VC'OS,
VOT7;9, VfOLfJ
veoo-cros,
;
II.
XXIII. 604,
vc^pos
VCttpOS, VtdTOS,
vctatpa,
veavta?,
vcfp.
with
hardened digamma
V
novus^ denuo, nuper.

VC/CVttt
J
VCKV5,
VKp09,
IICCO,
nCX.
vcft
v/Aw, vo/A05,
voftt^w
"
>
vp,<Tt<s
imputatio
Numa,
numerus, nummus.
V<T
vi
vc
/z/
veo/xat, vtVo-o/xat, vooro?,
NeWwp.
vt<^ci9,
;//^
vt</>a),
vt<#)a
acc.,
VK^CTOS
/:r
= w ^>
vv
== gen. 0/zw nigyis, mngit,

sneo,
nasalized
schneey E.
= nigvit ;
j^'.
compare
;
Gothic snaivs, O. H. G.
vcvcu, vev/xa
;
H. G.
nuo, tinmen, nutus.
ovo/â
oyi/o/ia
from the root
yi/o,
Sec. 20,
Sec. 9, 5, Ionic owo/xa, Êolic ow/xa, di/aW/xos, I/WVU/AVOS
nomen homgnomen, compare cognomen, ignominia namo, H. G. namen, E. name.

4
Gothic
50
ovv
An
,
and Latin.
unguis ;
wcofiat,
H. G.
nagal, nagel, E. nail.

fa>v,
wvos,
augment
Greek root
;
hence the syllabic

vendo.
in OWOU/MTV
venum
eo, do, veneo,
v,
Changes of v before mutes : which is a nasal and also a dental
liquid, is affected
before the mutes according to the classes to which they
belong;
it
remains unchanged before the dental mutes in

;
Korea), (nro'ScD, Xav6dv<D
is
changed into the
labial
and
nasal liquid
Aa/x/Sai/a),
p.
before the labial mute in

;
KC^TI-TO),
a/xca>,
nasalized from Xaft
and becomes a guttural
before a guttural mute, ayKvpa, ayyeXos, Xayâva>, a nasalized present
form of the root Xa^.
XXVII. THE NASAL AND LABIAL LIQUID M.

This
a p.
is
original
and fundamental
in
d//,ao>,
a/x^ros;
meto, messis, messor ;
H.
G. mat,
E. math.
ap,
sam
ajua,
similis, simultas ;
d//,t/2a>,
ôlic a//,vSis, O/AOV, O/AOS, O/AOIOS simul^ H. G. ^w, sammt ; E. same : Sec. 30.
;
moveo, Sec. 22.
p.
d/xvvw, /xvn; Homeric; munio, moenia, murus. a /xao/x,at, /x,w/xat, /xe/x-aymev, /xat/xaco, /xareua),
II.
w<3r
aTT/oort-
/x,a(TTOS
jx,
XIX.
/JLÎ/
263.
ft?;vs,
Ionic
^cts,
pjn?,
/xcrptn/, /u/Ao//,ai,
thence imitor, imago
= /^^ measurer, = mimago ; mensis,
ni-m-is comparative without measure Gothic ; mena, menoth, O. H. G. adverb,
metare, metiri, modus, mos, nimis,
manot,
fji
H. G. mond, monat, E. moon, month.
/AttK /xa/cpos, /Ac'yas, y magnus, major, magis, macto, mactt.
W^
/XT}KO?,
d/x,atftaKTos
Root Consonants.
6v
51
/x,
fiav
;
fiva
/xeo), fiefos
/xatyofuu, /mvia
p,vrjp,r)
maneo, memini, mens, comminiscor, moneo.

/xcpi/zra, /Ap/A77ptu>
;
/xp
/A
o-
/Aap
memor, memoria.
;
5,
/Aeoxros,
/AeWaTos,
/xo-(TcxTtos, /Ae(To^yvs
mcdius,
dimidius,
meridies,
euphonic substitution
of r for *//
H. G.
mi//;,
E. mid(dle).
prJTrjp, Doric //.cmyp; mater ; O.

mutter, E. mother.
p* i
H. G. muotar, H. G.
e/uyr/v,
/uyS^v,
/x,tyw/xt,
/xto^yca
/uycrK(o, /xtfis
misceo, mixtus, mistus ; O. H. G. miskiu,
H. G.
mischen^
E. w/^.
/xtv
fjLivvw,
/xtiAuâ),
/uVuv#a,
/xctW;
minuo,
minor
minister ; Gothic minnists
/xoX
^/xoXciv,
jSAojor/co)
= =
minimus, E. w//.
/xÂaxTKco,
compare
and
/A
Sec. 34, 6, /xe/x^XwKa,

op
/xap
;
compare a^poros.
a^
/Sporos
= /x/3poros, mortuus, a/xjSporos,

/JLÔTTCS (?) y
TOS
=
v
d/xp.
/xapaiVw
rather root /xap7r(TO>)
morior, marcesco.
p.
/xvw, /xvorrys
mutus, musso*
XXVIII. THE LINGUAL LIQUID

aA
?,
A.
/.
avaXros
Homeric ;
#/<?,
alumnus,
coalesce, also
compare
olus,
^? from
^^?,
^/z/^^ / so
too 0/
olesco,
abolitus*
adultus
adolitus,
exolesco, proles
from pro-olo, suboles. The root d\ is extended to dXS dX^ in dXSatvw, 7 nourish, aX0o/xcu r dXâtVco, / 7/^//
H. G.
*#, E.
dXr;,
d^r.
dXoy,
aXeo/xat,
dX
dXcwp^,
dXaorât y
aXvaprjv r dXcctVctv
dXtr^/xci/09,
-^Xeos, rj\iOLo<s, dXtrctv,
dXcm/s, dXtTiy/xwv r
52
An
and
Latin.
II.
y a X a, Stem yaXa/cr
XIII.
yXaKT, yXayos, yXa/CTO<ayo9

;
6, yuXatfryvos, see 0a Sec. 24
toe,
stem
/#<:/.
fcX
tX>7,
FaX
;
to throng, eiXoo, caX^v,
dXet's,
ccX/mi, cTXap,
o/uXos
0X19, dXia, dXta>, ^Xiata, eiXr/s, aoXX^?, dcXX^?,
doXXia>.
fcX
156,
eXvw
revolve, etXvw
II.
tXvcaa), tXXas
I enwrap, tXv<âa) II. XL XIII. 572, oXooiVpoxos, ^ rolling
stone, ib.
137 (ouXai, ovXoxvrac, dXew,

;
I grind?);
II.
IXtWw,
;
IXtf
eXtKojTres
for the
digamma compare
XVI. 569
volvo ; O.
H. G.
wellan.
Xa
Xâ,
XtXato//,at, XeXt'r/ju-at, Xtiav, Xwtov, Xuxrros,
Xapo?^
iasrivus ; Xaf
Xacov,
XT/I'S
Xa
;
= Xaf.
;
uTroXavo/xat, Xcta,
lucrum
Od. XIX. 229; Xau H. G. and E. lust.
Xaos,
X^tro?, Xctrovpyta; O. H. G. ///.

Xeyco, Xoyos, Xecr^^
;
Xcy
II.
lego etc., also Itgumen, dili-
gens, neglego, intellego, religens, God-fearing,
compare dXeyw
XVI. 388, opposed

a chained
Xctos,
conscience
to neglegens, religio, or from ligare
(?).
;
Xctorrys, XetatVw
levis, levigare.
II.
Xexptos,
Latin
bus,
Xe)(pt9
Xt/cp/>t9
XIV. 463, Od. XIX.

of the plural, compare
//V,
451, with suffix <t

Xofos;
</ and
obliquus,
stem
/^^^, disjointed;
H. G. and
Xix
E. link.
7TL\iySr)v
;
Xet^w, Xtx/âo), Xt^vos,
lingo,
ligurio ;
O. H. G. /*#&?, E. //^, lickerish. X v /0 /^^, Xva> ^/z/^7 = seluo,

5
Sec. 23.
luo,
expiate ;
Xv
/^?
r/^,
X{5/xa,
Xv/xatVo/xat,
XOVGJ
from Xoew, thence

;
Xocoxrai,
Xorat contracted from

adluo,
alluvies ;
Xoerat or XoveTai
hi
in
pollno,
diluo,
lav
in
lavere,
lavare,
lautus ; lustrum.
Root Consonants.
53
KJ,
XVK
lumen
licht,
Xv^yosj XCUKOS, Xcixrcrw,
oxr
from
Xv/ca/3a9, light-path
= lucmen,
=year ; lux, luna = lucna ;
luceo, lucidus,
diluculum,
O. H. G.
lioht,
H. G.
E. />&/.
Xufirj, Idbes, fall, shame, stain, labor, Idbarc,

Sec. 8, i.
compare
a
oXos, ovXos Ionic,

healed
entire, compact, ovXe
= ^/^<?,
ouXiJ
wound ;
H. G.
oA.od<p<ov
Odyss. from 0X005, of sound
mind ;
o-
salus, salvus, anciently sollus

salig, selig,
;
= entire,
safe, sellers,
solidus ;
E.
silly,
O. E.
seely.
aX
o-oXos, o-oXcvw
salum.
;
<r<f>a\
fail, fall.
o-âXijvat,
o-<âXXa)
fallo;
H. G.
fallen^
E.
XXIX. THE LINGUAL LIQUID
P.
r.
a p dpoa), a/ooros, aporpov, apovpa ; cpa, Ipa Jc (?) #r0, aratrum, armentum, arvum ; Gothic arjan, O. G. ^mr# (arare) ; Gothic ^/>//w5, O. H. G. erda, H. G. erde (?),
;
E.
<?0r,* ^r//5,
year.
pa,
ap,
;
dp
apa,
Homeric
r
7
apiypa,
dpapetv,
dpaptcrKO),
cpiiJpT/s j
aprt, dpTto
dprva)
dp//x>s,
dpctW,
dp/x6a>,
apxo-ro?, dpcr>/,
apfJLovirjy
apt
e.g.
in apiSstKcros
Homeric, ^
fastening ; arma, artus, ars, iners.
cpro~a), cpenys, d//.<^/prys
^ptôs
^ hired servant (?) j
remus, remex, remigium, ratis, E. rê/.
Fcp
ctp^vr/,
pa>,
tpa),
;
tlprjKa
=
;
efp.,
Ipp-Ôrjv
cfp.,
prjrpa
oapi'a> (?)
verbum
Gothic vaurd, H. G.
E. 2WY/.
*
The young oxen
that
A"
the ground.
Isaiah, ch. v.
54
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

from
this,
etpofuu, epeV&u, to ask, are different
and have
no trace of the digamma.

ep
(rep ep/xa, op/xos, crcipa,
cipto,
thence
Taipei/ II.
X.
rj
499, wit*1 tne lengthening of the syllabic augment to

to
compensate
6p
for
;
the
absence
of
the
consonantal
beginning, cep/zo/os
sero, sera,
sertum,
series, servus.
optVa>, opovto,
opwpa, aipTo, opa-o, opcreo, opw/xt,
ovpov
<?
stretch,
Od. VIII. 124,

watch,
oYcncovpa
II.
XXIII. 523; 0wr,

cpo-/c.
variation ep in cpxo/xat
op
fop
/<?
opovrat
Od.
XIV.
104,
ovpo?,
)pOVpOS
TTpOOpO?,
Tl/XttOpOS,
Tt/XO)pO5,
TrvXdopo?
with
varying
quantity, TnAwpos,
os, wpct, 6paa), wpa)v,
instead of the digamma,
ovSevo<ro>pa
II.
VIII. 178,
/^r^/.
Suoxopryo-axni/
X. 183
H. G.
7/dr/, warten, E.
pcTr
FpcTr
pew,
poTH/, poTraXov,
makes the foregoing
by position Od. IX. 319, piWw, KaXavpo^, a shepherd's crook, II. XXIII. 845 ; repens.
syllable long
piy
of the
Fpty
ptyos, ptycw,
Ipptya,
is
ptytoi/,
Karapty^Xo? in
which the second
syllable
long by position on account

t
digamma Od. XIV.
226,
is
universally long
<pi/c
i',
<piWo> ; frlgus, frigeo, frlgidus ; on the other hand r/^<?, rigidus ; H. G. friusan, frieren (?), E. freeze,
frore.
pv
pv^/utos;
<rpv,
pcto, pevcro),
cppv^v,
pvftTy,
pcv/xa, po?y, pwo/xat,
cpco?;,
?w; O. H.
G. stroum points to an original root
H. G.
strom, E. stream.
Only a few Greek roots which begin with p correspond

with roots which begin with r alone in kindred languages.
The
roots which in those languages begin with r have in
Root Consonants.
Greek a vowel often prefixed
which begin with p have
for the
55
to the p,
5.
compare
e.g.
cpevyw, ructo ; opcyw, rego, see Sec. 9,
The Greek
roots
at
most part a digamma

Fpey,
./
the beginning as p'u>, see Sec. 20 fcpy
prrywpi,
franco,
ptyco),
peTrco,
or a
o*,
as
po,
pwo/xat,
stream.
cppvryv,
stlis,
Hence
cppr/fa.
$//>,
the p
is
doubled
in the
augment,
the
eppec,
Compare for j/r instead of ,rr whence /&, H. G. j/ra/, E.
Old Latin
Interchange of the Lingual Liquids r #//^
1.
to
This change, which is caused by the weakening of r /, is not confined to Greek, but takes place also partly
between Greek and Latin, and partly between one of these
and the Teutonic languages.

i.
Within the
limits of
Greek: apK
dX*c
in opKcw,
;
dAjoy etc.,
see Sec.
a//,pya>, d/xeXya),
mulgeo,
16; apipTavw, rj//,/2porov, ^wrAaKov H. G. milch, E. W//^; ^pva> 1'swell\

</>A.v,
bubble out,
compare
Sec. 25
Kvp
KV\ in
curvus and
II.
^cvXiw, Kv/cAos,
compare
circus ;
X. 360,
/capâAcos, rough^
sharp ;
/otoXww
/
;
defile ;
^pap.o's
;
a
cp
cleft,
^Xa/xos* name of a
mountain
2.
Seiptos, o-eXas
eX in Ip
Between
Greek
and
Latin
/2ap/2apos,
balbus,
balbutio ; Kv/cXos, a'mtf see
above ;
o-cXas, serenus;
yth&w,
hirundo.
3.
Between Greek and Latin on the one side and the

/Aappipos,
Teutonic languages on the other:

* Liddell and Scott say this
is
marmor,
a corrupt form,
56
An
and Latin.
H. G. marmel, E. marble; p.op/j.vpa>, H. G. murmeln, E. murmur ; TrAarv's, H. G. brdt, E. broad ; x/wo-os, Gothic
gulth,
O. H. G.
j/w,
stlis,
kold,
H. G. and E.
j////,
gold, see Sec. 23

strit,
/w
E.
from
strife.
stem
dX<
O.
H. G.
H. G.
tfra*/,
Compare
arbeit Sec. 25.
2.
ORIGINAL SPIRANTS. S
(SPIRITUS ASPER).
f.
JOD.
XXX. THE
The
SIBILANT
5 AND ITS SUBSTITUTE THE ROUGH BREATHING.

Greek
at the
i.
original s is retained in
end of
words, before mutes at the beginning and in the middie

of words, less often before a vowel at the beginning.
a.
At the end, so
compare
far as the
:
Greek laws of termination

in
/xei/os,
permit,
Sec. 35
suffix
e.g.,
stem
/ACVCS,
Skr.
fern.
manas, yo/os ; as
of the nom. sing. masc. and
= TTOTIS,
ft.
patisy
6\l/
foTrs,
and of the
genit.
sing.
At the beginning and

:
in the middle generally before
mutes
Root
x.o',
cs, to be; 2 sing,

;
com Homeric ;
3 sing, com';
i pi.
2 pi. core
V,
imp. foOi
ccrtfi,
OTTO) etc., impf.
dual
2 pi. ^crre
etc.
;
connected with ^rc ; Latin sum

Gothic,
esum,
cs
estj estis,
H. G.
ist,
E.
is.
Fes
vasj Latin ves in

o-,
vestis,
Icrcro,
= ci^v/it
fcor.
with
assimilated
also in
cr is
retained in
IOTO pluperfect, as
o-0?fc>
wJ/w, see below, Sec. 31; instead of the

o-
assimilation of
there
is
a compensatory lengthening
.
in
or -ctwov
II.
XXIII. 135.
Root Consonants.
<rra
LcrrrjfjLi,
57
the
eo-c-
where the
or
has disappeared at
oeginning of the reduplicated syllable,

(mjKtw, see Sec. 17; crop
Sec. 31.
y.
<r
ewmjKv
1
=
;
in (rropfvwfu Sec.
<rria,
At the beginning before a vowel

a o 5,
o-ws, <raoa>, o-a>a>, etc.
;
sanus ; O. H. G. gasunt,
H. G. gesund, E. sound.
<r
<
77 5,
o-<xos
^^/?,
j-a//<?,
sapor, sapiens, sucus; O.
H. G.
j0/f
.ra/5
H. G.
E. sap ; s has disappeared in
OTTO?,
E. opium.
W,
or
serenus, root
ty a o),
'
o-tyry, o-iya,
or
Cretan tya; H. G. swigen, schweigen^

original sv, for
the Greek
here
= the
which the rough
breathing
was used
in Greek,
compare
topws, Sec. 2 1
and
below.
o-vs,
connected with
s; sus,
Gothic, svein, O.
H. G. su
H. G.
2.
J^w, E. sow, swine.
Instead of the original and Latin s in the beginning before a vowel, Greek for the most part used the rough
breathing
aSrjv,
',
often interchanged with the

OO^KOTCS
II.
smooth breathing.
X. 98, also
aftcvat,
aJfyv, aSo^v, a6\>s,
aom,
satio ;
acrao-tfai II.
XIX.
307, from
satt.
da>
^//V, satur, satias,
Gothic saths, H. G.
aXfta,
aXXo/Aai,
salto.
Homeric
eoXro,
aorist with
the smooth
breathing 0X0-0, oXro,
cTroX/xcvos; salio, saltus,
H, G.
a X s, aX/M/, dXjuvpds ; ^/, ^//<?, sa/sus, insulsus, compare sulza, sulze; H. G. salz^ E. salt.
58
a /w,a,
An Introduction
a/xuSis, oftov, etc.;
to
Greek and Latin.

sam, sammt,
simul ; H. G.
see Sec. 27.

aTraf,
root a
set,
cbrXovg, semel, simplex.
IS
c
j#/
s,
in 1809, lo/xai; jtt&r, etc., Sec. 21.
Kvpd
JWZT, Sec.
1 6.
f vos in In; KCU vea,
j#2#,
etc.,
compare O. H. G.
sinis-
kalkus, seneschalk, E. seneschal.

,
IKTOS
O,
5<f^c
Gothic
saihs,
H. G.
^^,
E. six.
sieben,
^8o/>tos; septem ;
Gothic j/^w, H. G.
before a mute
2. 1 8.
E.
CTT
rctv,
ciro/u,at,
sequor ;
IO-TTCTC,
o-
is
retained in
compare
suavis,
see Sec. 19,

ccre/arrov,
IpTTw, serpo /
etpTTov
'
^
8,
L'
s,
= = sv ; not
(
see Sec.
aspirated ^8os,
OLCT/ACVOS,
see
Sec. 21.
17
A t o g,
^cXtos, auselius
s,
Aurelius)
as vA^,
,$w;//
7^,
.
J//^.
semi
semis ; O.
H. G.
not aspirated
6
TSos, ffiwo,
see Sec. 21.

o>\f, ace.
X K d s,
wX/ca,
IA.KO), having Doric wAaf Attic 0X0^ ;

,
lost the
rough breathing
sulcus.
;
0X05, not aspirated ovXos Ionic

sollus. Sec. 28.
salvus, anciently
o v,
ot,
I,
originally svey
pronoun stem I, cos, os, ^^wj / ^^/, into o-^c, suus ; crFe, hardened
E.
sibi,
se,
tStos
vIo
s,
Gothic sunus, H. G.
VTTttTOS
J
.ft?^,
V1TO, V7Tp, VTTTtOS,
.w
mus, summus.
VTTVOS, somnus
differs
sopnus, sopor;
the Gothic
from
this,
O. H. G. sla/an, E.
Root Consonants.
6,
59
a form with the rough breathing from the original pronominal stem sa, see Pronouns.
77,
article,
has disappeared In the beginning of words before vowels, besides the cases of change from the smooth to the rough breathing
3.
<r
:
a.
noticed above, in oXoxos, also dSeA<o9; the so-called copula
= d in aTras,
6,
also
ex
/:?.
= sa, sam, Sec. 27, instead of this compare O/AOV, a/*a, in OTrarpos = o/xoTrarpos, oyacrrwp; erraA/ca = ear. = (rear. Sec. 23 <rx in
a7Ta|, a/*a
e^co,
;
:
At the beginning before liquids /u*pos, ayujcpos, vea> = orcFw, / swim, thence the Ionic and Old Attic Homeric impf. eWeov II. XXI. n vevpa, O. H. G. snuor,
;
;
vuos, nurus,
O. H. G. snur ;
o-pv in pew,
vi<j>a,
nix,
O. H. G.
sneo, E.
j^ê/ / pv
thence
cppi/^v,
H. G.
strom, E.
dis-
stream, Sec. 29,
compare /, Sec. 29; compare the

stlocus.
:
appearance of j/ in locus, anciently

y.
In the beginning before mutes

Sec.
1
TTTWD, spuo, speien,

o-vravts
;
spit,
TrcVo/xai, TTOVOS,
orfctSv.;
compare
S.,
KtSva/xcu
reyos, tectum, crrcyos; ravpos,
K^dwvî H. G.
j/0.
ecr/u,
E. j/^^r/ the 5 disappearing in tabula, root

8.
In the middle of a word before
//,
ct/xt
for
compensatory lengthening, Sec. 9,

cr//,at,
2,
compare
el/xat
or directly from the Êolic

o-;
assimilation of the
ayx is
lî by moreover a common collocation

TreVetcr/Acu.
the preceding
of sounds in the middle of words, compare

c.
In the middle of a word between vowels, see Sec.

;
9,
i,
with regard to the change of the Latin

r,
between
Towels into
Sec.
n,
3.
o-
The repugnance
of Greek to
is
especially
shown
60
An
and Latin.
before vowels at the beginning of words, and between
vowels in the middle of words.
There
is
found also a
partial and cautious abandonment, even in the Old Êolic and Ionic dialects, of the /-sound, which frequently took
the place of
<r,
by weakening
it
into the
smooth breathing.
XXXI. THE
LABIAL,
SEMI- VOWEL SPIRANT

v,
f,
cor-
responding to the Latin
sporadically represented
by the rough breathing

of a word.
i.
in Greek, at the beginning
The Greek
v,
has disappeared, or
is
turned into the
vowel
it
and
is
only
now
to
be recognized by the traces
has
left,
and by comparison with kindred languages,

d^p, dcXXa, avpa
Sec.
n,
2.
arjro,
dF
xuXr}
;
arjfjiL,
OL^TOS,
d^rr/s, Sucrcnys,
avcu
/ call,
diWs,
di5r^,
dvrea>,
thence the Homeric,

;
xvcws
= dVaFos,
10017
with reduplication
dcom
to sleep, wuxo
reduplicated present; at<rOv
1 breathe
out ; dvr/^, H.
atum, athem
; ventus,
dt(D
Gothic vinds, E. wind.

probably also
;
aT
au
dFtw, alorOdvofjiaiy
cTnyn/?.
Od. XIII. 332, Homeric audio,

;
eTnyrvs
XXI. 306
ovs,
<OTOS,
ovara
oboedio, auris, ausculto ; Gothic auso,
H. G.
at
ohr, E. ear.
L
=
=
aifet,
locative
form,
atoii/,
dtStos,
aevum, aetas
aevitas ; Gothic
^ztfr,
/z/j,
/m<?,
O. H. G.
E.
law, wedlock, E.
c
H. G.je,
nie
= ni-aiv,
ap
Fea/s,
^p
Fep
etc.
;
cppw, eppe, cppeVa), Ippwv,

z/^r^?,
Homeric
Root Consonants.
ft
Oi
vi
irea,
willow
vitis,
vimen, vietus, pliant, withered,

olvos,
O. H. G. wid, H. G. weide ; thence

vinea ;
vinum = voinum,
Sec.
21.
H. G. wein, E.
Fi8
wine.
in
i8//,v, oTSa,
Compare
E. work ;
z//>fcs
vid
rra>p, ft&ft&,
cAvo), volvo ; O!KOS

FCTT
FOIJC.,
vicus ;
(pyoi/
= Fcpy., H. G. ze/r,
tov,
in
en-os,
Z'^Jcy
t<^)t,
/xca>,
vomo ;
viola;
F in
109,
ts,
/s, with suff.

:
thence adj.
wdv
t^tos,
wV ;
the
middle of a word
6ts
= oFis, ovis ;
#, is
= wFtov, ovum ; vcos

'
= vcFo?, novus; TrXcw = TrXcFw root TrXv, //w^7 =pluio,pluvia.

2. Original
Fc
<r
F,
Latin
represented by
ct//,a,
sp. asp.
l/x/ta
ves
cwvfjii
Fcorvu/u,
Êolic
is
Fctr/xa,
Od.
III.
348.
'
The digamma
rcraTO
;
traceable in
Trtct/xei'o?,
lavos,
ctavo? subst., ctavos

o-0?fc.
pliant ;
vestis, vestio ;
has disappeared in
Compare IcrTrepos, vesper ; Icrrta, Ion. tort??, cortao), Attic r^7, imperfect clomW = cFeor., ^/d:, root 7^^, #j in
Sec.
33
tbrwp,
connected with
to-ra>p
Fi&rop,
urro^ta
from
Ft8, z>/.
vad, Sec. 21.

F to
3.
For the change of
a vowel see Sees.
g.
n.
has
XXXII. THE PALATAL, SEMI-VOWEL SPIRANT JOD

disappeared in Greek, and
>, English y,g.
is
retained as the Latin
See Sees.
vowel, for
its
9.
n.
34, for examples
of/ becoming
disappearance, assimilation, and amalgamation with other letters.
The
in
original
:
/ as the beginning of a root
is
represented
Greek
62
i.
An
By
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

which has arisen from
dj,
the mixed sound
vy -jug^vyov, fcvywjui, foWv/u jugum, jungo, jumentum, jugis, united together, therefore lasting, juxta a superlative form = jugista ; Gothic juk, H. G. jock, E.
;
yoke ; original rootju v&jus, right

tical
= bond.
in
Perhaps iden-
with this
ju,
to
is
mix
= to
bind
together,
fup? leaven,
tppv^jus, soup.
f cor
=jas
in few
I seethe,
gischt,
efco/Aai,
fcW;
O. H. G.
yeast.
gerjan, zlsojesan,
H. G.
compare jast, E.
Zcvs
Sec. 21.
S/'cvs,
Juppiter = ^/.
from the root ^w, ^V,

StS/'ât, so
;
8t^r//xat reduplicated form
too 8:'w
77
II.
XVI.
d^'0
713, probably also Si<ao> ibid. 747
root fa,
ja, to go, strive,
seek, C^rcw.
fa Êolic
in composition
S/'a
=
:
Sta
faô?
2.
By
8 alone instead of 8j in f
8a
the above-named fa for 8ta in

&y = djainjam.
e
Sacr/ctos,
3.
By
the rough breathing

;
in
^Tra/s,
jecur, Skr. yakrt,
Sec. 6, 3, Sec. 19, 2

strative
os,
17,
= ^^
relative
and demon-
pronoun, see below.

LrjfjiL
kja
to go, see
reduplicated =jijami, causative form of ja,

IT/I/,
above impf.
2,
3 sing,
tcis, tct
according to
cry/cei/
the analogy of contracted verbs, Epic aorist

syllabic
with
augment
instead of
the/
e/x,ev,
at the beginning of the
root
el//,ev
with augment,
dênyv without augment,
Consonantal
II.
Laws of
;
Sound.
^LUDV II.
63
XIX. 402
Iaytcv
= W/ACV
thence
^//,a,
XXIII.
886, 891.
4.
By
the smooth breathing, or
it
disappears in
la??
reduplicated =///. compare jacio,
an extension of the
root/# to/cwr, La tin jac.
XXXIII. GREEK PURE VOWEL ROOTS.

av
eu
avo)
/
^P
l
>
burn,
I
;
dry, aa>
wither, cvw, cva> J

J
avos,
avaXcos,
avcm/pos,
?AT
av^/Aos
e<os,
^<os,
avcos
vptov,
^cptos
in an? == ^?w<?,
w/, ustus,
aridus, aurora
= ausosa ;
sing,
rjri
original root vas
us in Vesta,
orta, Sec. 31, 2.
^
r) ;
în
^t, 3
i
Doric, pret. 1 sing, ^v, 3 sing.
ajo
I
= agjo,
adagium, nego.
ifiev,
et/xt,
pi.
3 pi.
tcuri,
imperf. ^ta, Att.
-gctv,
^/Av
with temporal augment,

ot/xaa)
;
CIO-O/AOI, eto-aro, tros,
tâ,
with
to
e,
OITOS, ot/Aos, ot/xa,
fw^
//WW
?,
Z^/,
^w/
assimilation of the radical vowel i before o

tier,
and
indutiae
= induitiae,
aevum,
compare the archaic induperator

last
= imperator ;
tainly also
from the root / in the

aetas, Sec. 31.
instance cer-
atet,
XXXIV. CONSONANTAL LAWS

These
relate to the
OF SOUND.
changes which take place in con-
sonants under the influence of other consonants.

are as follows
:
They
i.
Assimilation (a) regressive, of the preceding sound
to that
which follows
er
to the following
v,
/A,
in
64
An
Doric
F to
and
Latin.
from FOT.,
C/A/U
e<r/u, ct/u'
of the originally ex-
isting spirants
o-,
pin eppvTjv,
Treptppvros
/A,
;
from
pv,
<rpv,
= dfp appr/KTOS = Ko/A/105

<r <r
of the labials to
ypd/A//,a
rerpijuju-ai
from
Tpt/?a>,
KOTT/X,.,
= ypa</*,a
rcrt,
;
of the dentals to a or
:
to one only) (for the most part
TTOO-OT, Trocrt
71-080-1,
=
()
f,y in
1780-., Sioju,curt
awo-ts
T<rt5, /copvcrt
=
:
= Sat/xocrt
ei/vos
overt
Progressive, of the following sound to the preceding
Êolic from fo/fo? Doric, rerrapcs from

equus^ -Êolic Kew>5,
rerf.,
tTrfos, iKfo?,
KTW(n from
KCV/'OS,
= /xaA/ov
a\j.
from
/x,aA,a,
compare
melius,
crreX/'co
TT
;
pare
rJKLo-Ta
= dX/. a//^, (rrcAAo = ^r/W, originally T7/c/W, com^TTO)]/ eXaTrojv = r/W, originally cXa^/W, compare
compare W/b, aXXos
:
= T/
IXaxvs', instead of the assimilation
of the
<r
of the
first
aorist to X/utvp preceding,
of the syllable takes place

corcAcra,
t<^ryva
a compensatory lengthening corciXa, Êolic lorcXXa, from

T^TT
6
</)avcra,
==
^yycXcra,
cyctvaro,
Êolic eyei/varo, from cycvo-aro.
2.
The approximation
:
(0)
o-
of the foiegoing sound to the

/Xcy,
following
before T arid
only a tenuis (XCKTO? from
A efts
= AcKo-ts, SCKTOS from Sc^), before 8 a medial (ypa/28>?v

The
dentals
from ypa<), before ^ an aspirate (eAcx&yv).

8, T,
change into the spirant o- before /x. Tjwoyxat (avvr), on the other hand tS/xci/ Ionic, conTrcVctcr/xat (TTI^)
;
nected with
tcr/Aei/,
oS/xiy,
KCAcopvfyxeVos
the gutturals
like
K,
into y, 8oy/xa from
8o/c,
Truy/xat from TV^>

d/c)
tK)u,ei/os,
t
d/caêVos (reduplicated root
Ionic
T before
in the
endings of stems and inflexions, except in Doric, changes
Consonantal
into
sing,
^qo-i,
o-,
is
retained in eort
Doric fart, on the contrary TI of the 3 p. <epovo-i, Doric </>poi/ri, Ti0eio-i

;
TiOevTi, <ao-i,
Doric
<ai/ri, ctKocrt,
Doric
Ft/cart,
= = yepovo-ia
TrXovros,
ycpovTta, avaurOrjo'ia
OT;,
from dvatcr^ros,
TrXovcrtos
from
Doric
TV.
() Of the following sound

from
cr/aS,
to the prece-
ding,
tenuis,
irdoyo)
07(6^0),
scindo, scidi (from the aspirated

a-),
under the influence of the preceding spirant from TTOO-KO), TraO&Ku, cpôôu = cpcr/c. after the
o-.
dis-
appearance of the
3.
The blending
:
of two sounds in one mixed and

into f
i
;
;
hissing sound
vs,
fy\
yj
at the beginning of a root, in the beginning of a word,
â
Êolic, Sec. 32,

,
(Tô)
o^(t8;o>,
Tpa?rcâ
= TTpa7re8/a,
oria>,
=
Sec. 17, /Act^wv
ay/., ayios, /cpafw
/cpay/'a),
/xey/W, /xeya?,
magnus ; on the other

o- o-
hand, IpSw from fcpy/w instead of ep^w, by metathesis

pefo),
Sec. 20.
T/, #/,
/c/,
Aicrcrofwu
^/, into
(assibilation)
AIT/.,
compare A.iTC(r0ai, XtTiy /xeXtcro-a = i//,avT/a>, where the disappears before

; i/
"
<r,
T/CO,
#/o>, y8dcro-a>v
epcT/xos
Kpcticrcroiv
J
= âfy'. from /3aOv<s

with
TTCTT,
= Kptrjuv Kopvcrcra) = 7reK/a> from

9
-Treororw
K
/Jr
(^) connected
y
oo-o-e = oK/e
Sec.
?rtWa ==
;
TrtK/a,
(pculus\ SO too oWo/xat

ô-o-cov
oo-o-a
oK/a
;
Sec. 19, 2);
rjKJwv, yXiJcro-wv
from
?rpafc,
yXv/cvs
from
7rXa/c,
Trpô-o-co, Trpdo-o-co
from
<^>pdo-o-a>
from <pa,K (K weakened to y in 7rX^y^v, 7T7rpaya, = dvaK/a ; cXdo-o-wv <picro-a> from <^>ptK, avao-Q-a
*
c<^>pcty>;v),
from ^pa^v?, bre(g)vis (not
from Ta^vs.
single instance of oxr
=
5
/'
occurs
66
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.
in 7rpo</>pocro-a
Homeric feminine of 7rpo<pa)v = 7rpo<paoy/ca

as in
instead of the expected
4. Dissimilation to
dentals before T
and
avoid identity of sound change of into or ; to-rop from FtcV., dworos

:
= dvVT-TOS,
the
TTIOTIS,
"TTtOTTOS
== 7T10T.,
7TMT^Vai
for
7T100.
<r
same
also
happens when
KCVT,
the v disappears before

iriiroa-Oe
from the stem
7rc7rooT
for
5.
Phonetic law of the aspirates: avoidance of aspirates
at
the beginning of two syllables which follow each
Other: mOrjv, eruOrjv, from the roots Oe, Ov, auOrjTL for o-o)^#i,
compare
d//,7rxo>, e/ccxetpta
<f>dQi.
When
according to the laws of
on the other hand, xvOrjv9 sound a loses its

transferred to a
at the
aspirate at the
end of a root
it is
beginning of a root, rptxos

0ao-cra>v
Op,
rpexw
0peo/*at,
TO^?
if
= rax/., on the
other hand
when san
0,
still
aspirate
retained at the
end of a root before

;
stands at
the beginning instead of r
6.
Insertion of a sound
between
vp, /*p, /x\ in
avSpos
=*
dvpos,
first
notice however the remarkable shortening of the
syllable in dvSpor^-a II.
XVI.
857.
XXIV.
is
6,
which
takes
no notice of the consonant which
inserted,
short/xpo
ya/x/?pos
= ya/xpos,
;
/AGO7//,/2pta
II.
=
78,
ftpta, a/x/?poro5,
ened
into a/Spores
XIV.
d/xporos
from
(morior)
v,
= ^/xporov, ^/x^porov
by metathesis from
KOV
thence d^pordô/xcv II. X. 65, compare from /x-oX, (JL(j.\. /A/x.^X(OKa
Consonantal
Laws of Sound.
67
In
Homeric
the beginning
/?X<ikrKa>
v, II.
/x,e/*A.
p,cp.eX.r)Tai, lp.cp.eX.rjTO.
/>tp,
/3p, fiX,
instead of
//A;
= îpor., /?poros
with epenthetic
= //AoxTKO),
/xoXcii/.
vTTfjiv^vK
is
XXII. 491,
as in I/WU//.VGS,
an exception.
7.
The
;
loss
of consonants
cr
between vowels see
above
between consonants ren;<0
in Kcpws
= Kcparos,
stem
Kepar,
<^>ep6t
= <o-0 of T = ^cpcrt, see below

;
of v between vowels in /*i'ovs from /mfoveg, before o- in with compensatory lengthening of sound, KCOTOS </>cporcrt,
from KCVOT
of
;
IT, v8 in ycpovcrt
1 1, 3.
rrcrt, (TTrctcra)
Sec. 9, 2
8.
Change of position, or metathesis of the root conso:
nants
Qav
;
Ova in
âpo-os
Se'SopKa,
Oap in ^pao-o?, ISpaKov, see Variations of Roots, Sec.

flavctv, Ovrjo-KM,
Opa
37.4-
9.
Law
of reduplication
Of two consonants
at the
beginning of a word the first only is reduplicated ; of the the coraspirates the first only of their component parts
responding tenuis
KcxupriKa
OTO-T.,
;
K,
T,
TT,
yeypaâ,
-rrcûKa,
7re<i/ov
=
t,
present reduplication with the vowel
r#fy/u, KLxwtu-
For further
;
details see
below on Present and Perfect Stems

the reduplication
c/x/ôpc
the metathesis of
that in stems
= ftc/xope,
is like
which begin with
p.
68
An
and Latin.
XXXV. THE LAWS

i.
OF THE ENDING.
The Greek language

e|
dislikes consonantal endings.

ov\i,
(i/r,
No word
from
the word.
into
S
v,
=
cr ;
ends in a mute, except OVK from /cs, but semi-vowels only v, p, <r
and
)
IK
close
Other consonants are discarded, or changed

c</>epe(T),
<jf)pov(T),
Xyot(r), Xcyera^r), 805
8o0i,
ai/a
yaXa
= yaXa/cTj
ycpov
TI =
TTCU
vocative
;
= 7rai8,
= = yvvai
yuvai/c,
di/a/cr,
= ycpovr
T disappears in the
TIT, compare quid ; T at the end of changed into s in the neuter participle, ci8o, from etSor, and in adverbs in us, originally COT. So o- dis-
neuter pronoun
a word
is
appears before consonants at the end of a word ; in oimos in <t as suffix of the plural, on the other arpe/xa, ax/ot
',
hand compare
2.
Xi/cpi^fe, nobis.
Greek endings do not allow every combination

final
<r6r]<;
of the
TroSg,
o-
with the foregoing consonant

ecr^rs, rcpas
==
TTOVS
oi/s,
from
Ol/TS,
COTS,
CtSwS ==
FOTS, /U-T/T^p
rcpars, Sat^cov
/3S,
TTOl/X^V
rt^cts
= Ttêvrs,
a compensatory lengthening
on
oi/^,
the other hand, however, </>aXay, Xvyf, <Xof, KoXa^,

aXs.
3.
The
original
is
in ist pers. sing,

;
and
ace.
sing,
/*,.
becomes
v or
discarded
v in person-endings
from
^v,
connected with
â?
c>
?>
compare eram from

/xt
in the optative of verbs in
cfyv
compare
;
8oi
from
8o/x,,
ycyova(/At),
oT8a,
ôlic
Trare/oa, original
form pataram ; compare
Laws
4.
of Endings.
v,
69
is
The
so-called
ephelkystic
or v suffixed,
not
original, but a supplementary extension of a word ending with a vowel by taking v to avoid the elision and strengthen
the final syllable; in eXeyo/ the v appears after the r which

originally
ended the word
is
discarded.
/ACV,
This v becomes
fixed in ist pers. plur. of the verb
from the original
= mas, mast, after the

<^>epo/xe,
disappearance of the s;
from
original
and Doric
5.
Latin
is
less capricious in its endings.
It allows
the guttural and dental tenues even in combination with
other consonants,
lac,
hunc, sunt,
d,
I.
est,
and
differs
from
the Greek in admitting m,

tenuis, as well as the
It
avoids only the labial
combination of two mutes, lac instead

the ablative singular
of fact;
d is discarded in
and adverb,
paired, fadllumed, but retained in the neuter pronoun quid) id; with regard to the disappearance of s see Sec.
n, 3; and
in case-endings, Sec. 47.
PART
II.
FORMATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS.

XXXVI. CONCEPTION OF ROOTS AND THEIR FORMATION
REDUPLICATION
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
ROOTS.
i
.
A root is
the simplest combination of sounds which
contains a meaning without the help of any elements of
grammatical relation.
sort of close
It expresses
an idea without any
and concrete
definition or application.
this first appears in forming It has no pronominal suffix stems and words to express the noun and verb ; it is therefore in itself neither nominal nor verbal, but ex-
presses indifferently the sense of
naming or of affirming
purely abstract.
denoted by the noun and verb
it is
For example, the primitive root da is the common source of the verbs 6Y8o>/u, do, of the nouns Sor^p, SOTO'S,
800-19,
dator, datus, dos,
donum.
Apart, therefore, from
those noun and case endings which go to form the stem,
and simply by reason of

the giver, the recipient,
its
general signification,
it
can
designate, though in a non-differentiated
and vague manner,
and
the gift.
it
the predicative verbal suffixes
Deprived, however, of can mean nothing so
Roots and their Formation.

precise as
71
"he gives"
etc.
The bare
root can
no more
contain such a synthesis of a subject with a predicate
denoting a judgment, than it can imply the distinction between the thing done and the doer of it, or the definitions of sex
and
case.
2.
Since the root

it
crete definition,
unable to express relation or confollows that it is not admitted by itself,

is
as a
mere
it
root, into
is
developed language.
discovered and
analysis,
artificially
By made
all
linguistic
clear, so
that
(a)
From a word can be
subtracted not only
elements
of grammatical relation, or pronominal suffixes, but also

their influence
on the sound of the
root, as conditioned
by the laws of sound.

(/?)
The
root-vowel also, which has been lengthened

its
or increased, can be traced back to
simple and short
fundamental vowel.
(y) Lastly,
the end or from the
a sound which has been in any way lost at body of a word can be supplied through
the comparison of fuller and
more original root-forms of the
same or cognate languages.

root es
Zev's,
;
Compare
;
for
example,
con',
riOrip.1
Of.
umy/u ora
vywp,i
o/x, dju (ju, jov)\

,
sed;
ct/u,
c,
ja\
cs,
Trams
iriO
cl/u,
otros
la
/x,ao-(ro)v,
/A->7/co9,
;
magnus, major
tSta>,
JU^XK,
mag ;
laSa,
suavi sva
T,
[Spws, sudor, sveiz svid ;
o^,
vox
voc ; pew,
o-pv, etc.
eppvryi/,
O. H. G. stroum, E. stream from
J2
An
and
Latin.
3. Closely
of the root-vowel
connected with the lengthening and increase is a further amplification of the root in
This also must be removed
order to express relation.

in order that the pure root
may be
reached, and
is
called
REDUPLICATION.
It consists of
full
or partial itera-
tion of the root in order to express a
more
intensive
.
meaning, and is found both in the noun and in the verb In the noun, for example in d/cw/o; root ok, dycoy^ root ay,
St8a^ root 8aK, oy>7 root fay, 10)77 root <*F, tov0os, not Homeric, from the root avO partly with increase of the vowel in the root-syllable, as in T?/TV/X,OS, partly with the
;
reduplicate vowel
weakened
to
i,
compare
ciconia, cicatrix^
analogous to the verbal present reduplication, partly with both; without this in //.ap/xapos root //,a/>, Kayjcavos root
Kaf, Kapxapos root
xap
x01 ^
/
"
"^ with which compare

XatXai^, SatSaXcos, TratTra-
furfur ; lastly in
Aoeis, d/jiaiju,aKTos
nouns such as
with diphthongal reduplication.

is
The
speak
verbal reduplication
partly variable,
and so
to
transitory, attaching to individual tense stems.

it
In
the present tense
expresses duration, in the perfect,

it
conclusion of the action, in the aorist

the meaning. Partly
itself,
it
simply intensifies
in
is
stable,
and
one sense goes

;
back to the root

bibo root -m in
as especially in certain Latin verbs
7riVo>,
po
\i\potus, Sec. 18, coquo reduplicated

TTCTT,
root
coc,
compare
TTCK,
Sec. 19,
2,
vivo reduplicated
root gvig, vig in vixi,

/2i
in /5tos, vi Sec. 22.
compare quicken, originally gi=* The Greek verbal reduplication

for
on the other hand, except

iavo),
is
,
example in toAAw,
to
almost peculiar to certain tense-stems, as compared with IOTÎ/, root ora; Kixprjju, as
Primary and Secondary

compared with
e^ryo-a root
V, TTCtiÔ).
Roots.
root
73
7T6T
;
^pa ;
TTITTTW, Trcorctv,
4.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS.

of
labial
Other extendental,
sions
the original root

affixes
exist
in
guttural,
and
to the original vowel- ending,

less firmly
which
have coalesced more or
with the root, and
are universally or partially retained in the verbal inflexions.
These are the
so-called
root-determinatives, which
stamp with greater distinctness the idea of a root.

pare
firy>
Comfrom
u Sec. 32, TTTOX,

So,
TITO,
Sec.
8, Sax in SiSaovca)
theoriginal
in Se'Sac Sec. 21,

/x,a,
//,a0,
iraO in /xa0eti/,
from the original

rrXôs
to
;
?ra,
TrAa, TrXaO in TrtJaTrX^
/W
in ///^^?, tutudi
and
TVTT in TT/TTTO),
lead back
a common primitive form tu> idea of thrusting and striking.
TV,
which combined the
The
shortest form of the root
is
:
the most original, and
also of the
eat, da,
most general meaning compare /, to go, ed, to to give, ju in jus, law and jus, brcth = to bind and
bind
together.
mix,
vy, jug, to
All polysyllabic so-called roots are derivatives, compare

aXei<
in dXct^xo
and Awr
in AiVa, cAax in cAa^vs, etc.,
and
leg in levis
legvis. present stem is very frea has root which been extended quently by reduplication accompanied by a nasal sound and a verbal suffix, for
from
The
example
ytyvo/>tat
from
yev, Aa/AySava)
from
Aa/x/2
from Aa/J
with suffix av, Aayâva) Aa^, rumpO, rup.
74
An
and Latin.
XXXVII. MARKS AND PECULIARITIES OF THE ROOT.

i.
Generality of meaning.
root
is
The
a pure abstraction, Sec.
2, 2,
of vague and
indefinite signification, capable of further extension, often

difficult to
bring under a precise and single expression.

it
The
root begins to differentiate itself as soon as
enters into the use of actual language, so as to denote

essentially different
and
distinct objects
TTCT,
and modes of
is
action.
Examples root
:
pet; the general idea
that
of hasty movement through empty space, thence, (i)

Ifly>
Trero/uu,
Penna
(petna), (2) peto,
1 strive,
<ai/,
(3) 7rwrra>,
Ifall.
etc.
Root <a, fa (secondary root

is
<af) ;
the general idea
of giving knowledge, thence (i)
î?/u,
fan,
(2)
<aiVo), <cos,
fax, etc.
ep, to
Root
d/o,
plough,
to
row ; the general idea
is
of
labour in a yielding substance ; taken together with op, the
general idea
is
of stirring up.
to roar,
to bluster, to
Root
Ov<*),
6v, fu,
smoke, to
is
sacrifice,
in
0v/Aos, Ovos,
fumus
; the general idea
that of violent
movement.
Root Root
ter,
in
TCI'/OW, re/oew,
tero, terebra, to
rub and
to bore;
the general idea
is
that of friction.
<pu, $vp in (i) $piap

(2) in
H. G.
brunnen,
to
7rop<t>vp
wave, (4)
in
= <pfap, Gothic brunna, O. H. G. brinnan, to burn, (3) Trop^vpa purple ; the fundamental
the general idea of to well, to wave,
meaning comprises
to burn, to
it
shimmer.
Root
b,
i>,
ju
in
vyoV, jungo,
jus ; root
TV, tu in
see above.
Classification of Roots.
2.
7$
The
root
is
always and unconditionally a monois
syllable,
and the vowel
short, Sec. 7
/,
to
go ;
es,
to be,
da, do, to give; ed, to eat; bi,pi,
po, to
drink;
vi, fit,
to live;
vid, to see; ves, cs, to clothe; sta, to stand; alO, originally 10

to kindle; vas,
us
(ev),
to
burn; pet,
to fly, to fall; <t>v,fu, to
become;
Of.
(dha), to place, to do; sed, to sit; fa, to speak, to

die, to
shine ; mor, mro, to die ;
show ;
stor,
ster,
stra, to
strew ;
to to
fop, ver,
war,
to
wait;
spec, CTKCTT, to
spy ; vart, ver,

o-pv,
turn;
tore, rpe/c, rpeTr, to
twist; plu, TrAv, to flow ; pv,
stream;
scand, to
climb;
scid, to cleave; ta, ten, to stretch;
er, to
rub, to bore; tud,
TVTT, to
strike; ar, op, to
plough;
etc.
3.
(a) verbal
Roots may be classed according to their function as and (ft) pronominal, or roots which express
ideas
and
relations, also
strative, or material and formal.
termed predicative and demonThese two classes of

form
;
root sometimes
do not
differ in
as in
/,
to go,
which
is
also demonstrative, KI in KCI/MU, quies, also inter-
rogative
and
indefinite in quis, TIS
= KIS,
ta,
to stretch,
also demonstrative
= he.
root,
4. Varieties of
form in a
the change of the primitive vowel
occasioned not only by a into e and o ; but
also
by
change in the position of the sounds, va in ventus ; dA.<, lab, dA<ava>, labor ; dpS, paS
/3aA,
(i) Metathesis or
af in
Sec.
arip,
21
ft\a
in
/SaXctv,
/Se^Xât ;
cp
ra in
raffs ; cpeo-ora),
yev, yra in ytvos. yi/^crios, gnascor ;
gna
gno, in gnosco, gnarus, Gothic kannjan ; Oav, Ova in Oavelv,

;
Oap, Qpa, Sec. 34, 8
KCL^ Kfia in Ka/Atv,
76
An Introduction
cer, ere
]
',
to
Greek and Latin.

men,
/*va,
n Kptw,
mor,
cerno, crevi ;
mens.
fio\, pXo'j
/xpo,
Sec. 34, 6; SeC.

;
OTT, Tre,
j
redupli-
cated
TTCTT,
in O7TTO5,
TTeTTTCD, TTCTTCDV,
1 9, 2
7TCT, TTTtt 1R
TTero/x-at, lirrfiv\
Spec, CTKCTT,
Sec.
;
16
orop,
J/^*, J/ra,
Sec'
17; rXa, raX ;
re/i, ra/x, r/â
rep,
rpa Sec. 17; <Xey,
y^
to
in ^Xcyw, fulgeo.
(2)
<pv,
</>vp,
see above.
By
,
the change of consonants into vowels and the

;
hardening of vowels
df,
av, diyp, dvw, tavw

;
^, div
gleam Sees. 21. 32

Zrjfu
yav, yaf, Sec. 20
to go,
thence/^ in
=jijdmi causative, jacio;

S,
Xaf, Xav; Xv, /^, /z/, A? scour^
to
wash, Sec. 28;
^/, z/^, Sec.
21;
us,
vas, eu, av,
Sec. 33.
(j)
By change of consonants
fll",
dX/c, dp/c,
ep,
Sec. 29
TVTT
/2/4 Sec. 36, 4;
)Si,
Sec. 36, 3;
eX
ill
epxo/xat,
;
eXêtv
displacing the aspirate in
ra</>, â?r,
â/x^, Sec. 1 7
weakening the tenuis into a medial

^paK, <pt*, Sees. 18. 20. 29. 34, 3.
(4)
root,
in
7rXa/c,
Trpa*, pax,
By
icra,
strengthening the consonant or extending the

KTCV in /crd/Aevat,
/crcti/a)
;
ra, TCV,
/^ /
;
^v, yV^, ^vy,
/^, compare
(5)
Sec. 36, 4;
<^>a,
<ev, Sec. 25
<^>a,
<aX, Sec.
25; Oe>fat, Sec. 24;
ora, ora^, J/^/, J//^, Sec. 17.
By
taking away the original consonant at the begin-
ning, in
x= <TX,
O-CTT,
epTr
= serp,
Sees. 18. 19. 23,
compare
fpay, pay, frag, Sec. 20,
a-pv, pv,
Sec. 29.
XXXVIII. STEMS OF WORDS.

i.
The
root, in its further construction into a word,
passes generally, but not necessarily, through the stem, as
a middle stage.
By
certain definite extensions of the
Stems of Roots.
root,
fixes,
77
in part verbal suf-
which are
in part nominal,
and
the stem shows a tendency towards becoming either

It is therefore
a noun or a verb.
distinction
not indifferent to the

is
between noun and verb, but
not as yet a
complete word.
which remains
Considered analytically, the stem of a word is that after the removal of the nominal and verbal
inflexional endings of the declensions
and conjugations.
not the simple root, but has the stamp on it of either noun or verb e.g., opwfu root op, inflexional
Yet
it is
ending
ju,
w verbal suffix of the present stem, verbal stem

root
TTO,
opw
TrooT?, drink,
s suffix
of the nominative,
;
noun
suffix
<ri
rt,
nominal stem
TTOOT
<a-ri-s.
2.
The stem may however

t/xcv,
coincide with the root, on
the one hand in the case of primitive or root verbs,

<a/AO',
on the other hand

for
in the case of
nouns
differ
which have the naked root

from
it
a stem, or at least
only in the quantity of the vowel, vox, dux, so

is
that a particular suffix
not necessary to the formation
of the noun.
suffix,
Such primitive nominal stems, which have no nominal are entirely independent of the difference between
fern, duc-s
the categories of nomina agentis and nomina actionis, as
they are of that between genders, voc-s
masc.
3.
When
root and stem are different the distinction
between nominal and verbal stems

tion of particular suffixes
is shown by the funcwhich find their place between These are partly pronominal the root and the inflexion.
78
An Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

letters,
roots, partly syllables, or
even mere
whose meaning
cannot be
tion of
fixed.
They
take part, however, in the formaalike, as, for instance, the pro-
nouns and verbs
nominal stem ta serves both to stamp the nominal stem, OITOS, Soros, and, in a weaker form, makes the third person
singular of the verb.
The
suffixes /a, av, va, etc.,
appear
aytos,
both
in
verbal
and nominal
stems.
Compare
Si/catos, Ti//,aa>
Ti/xa/w, /x,av0ava>, i/cavos, Sa/>u/aa),
Besides these pure roots, many nominal stems are In these the present stem also direct verbal stems.
4.
alone takes a special stem-forming verbal

usually
suffix.
This
is
ja
in
its
of sound.
The
conditioned by the laws rest of the tense-stems show the pure
many changes
nominal stem.
See below, Sec 39,
2.
XXXIX.
i.
(i)
VERBAL STEMS.
Stem or root verbs containing only the root-stem
and tense-stem.
This last includes the present stem, and, generally, the extension of the root by means of the reduplication which for the most part takes place in the
present stem.
The end
of the root
is is
strengthened by the
strengthened.
cfyu,
verbal stem- suffixes, and the vowel
Pure root verbs in fu: ^y/u,

reduplication fy/u, rflfy/u compare
eT/u,
with present
0c/*v, IO-TÎ
compare
compare
I8o/x,i/,
8ctjcw/u, ^cv'yyv/u
compare
Root verbs
a<o
in
<o
with tach- vowel
o,
satiate*
8t<o,
Ov<a
sacrifice^
rtco,
vowel forms, consonant p(/oa<o j

c
:
Verbal Stems.
forms,
e&o,
<epu>,
79
Xeytt>,
etc.
with lengthening of the

in the present
;
vowel or extension of the root

TT/KOJ, Xei7ro>,
<vyo>,
compare dlco^ duco ; SaKva>, TVTTTO); suffix ja

eo-0ia),
forming
;
in
Sato/xat
/3aXXa>
(X X
= A/),
J
*p7Vw,
CTOT
(TV = KJ XCVO-O-O), TCtVCO = AtVcro/xai y/

;
7T(r(7(J, TrX-tyO-OXD, <plCTCra>
= T/
For
S/,
fo//,at,
aa>,
/cpaa),
peco.
further details see below, under Present Stem.
Compare
Latin verbs in io,fugio, rapio in the third conjugation.

2.
nominal stem,
Nominal verbal stems, with unaltered and unformed which is not a mere root. In these the
all
present stems alone take suffix ja ;

:
the other tense
stems are pure nominal stems verbs in fo>, o-<ru> ; eA Sera, stem cAmS as in cATri's, so also 8/co, Â-Trio-a
Stem Stem
epiS,
<povTi<D J 7rai(o, Tratf o/xai, connected with

;
erraicra,
Traty in Tratyviov, TratS in Trats

/x-ao-Ttfo),
>,
ju,ao"Ttô)
'X/Wj
Stem
apTraô),
stem
crcr
apTray,
Homeric
future
(raA7ri'a>,
Stem
= K/ in = T/ in (f>vXa.K = ^y in t/xai/Tos
; ;
craATrty J
= ^/ in Kopvcrtra), KKopv6KT/PVK,
/o/pvo-o-a),
t/x,a(r<ra)
stem
^vAao-o-w,
t/xavr in
stem
t/xa?,
avr/<o,
Stem
jLtctAto-o-o)
x/00
in
es,
;
'
stem /ActAt^
in av
;
in fteiXtôs.
eor/o>,
Verbs with nominal stems
rcActw from
;
stem
ai//w,
rcAcs in reAo?, so also veiKto>
êAatVco
Stem fji\av in
a
/CD,
/xeAas, /xeAavct II.
VII. 64
in ap
^
Ka$atpa>
stem KaOap, re/c/xatpo/xat, Stem = (XX X/) stem dyycX.

3.
rc/cîap
in
Xj
ayyeXXa)
Denominatives, derived from nouns with formed
nominal stems ending with a vowel. These retain the vowel stem-ending of the noun in the inflexions of the
verb, as a verbal extension of a complete nominal stem.
8o
An
and Latin.
In other forms, therefore, than the present, they exhibit,

besides the root, the vowel elements which betray their
nominal derivation.
The
/o>,
so-called contracted verbs, from the original
o/<o,
o/o)
= ajami, formed by the
syllable or auxiliary verb,
ja, with causative meaning, or meaning of duration,
come
under the head of denominatives

times intransitive,
rt/xa,
Tt/x,ao>
they are also some-
= rtjua/w,
6pOo.
statujo,
from the nominal stem

</>ope
<op<o,
oêoo,
from the stems

/3io,
<opo, 6^0,
/2ioa>,
6p$oa>,
from the stems
Compare amo = amajo,

nominal stem statu
;
moneo
monejo,
o
statuo
t
verbs in
with
18
persistent in all tense-stems

in T8os, tStcra, /cvXtw,
iSuo
from the root
= crfiS
/x-^j/ta),
KOVO
I/CD (Z
= i/),
compare Latin verbs of the fourth conjutjo,
gation with contracted i as sapio
conjugation
vifodio, cupio, etc.

tfco
To
this
opposed to the head belong also

dpfto in dp/>tos,
verbs in ao>, oa>,

y), vw,
v^ptfa),
vo>,
(so far as
is
a mere extension of
ova)
a,ya7raeo, ap/x-o^co,
8a/cpvco,
t#v'a>,
Stem
ve/jccrtâ),
tcr^va),
dpwrTcva),
KoXovco
stem KO\O, KoXoF
= KoXor/co.
/0r, ///r^j'
Lastly, verbs in
aivco,
wa>
XaatVco, âpo-ww, ^SvVw.
Latin desideratives in
;
/^w
from
the nomen agentis in
esurio
= edturio^ parturio
from partor.
Manifold interchanges in flexion between forms
of
4.
primitive
and derived verbs

e/cupcra
;
/cvpew existing
;
by the
;
side
of Kvpw,
atSeo/xat
;
y^êco,
yeyrjOa
;
So/cew,
ISofa
atSo/xat,
;
l/xaôi/,
/xa^ôro/xat
cycvo/xryv,
ycv>}cro/>iat
yoaw
connected with
cyoov,
/xr;/ccxo/xat
connected with
/Ac/x^/ca,
connected with
/XC/AVKCI.
Compare
the Latin
///0, video,
juvo juvare by the side tffugi, cuperem,
vidi,juvi; lavo, Idvi, Idvavi ; saepio, saeptus.
XL.
(2)
NOMINAL STEMS,
including Participle
and
Infinitive.
The nominal stem

suffix,
= the root
there
is
then no nominal
but there
of vowel in
Zevs
on the contrary, a change or increase many possible ways cty FCTT, <Ao <A.cy,
is,
:
A/u
voc
(dju,
CTT,
div\
xep~vt.il/
vi/?,
airopp^ root
Fpay,
vox
=f
nex
nee, lex
leg,
dux
due,
pax
pac, rex
reg.
Suffix a, o in A-
and O- stems,
to denote
Fcpy,
an agent as
<jf>opo?,
A.ITT,
well as a thing
<*p, faff)
dyds, rayos, Ipyov
^^7? fuyov
îry,
AOITTOS
reduplicated,
aK
vadum stem ^^?, //^f jugum,

,
== devos, deivos from coquus, vtvus, dlvus, deus

teg,
^/z; /
toga
advena,
v, #.-
collega.
Suffix
(OKUS (a*), /?apvs, TrXarvs;
^r^5/ in Latin
levis
sy-
stems are transferred to the / declension,

brevis
ftpaxys, suavis
oo-cra
^Svs.
Suffix/^ : aytos,
= pop/a,
is
<xA/^0cia
= 6/c/a
suffix
eximius, conjugium, ingenium ;

:
ja
a secondary
and denotes the feminine
StWios,
=
?;
or/a,
(j>epovcra
=
Fov
:
ovr/a,
XcXotTrvta
=
aevum,
=s
vor/a, //.cXatva,
8ortpa.
z/0,
Suffix
z/^
= =
Fo,
atwv
= atFw^
aetas = aevitas,
cuus.
FcT/'a.
root / to go ;
arvum
?
va(ar), alvus (al\
Suffix Fcvr:
Suffix For
:
xaP t/ts
x aP t/a/TOS x aP t/crcra
Fors,
ctSais
82
An =
and
TI\MI,
Latin.
Suffix ma, mo, mon, mat,

et/ia
Fccr/iaT,
meno:
;
0v/*ds,
o/x/Aa
(oTT/xar)
forma, animus, sermo(n).

as in ââi.
;,
Middle
(sc.
participles, StSo/xcvos
Inf.
IS/êvot,
Xa/x/7rpds,
compare alumnus, ferimini

t
<//>).
with locative
/cuSpds,
Suffix
ra
la
Xapds,
on^X^
ruber,
scala (scandla), ala, tela, telum, velum, Sec. 17, querela.

Suffix
Uai/os,
SoOfjvai
tf#
tf##
na:
rip-rjv
(evs),
ci/ttt,
pecten ;
o/oyavov,
crr^vat,
^Sovr;.
Infinitive
t,
vat,
XcXotTrei/at,
with locative
<friptw
= <^pcvt
cvai
donum,
somnus (sopnus).
Suffix ta,
to,
Gerund-suffix ondo, undo, endo.
Sec. 38, 3, tat in adj., subst, part, pass.,

TroAt-nys; /cotros, ,rig/#,
and verbal adjective:

Suffix tor, ter,
noxa (eta);
K\VTOS, yvwTos, status, potus ; veor^g (vcon^r), civitas.

/<?r, /r<3r,
:
etc., in
words expressing kindred

turo.
and nomina
piyrpa
;
agentis
TraTTyp,
<paYa>p, o-wr^p, torcop, tarpos,
/^/^r,
z//^<?r.
Part. fut.
stem
Denomina-
tive verbs in
turio, Sec. 39,3.
Feminine nomina actionis;
sepultura, usura.
Suffix
<^>aTt5,
//,
si,
tu,
etc., in
nomina
;
actionis:
//^ns
(/A<X),
Averts,
^pwrvs,
ftviy/Aocrwiy
^^f^r (met-tis\
supine in u
vectts,
potis, compo(f)s, dos (dots), mens,
superstes (stif)\ further
extension in
casus
statio, initium, justitia ;
um ;
= cadtus ;
further extension in tuo
tua, mortuus,
statua, tut in servitus, altitude.
= = = = ccroi/T/a, ta-ras to-ravr, 0a's co-ovr, covo-a ^J/T, Xvo-wv = OVT, Xvo-acra = avrja praesens from ^y^/ from the
Suffix ant, ent, ont, in part. act. pres., fut., aor.
:
<5i/
root
/ ient,
eunt
(tens, euntis),
from the root // further
extension praesentia, prudentia.

Suffix Ka,
^;
#77*07
(#c),
secondary
îxrt/cos,
compare
Nominal Stems.
under
from
perf. in
stla,
83
*a
cloaca,
fecundus, locus, anciently stloc

the root
sta ;
stal, further
extension from
secondary
Suffix
es,
civicus, etc.
us, os
y/os
(yci/es), /ACÔS, i^cvS^s (es)

,
genus,
corpus, opus anciently opos foedus, robur anciently robus,
vetus
veteris ;
masculine in or
s to
= os:
sopor, etc.,
aurora
;
= ausosa,
The
change from
r between vowels
in Latin
sedes, caedes, labes,
the other cases as in /-stems.

ere,
Latin infinitive active in ere was originally haps the shortened dative of a noun in es; vehere
fieri anciently fiere,
per-
= vehesei,
=
= es(e)se, esse root = fuse, Ire == fore

es
not a passive form, =fiesei, esse, root ed=* edse, ferre =ferse, velle velse,
root
/,
else,
present stem
I,
ei.
Inf.
perf.
esse is
added
to the perfect
stem in
-/,
peperi-sse,
dixisse
= dicsi-esse,
esse
the archaic dixe being formed by the

to
apocopated
dixim.
attached
the bare
root,
compare
Inf. pass,
did from
dicier,
by metathesis
die, se
= dicise,
inf.
did dative of a noun, from the bare root

reflexive
perhaps a
act.
pronoun
amari, amarier
e, ei,
= amasise,
in / instead of the original

reflexive se
(?).
with the addition of the
The Greek
original suffix
infinitive
middle in
o-0<u
comes from the

was formed by
= Ojau, dhjai
whence
<r0<u
assimilation
and
dissimilation.
XLI. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE STEMS.

(a)
The
original comparative suffix
was jans.
The
disappears in Greek,
and/ becomes a vowel or is blended
with the preceding consonant of the adjective- stem into
84
<r<r
An
(TT),
,
Sec. 34, 3
KOLKLOV,
and
Latin.
stem of the comparative
and
neuter, masc. fern. /ca/ctW
= /ca/aovs,
dS,
compare
svad ;
TroifjLyv,
^StW from
<r
rj$vs
from the root
the root/uv/u, Sec. 27
which
Xe/37/9,
; dpciW, x^pw, Epic ^cpctW, from has disappeared, from the stems apes, x P cs ^ n
Sec. 23 j the comparative formation in from 8;' is with wanting ; on the other hand //.eifov epenptyjov
thetic
t,
Sec. 9,
o-o-coi/,
i,
b,
6\%w=6\iyj,
/xao-o-coj/
II.
XVIII. 519;
Doric,
Sec.
K/OCO--
fipdo-o-uv,
;
TroVcron/, /3dcr<rQ)V
Jonic
Kp&j
Qdcrarwv,
(fta/c,
27),
34, 3.
connected with yXv/ctW, acrcrov ayx./ol/> Sec. In Latin without nasal strengthening ios tor,
neuter ius with original s; suavior

melios, meliosem, levior
= svadvios, anciently = legvior (eXaxus), major = magior,

ius is shortened into us in
pejor,
minor = minior ; so too

*>
minus ; to
majus
in
= magius neuter,
w^w- = magius^
adverb connected with

short-
weakened mage ; the same
= = to TrXetov, root//<?, plo(e)jus fill ; plures anciently pleiores,

,
ening takes place by the paring down to iu to / in the comparative suffix is of satis mmis, tantisper ; plus
\hvs\plerique, the most part,

indef.
(/?)
= somehow qui
The
where que= qued
abl. of the
',
a generalizing signification.
eWpoi,
original suffix ra, tara:
superus,
in-
" ferus; repo in yXv/ci^rcpos, x aP L ^ r P ^) />tcXavTcpos> </>tXrpos by the side of ^tXatrcpos ; in adjective-stems in cs,
dXT/^cWcpos, so too cvSai/AoveWepos; the

in TTorcpos, Ionic /corepos
inter,
terrestris,
;
uter
= quoteros.
sinister,
is
same suffix appears
Compare dexter,
magister,
pedestris ;
minister,
ter.
doubly comparative forms from
Comparatives and Superlatives.

Superlative, (a) Original suffix
ta,
85
tata,
doubled
quartus,
//.cor,
TO,
raro
TO in ordinal numbers
-Trpwro?,
quotus ;
ra.ro in /xecro-aros,
by
assimilation from
/ô-o-oraros,
/A(ratraT09, SevraTos, Tptraros
Epic
the regular superlative:
to the comparative in rcpo, ^tXraros to ^tXrcpos, side of ^tXatraros ; TO

is is
by the
added
compare Latin is, in superlatives of which the comparatives end in tov KCIKIOTOS, TyStoros, <iXeoTos, Soph.
tovs
:
to the comparative suffix
Aj. 842, <iAiW Homeric,
oAiyioros, /2apSt<rro9
II.
XXIII.
con-
310, fjKurra of
ô-o-a>v,
^KIO-TOS of the adverb rjKa Ib. 531.

exta, the entrails
Compare juxta
= jugista,
= exista
nected with the comparative form exterus, extra; praesto
= praeis-to.
(ft)
The
s,
;
original suffix
ma, mata
/AO, /ACITO
c/?8o/*o5,
compare the noun-formations KoAAt/xos Homeric^

minimus,
infimus, primus, ==
septimus,
summits
plus-imus* (supm.\ dextimus, plurimus (y) Suffix /^^dJ, Latin tumo, time, simo : maximus
magt., optimus, veterrimus, from
simillimus, facillimus
ersimus, pulcherrimus,
from
Isimus.
Compare
is
the ad-
jectives maritimus, finitimus, legitimus ; in doctissimus^

levissimus, the superlative
ending simus
ius.
added
to the
comparative stem
is
from
XLIL STEMS
Cardinal numbers,
i.
OF THE NUMERALS.
els
= cvs, Doric ^s, stem and = neuter w (ovSei/) in the original sam in j<?w^/, = sa), Sees. 27. simplex, simul, singuli, compare airat; (a = = Feminine samja, ja being the 30, 2. o-/wa /was =
c/x,
a//,a
/xta,
86
An
and
Latin.
dative
feminine
suffix
to>,
on the other hand the Homeric
fa,
masculine
so too 0109, unus, stem oi-no with suffix na,

/.
Gothic ains from the demonstrative

Sec. 21.
3.
2.
8vo from dva,

threis,
Stem
4.
rpi, tri, rpeis, tres ;
Gothic
5.
H. G.
drei, E. three.
Te'oxrapcs,
quatuor.
7.
CTTTOI,
TTO/TC,
quinqne,
2,
Sec. 19,
2.
4.
6.
3.
e,
wx
8.
septem, Sec. 30,
compare
Sec. 35,
o/crw, ^/^?,
Gothic ahtau ; 078009

9, 5.
= oySoFos, octavus.
decent. Sees. 21.
g.
ewea, novem, Sec.
10. 6V/ca,
35, from an original dakan =dva-kan

Sec. 9, 5.
=
x
2x5
10.
?)
etitocri,
Sec. 16. Sec. 34, 2. viginti=

2
dvtginti, dvidecenti.
Fundamental form dvidakati =

1
cKarov,
Sec.
6.
The same
it
syllable
ko
ha,
shortened from
Se/ca,
has the meaning 10 in the tens,

springs
but in the hundreds, where

has that of 100.
from
eKon-oV,
it
There
is
no common Graeco- Italian
word
for 1000; yi\wi and mille are both obscure. Ordinals have generally the superlative forms, Sec.
41.
The comparative
2/38o/>ios.
suffix rcpo is
kept
in
Sevrcpos;
oySoos see above,
with weakening of the tenuis to a
medial as in
PART
III.
WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION.
XLIII.
THE WORD.
an abstract of indefinite
The stem is
not, like the root,
meaning, neither is it a complete and finished assemblage of sounds which can express a concrete conception, or
a judgment including the synthesis of subject and preIt is made into a true word by the addition of dicate.
the elements of relation
the inflexional endings.
existing
real
Every
word expresses the idea of a thing

rest,
by
itself in
a state of
or of an action taking place in
time.
It contains either
a conception or a judgment,
an appellation or an assertion, is either a noun, or nameIt has, therefore,
word, or else a verb, or time-word.
besides the vague nominal or verbal suffixes which form
the stem, nominal or verbal inflexion -endings.
nominal inflexion expresses an attributive relation
to the noun,
and
is
the case-ending; a verbal inflexion
expresses a predicative relation, betokening the subject of
an action, and
is
the personal ending
along with the
tense-stem and mood-element, Sees.

are the factors of word-formation.
55-57: these two
These
inflexional suffixes, both of the
noun and of the
88
An
and
Latin.
verb, contain original pronominal or demonstrative forms
and stems.
Adverbs, particles, and prepositions are also originally
case or verbal forms.
Interjections, (so far as they are not verbal forms,
em-
bodying an imperative), and vocatives the mere nounstem in form of an interjection are not real words.
They
express mere indefinite feelings
and emotions with-
out concrete relations,
and have
therefore
no
suffixes.
THE NOMINAL INFLEXION. DECLENSION.

XLIV. ELEMENTS.
The
inflexional endings of the
noun denote more
disin-
tinctly
a thing which the nominal stem describes
definitely.
According to its sex as a person, or as a thing which be regarded according to the analogy of the differmay
1.
ence of sex
presents
a tree for instance, as a fruit-bearing thing,

the
itself to
mind
as female,
is
or expressly as
wholly destitute of sex, that

2.
neuter.
3.
According to number as unity or plurality. According to its relation to an action or motion

inflexions consist of signs of gender, case,
expressed by the verb.
The
and
number.
vocative
is
The dual
a variety of the plural. The not a case, but a mere nominal stem, and in
is
the neuter and plural
= the
nominative.
No
alteration
of the root or stem takes place in the inflexions of the
Gender.
noun, except such as the laws of sound
the inflexional suffix
is
89
demand when
added
to the stem.
The
declensions
of the pronouns
show
essentially
weaker forms than those of the nouns.
XLV. SIGNS OF GENDER.

Gender, originally not denoted by any variation of
sound,
is designated by secondary expedients in consonant stems, in diphthong stems, and in / and u (v) stems,
e.g.,
TTttTT/p,
fj
prfrrjp,
rj
vavs, ^ TroXts, 6 VCKUS.
In
stems in the original where Latin u o, a
a,
is
the so-called
and A-stems,
0, d,
17,
Sec.
7,
lengthened in the feminine to dSeXôs, dSeX^ ; in Latin also the final

originally long,
a of the feminine stem was

drum, dbus.
compare di
Forms
also of the
lengthened endings, as TroA/nys.
A-stems do duty as masculines with In Latin the final s is

form parricidas, and the original lirirora from
dropped as
in the ancient
is
shortened in advena, terrigena as in
ITTTTOTT/S.
On
the other
hand the A- stem
is
used as
feminine without the stem (in o or u) being lengthened, as 6Sos, oXoxos ; humus, mdlus.
Certain case-suffixes are appropriated to the expression
of only a particular gender.

culine
The
genitive singular
mas-
and neuter of the
and O-stems
the so-called
second declension
has the original ending ojo, Sec. 47, while the feminine has the simple genitive suffix s.
The
neuter differs from the masculine and feminine in
90
An
and
Latin.
the singular by the want of the nominative form, instead
of which
it
employs either the form of the accusative,
or the bare stem,
damnum^
it
8o/8pov,
ju,e0u
though in
Latin
many
neuters take the s of the nominative, as
vulgus, virus,
and
the nominative and accusative plural
takes the suffix a, originally d in the rest of the cases ;

y
have similar forms for the neuter and masculine.
In the
declension of pronouns the neuter has the original suffix

Y,
the masculine and feminine

KIS.
'== s, rt, quid kit; rts, quis stem forms are fixed also for the feminine ; Certain
y
thus Stems in ja
tfrepovcra
êpovr/a, Soreipa
cg/a
by the side of the older stem-form used as masculine

80x77/3
= SoT/o9,
T^Seta
feminine of
-^Svs
in tS in SCCTTTOTIS,
;
avXrjrpis like the
masculine
;
SCO-TTOT^S, avXrjrrjp
compare
in victrix
also 7rpo0pa>v, irpo^pacrara
the Latin stem in
ic
with the masculine
victor.
XLVI. DECLENSIONS
Difference of declension
is
conditioned by the
final
sound of the nominal stem.

or a vowel, which latter
sounds, in
a,
This
is
either a
consonant
may be
divided into hard vowel

in
t,
weak vowel sounds,
and diph-
thongal, in av,
cv, ov.
Consonant stems:
i.
Consisting of a mere root, or

suffix;
unformed nominal stem, without any stem-forming

oi/r,
vox, root
OTT,
vocj *fjpv,
stem
TD/OUK, TTOVS
= 7ro8j,
stem
os. cs,
with
compensatory lengthening,/^
2.
stern ped, eXms,
eATrtS,
With
stem-suffix originally^,
Greek
Latin
Declension.
91
os, us,
is; /*eW,
Svo-/xei/^s;
genus genitive generis
= genesis,
the end
genesos, tints, arbos (r), vetus ; in
Greek the
s at
of a stem
thrown away before the case-suffix which a with vowel; s is original and belongs to the begins stem also in the fifth so-called Latin declension, dies, spes,
is
genitive diet
= diesis,
it
disappears in the oblique cases
for the transition in the so-called E-declension, Sec. 47.

3.
With
;
stem-suffix
in
;//
TTOL^V
ey,
TCKTWV
4.
ov,
8ai)u,a>v
nomen, sermo
(ri),
homo stem homen.

a8
;
With
êpwv,
stem -suffix in dentals

ctSws
OVT, ent, for, ar,

;
yc/xov,
= Fors,
<ra>//,a,
Xap.7rds
ferens.
5.
With
stem-suffix
in
in Sonjp, iraryp (cp), p^rwp, dator, pater.
Vowel-stems
sition into the
equ(o)s,
i.
and O-stems, capable of no
tran-
consonant declensions; ITTTTOS, vyov; feminine x^P a ^^^jugum =jugo(m)

; >
^j
2.
Weak
vowel J and U-stems and diphthongal stems, passing into the consonantal declensions, in single case;
forms by changing vowels into consonants

avis, ovis ; VZKWS, 6<f>pvs, <rvs
;
fructus ; vavs,
/S
XLVII. CASE-ENDINGS.
i.
The nominative,
accusative,
and
vocative, both
of the
singular and plural,
are cases of the subject
and imme-
diate object, of the starting point
and goal of an action

in the
or motion.
Suffix s or
These cases are
identical
neuter.
m, or none.
The nominative singular masculine and feminine suffix s,

the sign of personality, of something conceived, as living,
92
is
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

sa, in
the relic of a pronominal root
Greek
6,
17.
When
this falls
9, 2,
away
the vowel
Trarep?.
is
long by compensation, Sec.

feminine A-stems,
is
TraT-rjp
from
It is lost in
X<upa
compare masculine
iTnrora
shortened after
consonants,
materie-s ;
yXoWa.
after
Latin materia coexists with the form
pes=peds, mors
r and
=
/,
morts, root
mor
suffix
ti;
s disappears
vigil(s\
acer
by
the side of acris,
Nominative plural masculine and feminine,

ginally as ;
iroXcig
ir^cs
es, ori-
8vs/Ai/ts
e<res,
yXv/ccts
cfcs,
TroXtcs Ionic,
from 7roXe/s, lengthened in the Homeric The weaker form in O and A-stems, I^ vafeg.
ot,
X^/oat,
at,
the older
rot, rat,
compare
compare
TO>S,
where the
to
ot,
stem widened by /, with In Latin hostes, hostls,

TroXets
all
;
suffix as, is cut
down
at.
hosties
TroAics,
hosteis^
according to the analogy of the J-stems, also consonant stems, voces from vocies ; fructus from fruc-
tues,
compare T/CKVC?. O and A-stems are analogous to the Greek ; equi from equei, equoi (oe\ equois ; equae, anciently
from equais ; anciently magistreis, filis from
filieis ;
eqttai,
in the so-called fifth declension dies, species
dieses.
Dual
TroXee
nominative
and
accusative
c,
originally
a,
weakening of the plural form

from
c/c.
as ; SVS/ACV^ from
original
eo-c,
In
and A-stems the

o,
a of
the case-endings coalesces with

into
a>,
d, ITTTTO),
vya), x<*>p a ' octo.
The
a of the stem- ending only Latin duals are
duo, ambo,
compare
Accusative singular originally
am,
or,
when
the stem
ends in a vowel,
m;
v occurs instead of
according to
the Greek law of sound, Sec. 35,
and a when the stem
Case Endings.
ends in a consonant
a tach- vowel,
<f>epov
;
93
v,
Trarcpa
by
casting off the
for a is
= <f>cpovr. Naw from the vowel

i/af
;
= pataram.
Neuters have no
case-suffix,
stem
vav,
Homeric
rijfa
from the consonant stem

71-0X7701
iroXiv
the side of the Epic
from
Ti-oXc/a,
;
vowel stem, by consonant stem,
compare
cvpw.
*S
vôs, 770X7705,
and
Sec. 9, 2
ev/oe'a
Homeric, stem
of
//fo
accusative plural masculine
and feminine
have
is
affixed
N-tyfas,
to
the accusative
;
singular.
Neuters
a.
vavs (raws)
TroXcts
= 7roXe/as,
Homeric
7roX?ias,
compare from
TroXvs the
Homeric
TroXeas
= TroXefas,
TTTTTOVS,
by
the side of -n-oXXous, Ionic TroXtas =avs,
^WJ/
Doric
= ovs, TOVS = TOVS, x^Pas == avs = equons, equas = equans. equos

ws,
>
fructus
= fructuns,
The
vocative, as distinguished
from the nominative, has

:
no
suffix,
and leaves the stem unaltered

TTplafiv,
cv/xcvcs, 8cu//.oi>,
cuorep,
TToXi,
vav
yet in consonant-stems the

r
nominative often serves as vocative, <v Xaf ; on the other

hand, the ending of the stem is thrown away in accordTratS ; ance with the laws of endings, in ava ai/a/cr, TTOL
=
;
in O-stems the original a

yXwcro-a are the
is
weakened
into
;
c,
tTnrc
x^P a
>
same
as the nominative
779,
vv^rj, vocative
TroXtra,
a Homeric; in masculines in
2.
The
other cases denote partly the relations between
one object and another, expressed by a noun, partly an attachment of one object to another by motion from the
one
to the other.
These endings were
originally local in
their functions.
their signification,
and often interchanged
The ending
of the genitive singular was originally as,
94
Greek
-An Introduction to Greek and Latin.

os,
often lengthened into
o>s
in J-
and U-stems and the
treated as consonant- stems,
and
in diphthong-stems, in
consequence of the disappearance of

stem
raf, genitive vaFos, vaos
j and
change of quantity thence resulting; vavs, consonantDoric,

1/1705
Epic Ionic,
ao-Tecos
Attic, SO
Epic
/3o(r(Xrjos,
Attic /ScwriXews,
cFos
;
on the other
hand yAv/ceos =
TroXis is treated as
vowel-stem, TroXtos Ionic, but was originally a consonantstem, 7roX/os, thence

770X770$
Homeric, TroXews Attic ;
in
X^pas the a of the genitive coalesces with the ending of

the stem.
The
genitive of the O-stems
ended
Attic
originally in
ITTTTOV,
oq/o (o/os?) thence ojo,

171-71-00;
Homeric
ITTTTOLO,
from
compare
II.
II. 325,
Od.
I.
70, oo
ov
more
correct than oov,
according to the analogy of the

original ao
(a/o,
is
compare nerecoo II. IV. 327; TroXtrov O-stems instead of the
aoy'o),
Homeric
becomes
by the
ao,
along with
eo.
ca>,
where there
os,
a change of quantity, whence

/>,
The Latin
archaic in senatuos,
us, as generis
genesos, fructns
= fructuos,
The
side of the
to the
archaic
fiuituis, senatuis,
also senati according
analogy
of the O-stems.
terminal s disappears in O- and
A-stems
the
equi from equeis, equois

filial,
compare
illius, istius ;
ancient
aquai, familial
modify ai into
ae,
as aquae ; there was
an old form with
s ; famllias, terras.
s,
Just as s of the stem disappears, so also does

tive
in genidiet
forms in
ei
of the so-called 5th declension, as
by
the side of the old form dies as a genitive, instead o

diesis; in the so-called
ie
E-declension the transition into
ies
(materics)
exists
by the
side of the form ia;
materiel
compare the old familial.
Case Endings.
95
The
Greek
original
o>v,
form of the genitive plural was am, sam,

cr<ov,
in
A-stems originally
old Greek and
Homeric
awv,
can/,
^wpwv ^(o/aaorwv ; Doric av; Latin urn

turn
in consonant-stems,
generum
genes-urn,
from the
;
original J-stems, as well as those treated as such
in
O-
and A-stems, rum from som, equarum

side of forms without s as agricolum.
asum, by the
The dative and
locative singular.
The
dative proper,
the case of the more remote object, betokens a relation of interest, the entrance of a person or thing into the
sphere of operation of an action ; the locative betokens rest in a place. In Greek the two cases have for the most
part coalesced, since the dative relation was originally
considered also as locative.

originally at, ei,
The
dative
ending was
the locative ending was the demonstra-
tive root i; Trarpt
with short
is
The
tTnra)
true
Greek dative
x^P?
l7nra)t,
== ^ l >
t being locative, patrl dative. found only in O- and A-stems from aai. The former have
special locative-forms as adverbs,
ot*ot, Trot, ot
the single
difference
example of a locative feminine
is
x/^t.
The
of meaning between the pronominal locative "whither" and the nominal locative " where," is not original. True
Latin datives are senatui
= ##, patri old form patrei, diet

O- and A-stems equo =equoi,
equae
equdi.
connected with die

old form populoi, cut
diesei;
= quoi,
The
only
Latin locative in
genitive in
used adverbially coalesces with the

in
O- and A-stems,
Corinthi
ei
consequence of the
dis-
appearance of the s of the genitive ending as humi^

domi,
belli,
(i
ot,
compare
ot/cot)
Romae
locative
Romai^
as
xâ!,
= genitive only occasionally
96
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.
originally
heri,
Romais ;
further adverbial locative forms are
mutation of e and
run, peregri, postri-die from did, temperi. By per i the Latin locative has been confused
its
with the ablative form which has lost
original
d;
t.
rure
= rured,
The
Greek
an ablative
like peregre.
ablative singular originally
ended
in at,
In
this termination is retained only in the

o>g,
adverbs in
originally
kat.
raêw?,
Travrcos, a>s,
TWS,
TTCOS,
endings of Ionic K0)9,

senatud,
The
Latin
is
archaic
in
hosteid, sententiad, but was cast away at a later period, and the ablative in consonant-stems thenceforward
ended
in
e.
The
Latin adverbs in e were originally
ablatives,
compare the archaic adverb facillumed; ante
antid in antidhac, post
postea, extra, supra, ita
= postid = itad, etc.,
in postidea, thence
enclitic
que in quis-
que, usque, plerusque, etc.
from qued the ablative singular
of the indefinite pronoun qui with the meaning somehow,

in which way, thence.
Sec. 41, i.
Locative dative plural.
Greek
in
cro-t
(o-ft),
o-t: TroSeo-o-i,
TTOcrcrt, Trocrt (TroSor), ITO\I<TI
Ionic,
TroXtecrcrt
Homeric.
O-
and A-stems were lengthened by the phonetic or resonant

t,
Sec. 9, 3
iTm-own, ^wpatcrt,
thence
tTTTrots,
;
^topat9,
Epic
and Ionic
this
t
ô-t,
#s
(77
originally d)
old forms without
are 'OXv/xTTido-t, 'Aî/ô-t, Ovpao-i. This case does not
exist in Latin.
7/fc ablative singular
and plural
suffix <i(v)
= bhi,
descriptive case formation, with local, copulative, instru-
mental, or ablative function, for singular and plural, oêo-^t,

vav<t,
'lA.ioû',
ptrj<l>i 9
fcXto-n/^t,
Ocofav
tibi.
Doric
and
Homeric
rcfv
= T^>/,
compare
Latin
pronoun
Pronouns.
dative singular
/,
97
demonstrative
tibi,
sibi ; ibi locative of the
alibi)
utrobi;
mihi =
mibhi.
Dative and ablative plural
in bos, bus, with the s of the plural, anciently bios, fies, as in

XiKpi<j(>is,
Sec.
are weaker but original forms.
28; acubus, ovibus, ambobus ; nobis, vobis In A- and O-stems b
disappears
(abios)
;
equis
from
eis, ois (obios)
mensis
rebus,
eis,
ais
compare deabus,
filiabus,
and
diebus.
Closely connected with this case are the
Greek dative and genitive dual.

lost
The
suffix <n/,
with
<f>
from o<u/, a<u/, in O- and A-stems, passes into the other stems ; iroSoui/,
to
ou>, aiv
and contracted
XLVIII. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL DECLENSION.

i.
Personal and reflexive pronouns without difference

:
of gender
cyw,
cycov
Skr.
aham ;
ego ;
Gothic
ik;
thoroughly independent of and different from ma, the ist personal verbal pronoun ; <, weakened from TV, Doric,
coexisting with TVVTJ
reds.
;
tu stem tva ;
compare the possessive
The
I,
accusative forms
c/xe, /xe, o-e,
reflexive
Homeric
cc,
Êolic
fc
(=
Doric re (= o-fc), Latin se
rfc),
= svt,
with no sign of case, show the real stems of these pro-
nouns, ma, tva, sva. Locative and dative

ot,
c/xot, o-ot
(= rfot),
ct^,
te,
compare
med,
ot/cot
Doric
e/xtV,
Homeric
rctv, -Êolic
from
se
c/x<ti/, etc.,
ted,
compare jâlso used as accusative. Genitive

or/'o,
w//^/, tibi, sibL ablative
me,
c/xcto,
from original
crco, orcv, crov
case-suffix
;
c/êo, c/xev, e//ov
rcoto, o^cto,
eto, Io,
ci),
ov (for
o-feo),
without elision and

syllabic
hiatus, as in
Od. IX. 398, making the foregoing
I-
98
An
and Latin.
;
long by position, so also the possessive os

genitive of the personal pronoun.
a//,/As,
met, tut, sut,
Plural nominative
like
v/xês,
accusative
a//,/*
the singular;
âs,
and the
i/<o
etc., treated as J-stems.
The
dative
bi,
^lv has
tibi,
arisen from the locative

s
<iv.
Nobis with
as in
of the plural.
vo,
Dual nominative and accusative
from the stem

;
dative
o-<w, o-i
;
vok according to the analogy of the from rfw o-<<oe ; genitive and dative
;
vwtv, vu>v
<r<ô)tv, o-<o>i/
o-<a>iV
is
with suffix <i.
The
possessive pronoun
:
derived from the stem of
the personal pronoun
= rfos, tuus, in
os, eos
2nd person Doric and Epic TCOS Ionic Attic weakened into o-os. 3rd person
o-fos,
Homeric =
hardened into o-<os Doric, suus,
makes the preceding VIII. 406. XVI. 542.

Doric,
a/x/xos, vft/xos
syllable long
by position
'v/xds, o-<o?,
as
Plural 'aôs,
o, II. Homeric
Êolic.
2.
6,
in later language,
Demonstrative pronouns with difference of gender : and sometimes in Homer, employed

article,
as
an
= sa,
;
see for the rough breathing, Sec. 30,
2, instead of
o-os
the final s of the nominative masculine
being dropped
yj~sd; neuter
TO
= TOT,
the r at the
rt,
end of the word having disappeared as

istud, illud.
in
compare
The rest
of the case-forms ending in a dental
are derived from the pronoun-stem ta, etymologically the
same as the German

find
rot,
article der,
den ; besides
ot,
at
we
rat,
older forms, Doric

;
and
o8e,
also
roSe,
Homeric;
rotsSccro't
rovs
TOVS
from
both
forms
Homeric, with inorganic case-ending. The pronominal stem ta, or in its less common form sa, is the foundation
Pronouns.
of the
article,
99
basis of the
and both stems are the
demon-
strative
forms.
The forms of
also
the article beginning
with r were used in the Ionic dialect, and by the Attic

tragedians,
who
employed
os, ^, o
this
form as a
is
relative, to
avoid a hiatus.
Different from this
the
Relative pronoun
jas, jd, jat from the prooriginally demonstrative,

$77,
noun ja, root

Sec. 32, 3.
i; this also
8* os,
was
*al os
compare the Attic ^
os K<U os.
Compare
The
indefinite interrogative
;
is
-us
quid, Sec. 19, 4
the
same d which
= KIS, rt = kit, guts, = belonging to the

/,
pronoun-stem
ta, is
found in other neuter forms of the

:
declension of pronouns
id, illud,
quod, aliud
= aXXo(r)
j.
qui ablative The Latin demonstrative
= quo compare alioqui,
nequiquam.
stem i;
before a,
/,
ea, ejus, arise

o, u,
is comes from the pronominal from the modification of i into e

eo, earn,
compare
eunt,
from the verbal root

67os.
if
deus from the root div, coexisting with dius

ho, suffix
hicine,
/
Hie
from the pronominal stem

the e
and
ce;
ne follows
changed into feminine and neuter =

is
/,
haice,
haec, quae quai with the demonstrative
hoc
= hodce;
pronoun
antehac.
for hue.
/,
thence without
it
aliqua, si qua,
compare
The
archaic ibus, hibus
eis,
his ; hoc archaic
XLIX. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS.

i.
Adverbs are nominal or rather pronominal word
forms.
They are employed originally to designate relations of place, and afterwards those of manner and time. They
ioo
An
and
Latin.
are undeclined, formed partly from pronominal stems
and and
partly from those of nouns both substantive and adjective.
They
are petrified case-forms, standing alone,
for the most part declare themselves by their endings as definite cases of nouns or pronouns. E.g., pronominal
adverbs from the stem of the demonstrative

relative os, of the indefinite TTOS
Tcos, TTWS, ablative
6, TO,
of the
o>8e,
Ionic
KOS,
;
are
w?,
forms
ot, Trot
locative
compare the
Homeric adverbs dvtSpom, drat//,am, etc., with locative ending n used in a modal or instrumental signification
ov,7ro9 genitive,
with local suffix
OL,
6cv 8e; the

7
ending of the
temporal adverb ore, Tore, TTOTC, Doric o/ca, with re, que ; compare /cat, Sees. 16. 19.
etc., is identical
For adjectival
suffix
adverbs in
Sec. 47.
us, w, Latin in e (ed), see, under the ablative,
For substantive adverbs with local

OL,
17,
t,
see
rj
under the locative,

in the pronominal
etc.
Oev, 8e Sec. 47.

TH}, TT},
iravr-rj
;
Modal
a//,a,
suffix a,
a in
/âXa, raxa,
Many
and
adverbs are
identical
with the accusative
singular
plural of neuter adjectives.
2.
Prepositions are in fact adverbs, and as such concase-elements.
tain
In
Homer
they are
still
used in
their original adverbial character; they
were afterwards
united to verbs and nouns as prefixes, and finally
came
;
to
govern certain cases. E.g.,

tives
CTTI, ci/t, di/rt, d/A<^t,
Tro/xu
prae
prat are locatives ; pro =prod, ante(d), apud are ablais a genitive ; compare coelitus, antiqidtus ; ; Trapos
see above under Adverbs.
for the so-called instrumental adverb in a, as dva,

a,
Inflexion of Verbs.
3.
101
of the infinitive,
petrified
The whole
actionis
of the
many forms
Sec. 40, are also to
be considered as
forms of
Nomina
(locative or dative), just as participles

agentis, or declinable
and verbal adjectives are Nomina

suffix
nominal-forms from verbal-stems with the nominal stem-
added.
II.
THE INFLEXION OF
The
VERBS. CONJUGATIONS.
L. ELEMENTS.
i
.
idea of action or motion
is
expressed only in
its
an abstract form by the verbal stem. It receives closer definition and formation into a word,
a.
Through the reference
to definite persons, as sub

;
jects of the action or
motion
this is
expressed in the
personal endings. the indication of the /3. Through

is
mode
in
which some-
done or has happened, in its relation to fact thing what has really occurred, or as what is merely as either thought of and willed ; this is expressed in the mood-elements.
special
The indicative mood -elements.
is
the objective
subjective
mood, without
The
moods
are the
conjunctive and optative with special mood- suffixes.

y.
Through the
its
relation of the action to a definite
time, as well as
finished
in
indication as lasting, momentary,

difference
is
and
out
the last
;
thoroughly carried
Greek only
this is
expressed in the tense-stems.
IO2
2.
An
and Latin.
is
Genus Verbi.
The
action which
expressed by
is
the verbal stem
may
regard the subject which
desig-
nated in the personal ending as a more immediate or
more
distant object.
This reflexion of the action on the subject, which there-
by bears a receptive passive relation to the action, is denoted by the middle forms of inflexion, whose reflex signification is shown by more extended and stronger
person-endings.
active,
They
differ
from the verbal forms of the
which express an exclusively active relation of the
subject to an action.
But since
this
mixed, middle, partly active, partly pas-
sive relation of the subject to the action
may be
also
considered as exclusively passive, the middle verbal form

serves
secondarily also to express the passive
medio-
passivum.
3.
The forms
formations.
of the passive
new
show a tendency towards This occurs primarily in Greek, where

aorists
only the
compound
and the future passive are
peculiar forms
of passive meaning differing from the
middle, but also in Latin, which has no original middle

voice.
In Latin, the passive forms,
which, in the so-
called deponents, simply perform the office of a middle

voice,
are produced
by
affixing the reflexive
to the active personal endings,
pronoun and by the passage of
the reflexive into the passive signification.
Personal Endings.
103
i.
PERSONAL ENDINGS.
LI.
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PERSONAL ENDINGS. AUGMENT. IMPERATIVE.
i.
The synthesis of a
subject with a predicate, which

it
is
essential to
a verb in order to give
predicative force, is
accomplished by the amalgamation of the pronominal stem, serving as a subject, with the predicate, a stem implying meaning in its simplest verbal form. Weakened forms
of the pronominal stems in the three persons of the singular without reference to gender, appear in the personal endings as enclitics at the end of the verbal stems. By means of
the accent of the
verbal stem the unit called a word.
word they make up with the root or the They are ma, com;
pare
tu,
ft
accusative of the personal pronoun

<rv; ta,
tva,
compare
Doric TV,
Root
/,
as, to be,
compare TO, stem of the article. mi weakened from ma, I, as-mi, being
pronominal stem
ta, that,
I am.
Root
da, to give,
he;
da-ta, giving he,
he gives ; da-tva, giving thou, thou givest.

;
Weakened form of the pronoun in the personal endings mi, si, ti. The endings of the plural consist of a combination of
i st
two pronouns of the
singular.
Personal endings
plural
masi=matvi,
I and thou = we;
2nd plural tvasi
tvatvi, thou
ye ; 3rd plural anti, nti, either a of or compounded with the proform //, strengthened he and he, they. E.g. asmasi, we are; nominal stem an
and thou
astasi,
ye are ;
asanti, they
the pronominal stems in another, that

structive
are; compare the doubling of is to say, a con-
see Sec. 53
sense in the personal endings of
the middle voice.
1O4
An
...*,-
Introduction to Greek,
and Latin.
These
so-called primary personal endings are found in
the tense-stems of the present, future, and perfect (in this last case the primary personal ending is smoothed away
in
consequence of the reduplication), and in
all
forms
of the conjunctive.
2.
A further
shortening and weakening of the personal
endings takes place under the influence of the

the historic tenses
imperfect, aorist etc.
augment in and in all the
forms of the optative.

personal endings
These are the
so-called secondary
ist pers.
mi
to m, v according to the
s,
Greek phonetic
law,
2nd
pers. <n to
3rd pers. to
T,
which
nti*
,
disappears at the
end of a word ; 3rd
pers. plural v
from
The augment
consists of the syllable a, in
Greek
pronominal stem having
reference to distance.
It is pre-
fixed to the root as a particle relating to past time,
and
thus differs from the suffixes of the personal endings which
denote the subject.
It also coalesces with the following It differs in

it
word
into
one sound.
meaning from the

does not,
like the
it
reduplication of the perfect because
reduplication, denote completion, but past time only,

differs also in its looser relation to the tense-stem.
it
Thus
does not, like the reduplication, coalesce with the whole tense-stem, but only with the indicative, and, as in Homer,
The does not necessarily attach itself even to this. is as with the verb of form follows, augment original
root da, adam^ adadam, instead of adami, adadami. Greek
eStSwv instead of cSiSoyu.
On
syllabic
A syllabic
and temporal augment see the grammars. augment where there is a vowel at the begin-
Personal
ning of the root, and a temporal augment where this is lengthened to t instead of ^, point to a rejected consonant
at the beginning of the root
F,
^û^^/>S
/, or:
examples, Sec.
cj(,
n,
o-c^;
2; Sec. 21
Sec. 30,
2,
tS
Fi8; Sec. 20, Fay, Fepy; Sec. 23,
Sec. 31, Sec. 32, 3, e; a syllabic

p,
augment with
before
p,
doubling of the
points to a rejected
or
o-
Fpay
Sec. 20, pv, orpv Sees. 29. 30, 3.
3.
The
imperative, a verbal interjection (by which the

is
subject expressed in the personal terminations
to
be
considered as a vocative), is in the 2nd pers. singular of many primary verbs in -/a characterized by aspiration of
the personal termination, OL from dhva
tva,
compare
in
2nd
pers. singular; see
below
for the
remaining personal
terminations of the imperative.
LII.
PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE ACTIVE.

first
Here we have
These
to consider the difference of the in-
flexional forms, in
the present and the strong aorist.
differences exist
so-called verbs in /a,

ci/u
between (a) the primitive verbs, the which have, with the exception of
exclusively a vowel root(to
= ecr/u
and
fjp.cu
= ôyu,
ending and
a monosyllabic original stem
which
also as far as regards the inflexion of the present stem
belong verbs with a stem-suffix

or to the root, as
Sei/o/v/u,
w added to the bare stem

and which and
affix
(ft)
^vyw/xt),
the
personal ending immediately to the root,
verbs
ending in the
ist sing, in
o>,
which
insert
between the root
and the personal ending a tach-vowel,
originally a in the
io6
An
and
with
Latin.
the
Greek, uniformly
interchangeable
see below).
vowels
and by
o (ist sing.
o>,
The
latter class of verbs,
far
the most numerous, contains, besides consonantal

<o,
root-verbs in
as ayo>, TrXeVw, ^XeVa),
TreVoftat, /xa/a>,
also
a considerable number of
called
'
roots with vowel-endings, soSvo), Aixo,
verba pura
'
as
TIO>,
Ovu, <vo>, in which
however the
irregularities in the quantity for the
most
part, or the length of the root-vowel in the present, even
though it only occurs sporadically, indicate the loss of a j which served to lengthen the present, and has
fallen out
from
its
place between the vowel root-ending

:
and the person-endings <vw, JEolic <wo), so Ova = Ovio* compare Ai/ci Od. VII. 74. Other verbs in -w whose
roots
end
in vowels, as
o-;
eo>,
F,
i/co/uu, rpe'o),
see Sees. 32. 26,

25.
imply the loss of
or
Aae,
<ae, Sees.
o>
28,
and
appear as
jected.
consonant -root verbs in
with spirant re-
So while the existence of

verbs in
<o
original present forms
of primitive
with vowel root-ending but

is
without any lengthening of the presen
doubtful, the
existence of the so-called tach- vowels, as phonetic inter-
mediaries
between
consonant root- endings
and
per-
sonal endings, which later on were introduced in the case
of stems with vowel-endings, must be regarded as certain.
Forms such
nantofan
as
est,
volt^fers^ferris^ see below, are the
rem
inflexion without tach-vowels in Latin.
the original ma.
The primary form of the \st person singular is /u, from The original form from the root as is asmt,
thence ci/At
= coyu,
Êolic
t;
l/x/xt; ineT/At
/AI
the vowel
is
strength-
ened from the
root
Êolic
also appears in the con-
tracted conjugation ^tA^/xt,
oprjfju.
The
at disappears after
Personal Endings.
107
a consonant root-ending, or after a tach-vowel (a-e-o)
which
is
added
to the verb-stem, Tipaj in Ti/iao)

itself is intensified into
lego.
and the tach-vowel
w;
= Ti/xa/a>, = legomi Xcyw
a from a/u, AcAoiTra from A.cAoi7ra/xi, compare the JEolic FotT^/u. In the conjunctive the original personal endings are retained in the
instead of legmi, Latin
Perfect
Homeric forms
cwrw/u.
?8o>/x,i
II.
XXII. 450
tSco/mi(?),
cO&wfju,
In the optative, which elsewhere shows a secondary personal ending, the ist singular primary form in fu has been introduced, as êpot/xt, older forms with secondary
ending rpcôtv,
the
etc.
;
on the other hand, appears

ciryv, ft
in
optative of the verbs in /u,
Ti0ei7/v
compare
tfriAoirjv.
The secondary form
is
v for
in the
ending of
with tach-
the
imperfect, without tach-vowel in

in !<epov.
to-rî/,
vowel affixed to the stem
The
v for
p is dropped
in
a,
and a tach-vowel
In Latin the
is
found in the
first
aorist
as
.f/Vtfz,
m of the original mi is kept in sum = esum= tsm, esmi clp.t, in inquam, in the imperfect in bam (see below), eram, in the conjunctive-optative veham, sim = = coyV elsewhere the termift>#2, compare cirjv nation is o : fero = ferom. Derived verbs with stem-ending
;
a,
ama,
;
voca, contract this
a with the o of the terminaTLJJLU
tion
VOCO
VOCOO) VOCOJO, as
from
Tt/>taa), TtyLta/w.
In the 2nd person singular the pronominal stem

tva\ with expulsion of
tive in to
;
is
v,
ta as in the Latin impera-
0i
aspirated in KXvBi imperative, Qa in ola-Oa
FotSra with dissimilation
and
aspiration of the T under

a;
the influence of the spirant
rjo-Oa
with radical
o- ;
through assibilation
we
get from
this,
swa, swi,
si,
s.
loS
An
and Latin.
=
In Greek we find the primary form CTL in eoW Ionic original form assi, from which comes the Homeric els,
the personal ending being entirely lost in the Attic form
ct,
thou art, and

<t>prj<ri,
thou wilt go.
<epc6<?,
<f>pys
i.
from
<t>cp<rL,
with transposed or epenthetic
More-
over
we
find the termination <r0a in the
Homeric conindicative
junctive in e#%7o-0a, in the

TiOrja-Oa, <t>fj<rOa,
Epic and yolic

Attic
Si'Soi<r0a, c^Lo-Oa, in the optative /?aAowr0a,

ty-rjo-Oa,
in the imperfect rjcrOa,
ârOa
compare
ist plural
Latin perfect 2nd singular and plural

ju,(r0a for jue#a,
sti, stis,
and
where
0-6
represents the simple aspirate.

as in
Ityepcs,
The secondary form

urn??, riOrjs,
Icgesi,
es,
is
Depots, as also in
8i5o>s.
Perfect AeAoiTras.
In Latin
legis
the optative sis
= sies ;
es,
thou art
= ess
essi,
assi ;
thou eatest=eds, root ed; vis=*ves,

vel,
conjunction
vels, compare the an The 2nd imperative. originally
singular perfect
is sti,
:
compare above,
a-Oa.
Imperative
Oi
Wi, lo-Qi
eo-^t, la-Oi
= ftS^t, dissimilation
or^6,
ccrra^t
from the root
FtS, yvoi^t,
opwOi,
iX-qOi, ava>x0t,
t
by the side of Ocs, Sos, for 0eri, So^t,

s
being rejected and

n'tfct,
instead of
at the
end of a word;
OL
Si'Sov,
tern?
instead of 'urraOi alter the analogy of the so-called contracted verbs,
Homeric
8t'So>0i.
:
disappears in verbs
which have a tach-vowel
Xeyc, rt/xa
= rt/xa/e,
compare
/^
ally
to,
^^<7.
The bare stem appears
in the Latin imperaorigin-
tives die, due, fac,fer,
compare the conjunction vel,
an imperative.
memento,
is
The emphasised form
in Latin in
esto,
reduplicated.
for the
The 3rd person pronominal stem
an imperative perfect from tod'= tat is used
2nd and 3rd persons.
Personal Endings.
109
The demonstrative pronoun

is
of the $rd person singular
ta
compare
tantus
is
TO, rot, Sec. 38, 3,
and
in Latin turn, tarn,
talis,
si.
weakened
form
asti,
into ti
The
original
he
is,
and mostly softened to dadati, he gives, becomes

compare
found
TTI'O-TIS,
eon', StoWt.
Tt is
retained in
;
ccrrt
and
in
the Doric
StSo>Tt, riO^ri, to-art
o-t is
in <^>ô
evywon, and in the Homeric conjunctive ay -t, 0\?7o-t, &3o-t, Swryo-t, with transposed or epenthetic
is
t
to
in the preceding syllable (and hence the be retained). The indicative of verbs in w
in
vja-i
c,
subscript
as
e^cto-t.
is
Forms
as cô-t are doubtful.
The
termination
is
from c^cpem, ^cpcrt, <epo-i with ellipsis of dropped the or between vowels (?), and in the perfect yeyove. In the
in <epet
secondary forms of the historic tenses and optative T must be dropped according to the law of final sounds !/fy, cStSoo,
:
<^p,
ê, </>pot, cny.
Imperative
TO>
from
T<OT, to-raYo),
/0.
per/
fect co-Taro), TtêVo),
compare the Latin

is
In Latin the
of the secondary personal ending

leget(i\
retained, as
TrcVryyc.
= est, legit
though
s,
amat, erat, pepigit, compare
And
in Latin the / of the
2nd person
is
softened to the spirant
the / of the 3rd person has kept
its
sound as a dental
tenuis.
The
original ist person plural
was masi= matva, matvi,

form asmasi, we
see above,
thou) are.
in Ionic
originally
whence mas, ma,
original
(1+
From
ma.
the Doric
/ACS in cfyo/xcs,
we
find /iev
and even
in Êolic, with the spirant dropped,
A nasal sound was

:
afterwards introduced
fyiev
to strengthen the ending

<epo//,o/,
co-fto/,
= imasi,
imatva;
with a bare and therefore
short tach-vowel.
Latin legimus from legumus, compare sumus

volumus, quaesumus.
= esumus,
so
no
form
An
and Latin.
see above, original
The 2nd person plural was tvasi, tasi,

are.
In Greek a bare re remains, as in astasi, you core, ire dropping entirely the sound of the 2nd person pronominal stem, which is weakened first to <n, then to 9,
and
finally altogether
abandoned.
The
Latin
tis
shows a
trace of the
2nd person pronominal stem,

imperative shortens into
avco^c,
AyT(s).
emphatic
yop#e.
tasi)
The
tote,
te,
= legetes, legitis = legete, legite
by the side of dvwycre, ey/oiyThe dual originally = 2nd person plural TOV from
see above.
as the ist person plural //,/ from mast.
The yd person plural was anti, nti,

the primary form
is avrt, vrt,
In Greek
thence
curt
edo-t
original form asanti, they are, Ionic instead of ecravrt, Doric am, and finally
tdcri
= ecr-vrt, =
from
tavrt,
tfracrL
from the Doric
v being
dropped and a lengthened, Attic

Tt^cavrt,
Si&W
loraavrt
J
8iKi/va<rt
StSoavrt,
icrraort
the
Homeric
,
riflcto-t,
;
teta-t, StSovcrt, prjyvvo-L,
are from the Doric
StSovrt
<t>epovo-L is
from the Doric êpovrt, compare
-ta
feronti,
tf/z/,
/,
from yepovna. The Latin sunt esonti,ferunt= tremunt archaic tremonti. The secondary form is
T being dropped in the Greek termination, ô-av == ô-avT, lêpov, the optative tev o/VT, ff>poiv. In Latin
/ is retained as
e'Soo-av, etc.,
erant ; the termination crav in lâcrav,

lo-av,
equals
shortened, and without the augt(rratev,

is
ment
so toraoyo-av, connected with
a form
composed with vav asant; ciiyo-av, by the side of clcv, is a compound of the root as, c? with itself; to-o<rt
with the primary form in so ; asanti compare dederunt from dedisonti. Imperative OVTWV with the addition
= ct/ca-avrt ctfao-t
of
v,
compare
legunto ;
Middle Passive.
is
in
crai/
late
form from
T<O
of the singular and
shortened
from asant.
The primary form of the 3rd person dual is TOV, the secondary form in the historic tenses is rrjv rjo-rov, rjo-rrjv, compare r/ore with the <r of the root retained, connected
:
with
rjrov, y-nivy
compare
^re.
LIII.
GREEK MIDDLE-PASSIVE.
The
maty
personal endings of the middle voice are lengthened
active forms
saiy
y
which have a
reflexive force.
tvatvi, tati
Original forms
myself, or to
taiy
from mamiy
=I
myself
or to thou thyself y
thyself
he himself
the con-
combination of two personal pronouns acting as and object, which is either nearer or more remote, subject in distinction from the copulative combination, I andthoiiy
structive
thou
and thou, in the plural active. The primary form of the ist person
the secondary
singular
is />wu
from
mami;
^v
from
mam ;
T$e/x<u,
The primary
is o-at
is o-o
original
form of the 2nd person singular

y
from the original tvatvi svasviy svai ; the secondary

with the 2nd pronoun entirely
lost.
a.
Forms with the

in the perfect
sibilant retained in conjugations in

j
/u
and
rifleo-cu,
To-rao-ai
SvVacrat,
oi/ocrat
Homeric; imperfect
enflco-o,
foraoro;
imperative
dropped without contraction of the vowels: AtAou'eat, Sâi Od. XI. 100, opât XIV. 3431 secondary: e/iapvao, wSwao Od. I. 62 ; imperative
ft.
o- is
Forms where
112
An
0eo, 0e'o, 0e9
3.
and
Latin.
TraptoTao; aorist
opo-o, Se'fo,
y.
from the Homeric
tfco-o;
on
vide Sec. 63,

<r
'
Forms without
*
with contraction of the vowels in

:
the
tach-vowel
conjugation
<ep#, Attic $tpei from
<cpecrat,
o,
,
Epic Repeal ;
the secondary form e<epov from
Attic imperfect
c/cpc/xw
;
of the
/xt
conjugation
CTTIO-TO)
;
cSww,
Homeric
imperative
aorist !0ov,
0eo-o,
ISov Attic;
Socro.
imperfect <epov, aorist 0ov, Sov from
The primary form

doubling the
T<O
of the $rd person singular

tat,
is
rat from
TTCD,
fo#, secondary TO from
imperative
;
o-0<o
from
by
of the active
the
o- is
due
to dissimilation
and the
The
aspirate
i st
to the influence of the breathing, <aor0o>.

is
person plural
/A0a,
//,co-0a,
from
madhai=
plural
matvai, matasi
<r0e
=I
thou thyself.
The 2nd person
from
.r/zvz/
contains the pronoun of the 2nd person in

thou
thee.
three forms
= thou
The 3rd person
plural,
he he him, with v dropped antai, ntai, from antati In Epic and Ionic ar<u, aro, a is an becomes atai.
original element of the personal ending; Kcarai, Kcaro,
/3cj3XJaTat, carat, old Attic
only after a consonant
</>0a-
parai
elsewhere primary
i/rat,
secondary
VTO.
LIV. LATIN MIDDLE-PASSIVE

In the place of the lost primitive middle-forms come new formations and periphrases, compare Sec. 50.
a. New formations by adding to the verbal stem with a tach-vowel the accusative of the reflexive pronoun se
(sva), here joined to the ist
and 2nd persons as well
as
Conjunctive
to the 3rd, reduced to
lego- se.
leges-se.
s, r.
and
ist
Optative.
113
person singular legor from 2nd person singular legeris from legesi-s(e), legere = ist 3rd person singular legitur from legeti-s(e).
person plural legimur

leguntur
= legimus-se.
Imperative
3rd person plural
legunt-(u)-se.
amare
ama-se,
legere = lege-se.
(3.
Periphrases
in the
ticipial
middle-stem in
2nd person mino in the
plural
plural,
by the parestis
omitted, as amamini, legimini.
being This participial form takes
also inorganic characteristics of
mood and
tense in lega-
mini
= legimini
sitis,
legemini = legimini eritis.
2.
MODAL ELEMENTS.
LV. GREEK CONJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE.

formed by the simple by intensifying the vowel which conies between the verbal stem and the personal
subjunctive
in
is
The
mood
Greek
or
insertion of the
modal
suffix,
ending.
In Latin the subjunctive is generally formed by compounding the verbal stem with a suitable conjunctive form of the auxiliary, Sec. 67. The mood of objective
reality,
i.e.,
the indicative,
is
characterised by the lack of
a special modal element, and by the immediate junction of the verbal stem to the personal ending.
The
conjunctive
is
the
mood
of fact conceived
as
happen, indicated in the present as a continuous, in the aorist as a momentary action.

likely to
happening or
The
original suffix
was
#,
or in combination with the
114
Introduction
a.
to
Greek and Latin.
tach-vowel
So the
radical form, asdmi,
I may
be,
from
indicative asm/, asdsi from as si, etc.
In Greek the primary
personal terminations are
o>
or
77
for a.
also of the primary verbs in /u
The conjunctive without a tach-vowel in
is formed after the analogy of the verbs with a lengthened tach-vowel, which is amalgamated with the final vowel of the root, w, Ionic lo> from c<ro>
the indicative
a)
in
asdmz,
fieri
77$,
Ionic 075 from
0-770-1
= asdsi
fieri,
$> Ionic
07, 070-1,
= asdti.
from
3rd person plural

ecrcwrt
Ionic com, Doric
= asdnti. <o) = <ao>, <T}S = ^0177$ (with = instead of d), rt0co = Tt$--o>, torco = tcrrao) SO = the aorist Ow, Epic dcuo Sw, Sco/xat Sowîcu.
lo>rrt
77
to>
!eo>,
êo>,
8o>(o,
The Homeric
dialect
still
exhibits isolated remains of
ormations with short vowels of the conjunctive of primary verbs, which in the indicative were destitute of a tachvowel.
?(oju,ei/,
to/iei/
Homeric conjunctive passes
into
tftev,
later
after the
analogy of the forms with the tach-vowel.
In the O-conjugation the ist person singular conjunctive does not differ from the indicative, </>epo> from bhardmi.
3rd person </>prj<ri, person plural <êpa)/xev from bhardmasi, 3rd person plural ^cpwo-t, Doric </3on/Ti
singular
<t>cpy
2nd person singular êp^s from
faprjTi,
ist
bhardnti.
The
optative
is
the
mood
of wish and of mere concep-
tion of fact, a verbal stem strengthened
by the verbal
suffix
ja, to go,
serving as an auxiliary verb with the idea of effort
compare the verbal periphrases venum ire, amatum iri. Original form as-ja-m ; in the Greek the modal suffix is
irj
i,
ie.
Secondary personal ending
efyv
coy'^/x,
cfys
Lr)=coJ7jT (by the side of
lot?, lot
Ionic and Epic),
Conjunctive
after the
and
Optative.
115
analogy of the conjugation with tach-vowel, see

clfJLtv
below,
Ti0ci?7v>
cfy/iev,
or/r//x,s,
etev
ecr/evr;
SO
Tt0e,
Icfyv,
lorcuV* S&ofyv
^rom present
stem U,
tora,
&8o; 3rd person plural ija-av, as

the simple aorist
root
0c,
is
cfyo-av, etc.,
vide Sec. 52;
like the present, Sonyi/ root So,
0V
orcuV root ora.

Tt/tao-t-fw as
Optative of the so-called conTI/>UXO-I??-V,
tracted
verbs rtftw^v from
connected with
lastly,
TI^HI
in
the
O-conjugation ;
the conjugation with the tach-vowel has for
modal
ele-
ment only
Sec.
t,
which
ot.
is
contracted with the tach-vowel into
the diphthong
ist singular
52
</>p<w/u
with
older
primary personal endings, form tfripow, otherwise
tofyi/, optative of secondary endings ; middle êpot/^T/v. a and the suffix besides ki?? unites the tach-vowel ct/xt, 177,
XIX. 209 (tew/?), Tot as in the O-conjugation. The strong aorist of the O-conj. ends like the present, AtTToi/u, Aa/2oi/w for Aa/Soiv. The compound aorist retains
II.
a,
in
fjn
XiWtfu, Xvoraifjirjv ; the passive follows the conjugation which has no tach-vowel,
from
LVI. LATIN CONJUNCTIVE- OPTATIVE.

I. The Latin conjunctive, as the only subjective mood, fused with the optative, since the distinction of meaning between the various forms of the conjunctive and optative
is
in Greek,
became
obliterated in Latin.
The forms
of the
conjunctive and optative thus mixed with one another

are also applied to the expression of the future.
n6
2
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.
The forms
of the Latin conjunctive

<o,
mood
rj.
in
correspond with the Greek conjunctive in

original conjunctive suffix
With the
a are made the conjunctive
ist singular forms of the 3rd, 2nd, and 4th conjugations, legam, differs from the indicative lego ; so also the archaic
forms fua m, creduam, perduam ; doceam, audiam ; legdmus

s,
legatis
= Xeyryrc.
3.
forms with
Remains of the optative forms in Latin. The mood from the original modal suffix ja, ia, by /,
<?,
contraction
te, J, e,
are optative in form and in origin.

ecr/iy//,,
Forms
stemus
in i:
sim
= siem, esiem,
CIT/V;
so sis,
sit,
the
was afterwards shortened, stmus,
sitis,
sintfiGm
sies
= efys,
= efy/4v, sient=tv from eq/evT. So vclim, edim = ediem, besides edam, duim = SotV by variation of the root da to du = So, besides ducim, compare the archaic
perduam^ creduam ; dederim
2.
forms perduim, creduim, along with the conjunctive forms dedi-sicm, with a strange
shortening in the plural dederimns ; faxim=facsisim, Sec.

69,
Forms
in e
the so-called future of the stem-verbs
or the so-called 3rd conjugation was in the ist singular

in the older language dicem^ legem (e from tf/=the
ot,
Greek
o tach -vowel,
later
modal element)
this e
was retained
dices,
by the
etc.,
language in the other persons
dicemus
which are to be considered as pure optative forms.

so-called conjunctive present of derived verbs in o =*
The
pare
ao, ajo, of the ist conjugation,

rt/xcor/v
amem from
ama-i-m, com.
^^
Tt/xo>/?7-i/,
is
an original optative form
Classes of Tense.
4.
117
a and in e are found, as in legamus, legemus, audiamus^ only the conjunctive form in a has the signification of the subjective mood, the optain
tive
Where both forms
form in
e retaining the signification of the future, that
is for
the 3rd and 4th conjugations.
The
optative ist
singular form legem, audiem was however displaced by the conjunctive form legam, audiam, which was then
changed
into the expression of the future.
The
ist
person
person singular indicative future in conjugations 3 and 4 have consequently one and the same form which is used for the
singular conjunctive present,
and the
ist
double purpose of denoting a wish

futurity.
%
and expressing
3.
TENSE-STEMS.
LVII. IDEA AND CLASSES OF TENSE.

i.
The
tense-stem of a verb
is
that which remains of a
given verbal form after taking

tions
and the
characteristic
away the personal terminaIt coincides of the mood.
with the root present forms in the case of root-verbs which contain the simple root without any sort of
amplification or any intensification of vowels to express
the present,
e.g.,
ifiei/,
<a//,ej/,
Acyo/tev;
and
also in the
unaugmented forms of the strong aorist,

AI'TTC.
Aa/3o>, Aa/?oi/u,
In the one case the form
is
marked
as a present
by the absence of the usual elements

other tense-stems
for the formation of
in the other case as an aorist by the ; want of the amplification of the present of the given verb
Ii8
An
and
Latin.
In
which belongs to the tense-stem

sill
(XctVu), Aa//,/?ai/o>).
other cases the tense-stem
is
distinguished from the
root
and
consists of the root, plus reduplication, vowel-
intensification,
and additions
to the termination.
2.
tense-stem can therefore be formed (a) from

amplified or
a simple
non-amplified
root,
uncom-
pounded with any other secondary verbal

say, without auxiliary.
root, that is to
The
simple tense-stems are the
Perfect formed by reduplication of the root; the Simple
or Strong Aorist, bearing usually the stamp of the simple

root in
contradistinction to
the various amplifications
expressive of the present,

strative
and characterised by a demonaugment by secondary personal termiis,
adverb referring to past time, that
the
in the indicative, as well as
nations belonging to the tense.

terised
The
Present
is
charac-
by
various extensions of the root, at the beginning,
at the ending,
and
in the middle, as well as
personal endings.
present by
The
Imperfect
is
by primary derived from the

per-
means of the augment and secondary
sonal endings.
also the
(/3)
5,
The above
are the Indo-Germanic
and
Greek simple tense-stems.

the verbal root with the root as,
;
By compounding
be,
to
which serves as an auxiliary verb

the
the ComFuture,
pound tenses include

and
Pluperfect, to
Compound or WeakAorist,
which also belong certain forms of the perfect resulting from other combinations, as well as
of the aorist passive.
3.
Greek, however, in the first-named tense-stems, the
Greek Perfect and Pluperfect.

perfect, aorist, present,
119
and
imperfect, has retained
more
simple forms than Latin, and has preserved a more primitive character in the formation of tenses.
In Latin the
present
is
the only tense which

it
out; in the perfect active kinds of tense formation ;
formed simply throughfluctuates between the two

is
it
has lost the aorist with the

;
exception of a few uncertain traces

later
its
imperfect
is
formation by means of an auxiliary verb.

3.
On
the
Latin future, see Sec. 56,
4,
and under Compound
Tense-Stems.
(i)
SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS.
LVIII.
THE GREEK SIMPLE PERFECT* AND

PLUPERFECT.
is
i.
The
root
lengthened at the beginning of the

reduplication.
word by means of
Reduplication was
originally the doubling of the root or the compounding it with itself, with the view of intensifying and enhancing
the verbal notion, and in

plication of the perfect,
its
weaker form as the redua sign to denote an action
it is
finished
and completed
at the present
moment, while
the augment denotes a
momentary
is
action in past time.
The
original
form of the root
da, sta, thence dada,
stasta.
The
* This
first
is
root
is
shortened in the
first
final
sound, as in
inserted here as the
tense-stem, because, with the
omission of reduplication and vowel-intensification, it exhibits the pure verbal root, while the present stem in so many formations
departs further from it, and the simple aorist betrays a secondary character in the augment and secondary personal endings.
I2O
An
and Latin.
TrerrX/fya;
a; in the commencing sound, as

aspirate
is
the
dropped, as
is
ircîp/a;
the
;
first
sound of the
reduplication
dropped, as
IKI-OVO,
instead of the root-
vowel
is
the vowel of the reduplicated syllable.
The
.so-called Attic reduplication in

a,
e,
verbs which begin with
is
partly the doubling of the
whole
root, as o8o>Sa,
oTTw^ra,
in simple
first
root-verbs;
and
partly the
doubling
of the
part of the verbal stem, as
secondary root of dXct^w), dXrjXovOa stem IXvO,

d/CT/Koa,
dp^po/xevos
II.
XVIII. 548,
;
ep^peSarcu
XXIII.
284, compare dpaipi/Ka Ionic
further see the
Grammars
and
Sec. 34, 9.
2. The root vowel is lengthened sometimes in the first, sometimes in the second stage, Sec. 8 as \\t]0a from the root Aa$ eclya, Ionic e?7ya = FeFaya, Fay ; c/crova, KTCV J
:
;
copya
= fcfopya, fepy; 7r^>vya,^>vy

is
Ippwya, Fpay
oT8a, Ft8
tcr/xcv
the lengthened vowel

coiKa
dropped
:
in the plural, tS/xev,
from
et/c, Ft/c,
dual etxrov compare the pluperfect plural
iTreTnOêv
from
TreTroLOa
and the shortened

TerAajLtci/,
plural forms of
cora/xcv,
the perfect yS^Sa/xev, re^va/xcv,
from the singulars rerX^Ka,
SeSotKa, etc., syncop.
3.
Stem termination a
yeyoi/a(/xt), oT8a,
Êolic
shortened personal endings under the influence of the

reduplication, as in the
= ##//, primary ending;

ftrat for
aorist ; 3rd plural acrt middle 3rd plural Epic and Ionic the original ai/rat, Sec. 53, also in vowel root-
compound
endings.
Consonant root-endings are
in part aspirated,
(ctpyco),
Greek Perfect and Pluperfect.

4.
121
later peculiarity of the perfect
stem,
unknown
from root
transitive,
as
yet to
Homer,
is
the aspiration of the final conso;
nant of the root in one class of verbs

8aic
;
SeSi/xa
iAoxa for AcAoya from Aey ;

intransitive TreTrpaya
KCKo-rrtos
;
TreTrpdâ,
and
KKo<a, by the side of an older
Homeric
from
KOTT.
The simple Greek pluperfect which expresses the idea of completeness in past time is formed from the
perfect stem with the
augment and secondary personal

is
endings.
This formation
found in the active only in

from those of the perfect in
isolated instances,
and
is
confined (a) partly to plural
forms which themselves
differ
augment only, under the influence of which the lengthened vowel also disappears, as eTreVt^r*/ from the perfect
TreTroiflo, eSciSt/Aev, cSci'&c,
with ending
o-av in
the 3rd person

(/?)
plural, as erlOvao-av, without
augment /xâo-af ;
partly
to forms from the ist person singular with the secondary
personal ending ov in analogy to the imperfect ; as from the perfect fji^Ka, from root /ia/c in
,
rjvwyov
from
ava>ya,
as
an imperfect from
di/coyw
not to be regarded a present formed from avo>ya ;

is
which
on ^vwyca, rjvwyci, dvtayei, see Compound Pluperfect ; compare this form of the pluperfect from the compound perfect
TT<f>vKov
;
dual forms
et'K-n/v,
e/cyeyar^v.
The middle
always has, fect in the ist person singular pip from the perfect in /AGO, with secondary personal endings and augment, as
on the other hand, simple forms of the pluper-
from
122
An
and Latin.
LIX. LATIN SIMPLE OR STRONG PERFECT.

In Greek only, where the aorist exists side by side
with the perfect for the purpose of expressing momentary
action in past time, the
perfect serves exclusively to
express completion
there
is
in
present time.
In Latin, since
office,
no
aorist,
the perfect
serves a double
to indicate the completion of an act in present time
the perfect proper
time
historic or aorist perfect.

is
and its momentary occurrence in past The chief method of

then at once
only partially
formation
here also originally the reduplication of the

is is
root to express immediate action, which
removed
adopted.
to the past.
The
reduplication
The stem-ending
(et) for
sti,
or tach-vowel
is
(<?/).
ist singular /
dm, zsfero fromferomi. 2nd singular and plural stis; compare the combination o-O in the Greek personal
tfrfjo-Oa,
endings
infinitive crOai.
ening of the
/,
TiOrjo-Oa, ist person plural middle pta-Bo., 3rd singular //from dt with original lengthwhich is shortened in the ist person plural
imus;
i is
elided in syncopated forms as dixti, scripsti iuyn>
dicsi-sti, scripsi-sti.
The long
/ in
the 3rd person singulai
is retained in vixit> vendidit, dedit, etc., in
Old Latin,
and
3rd plural erunt, ere, dederunt from dedi-sont, compounds with esonti, compare
To-curt,
in part
by the
later poets.
Sec. 52,
where the
i is
transformed into e by the
influence of the r which takes the place of s between two
vowels.
Latin Perfect.
i
.
123
is
Perfect forms in which the reduplication
retained.
The
root-vowel retained in the reduplication
tutudi, root
tud, pupugi, poposd,
momordi, didici from disco

die,
= dic-sco,
and the
compare doceo, root
as
dak
in
8iSacrka>,
archaic forms, peposci, memordi.
is
Reduplicated vowel e, especially when the root-vowel a or a vowel derived from a through intensification
:
or weakening
tetigi,
dedi from da,

tetini
cecini, pepigi,
;
ceddi, fefelli,
peperi, peperd,
archaic
ceddi from caedo (ae
= at),
rX^vat
tetuli archaic tuli,

;
from root
tol in tollo
= tal,
rXa in
the
pepuli from pello, compare

st,
TroAAw.
Where
root begins with
sp, sc,
the root-syllable loses the s

:
and
retains only the
mute
steti
root sta for
stesti (dis-
similation), so also spopondi, scicidi archaic form in con-
nection with scidi ;

sisto
compare the reduplicated present

is
= wm/fu,
;
sistami.
The
it
reduplication
it is
for the in
most part found only
in
simple verbs
yet
is
dropped
compound
ones, as expuli ,
:
retained in verbs derived from do, sto
abdidi,
abstiti ;
syncope
rettuli,
occurs after the prefix

rettudi,
re,
as reppuli
is
t=repepuli,
repperi^
where there
no
assimilation arising from the original red.

TJie
vowel of the
root-syllable.
/,
The vowel
of the pre-
sent a
becomes
<?,
or
before two consonants and before

cecini.
r;
fefelli,
peperd, peperi,
/
The
but
present-vowel e
becomes u before
as pepuli,
compare
tetendi.
Roots ending in a lose the root-vowel in the rootafter monosyllabic da sta steti, dedi, syllable
:
prefixes
dbdidi,
the vowel of
condidi.
the
reduplication
becomes
of the
/;
Compare
the
change
root-
124
An
and Latin.
vowel in the compound verbs,
caedo, occido, cecldi ;
impingo, pepigi ; cado, inctdo, cecidi ; cano, occino, cecini*
The
back.
influence of the
reduplication
as well
as
is
of the
prefixes weakens the vowel because the accent
thrown
The
amplification of the present
is
dropped
in the
reduplicated perfect: tutudi^.pupugi, present pungo, pepigi pango, peperi the

to
pario being dropped, which belongs stem present only, Sec. 39, momordi by the side of the denominative present form mordeo, pepuli,
i in
the
in
which
the
second 4 which
originated in
/,
/,
is
dropped.
Perfect forms in which the reduplication
scidi,
tuff,
is dropped: from fidi fid, findo ; in as as see above well as in those ; compounds comperi, whose stem coincides with the perfects present, as /#/,
2.
from
tetult,
scicidi ;
plui, pandi,
cudi (cudo\
verity
scandi,
prehendi,
these
probably arose from reduplicated forms such as fufut,

veverti.
3. Perfect
is
forms in which the vowel of the root-syllable
lengthened to compensate for the dropping of the reduplication ; a from a: lavi, cavi, favi, pavi ; e instead of
a from a: fed =fefai,

e;
veni,
cepi, frtgi, ject, egi,
pegi ; e from
sederc^
sedi (from original stem-verbs,

venio, sedeo are presents
legi,
venere,
compare sido ;
stem forms,
with denominative
edi,
emi ;
from i: vidi root via
(video denominative), via, liqui ;

iuvi,
u from u: fudi, fugi
rupi ; o from o : fodi, movi, vovL
The
length of the
Strong Aorist.
125
vowel of the root-syllable is occasioned by the dropping of the first consonant jed=jejici, egiêgigi, legi=leligi.
:
All simple perfects therefore have originally sprung
from reduplicated ones. The reduplication was either retained with a shortened root-vowel or dropped and
the root-vowel lengthened instead.
LX. GREEK SIMPLE OR STRONG, SO-CALLED SECOND,

AORIST.
The stem
unmodified
expresses
of the strong aorist
is,
with a few excep-
tions, the same as the simple verbal root.
This in
its
state, as distinguished from the present stem,
momentary and transient
action.
Further forma-
tive materials are, for the indicative
mood, the augment ex-
pressing past time inserted as a prefix before the root, and,
through
its
influence, secondary personal terminations.

e/fyi/
An
aorist form, like
root
/?a,
coincides, as in tyrjv,
with the imperfect of a verb, which in the present also shows only the bare root; but this is, like /?, fiairjv, etc.,
in distinction from
<,
</>airjv,
to be recognised as
fla
an aorist
from the
fact,
that
from the root
no present form
;
with naked root, such as
/fy/u, is in
use
Zfirjv
therefore,
aorist,
coexisting with the present /Wvo>,
is
used as an
is
while tyrjv with an original durative signification
used as
an imperfect.
The Homeric
dialect frequently
employs
the reduplication in an intensive signification, with or
without the augment, in order to form the strong aorist

7T7T1001/,
letTTOV
cfefcTTOV,
C7T</>VOV
With SynCOpC Of the
126
An
and Latin*
Epic and Attic
root- vowel, root <ev;

ctTrov
o-7ro/o?v=
;
O-CO-CTT.,
FcFcTT., ^yayov uyaycu/ fjviTraTrov, fjpvKaKOV reduplicated Epic aorist with repetition of the final consonant instead of the first root consonant.
i.
Forms from
the root-ending, without a tech-vowel,

:
are almost entirely confined to roots with vowel-endings

/??7v,
<t*0rjv 9
<]>vv,
<r/3ir]v,
erXî/,
cyixov,
eaXtoi/
stem
aXu>, c^StW,
c6W,
3rd person singular
2/cro,
ovra, ist
;
person plural
c0e/xev, eSo/xo',
3rd person plural /2av
Z0t<rav in
composi0o>
tion,
Sec.
52.
êtr;s
Conjunctive-optative,
Sec.
55,
0eo>(/u),
077*>
,
^cT/o-t,
^ctr/v? etc.
Imperative
reduplicated
/cexXv^t, Sec. 52.
Middle
v,
optative $&tiv(]v, 3rd singular
TrX^ro, A.VTO,
a^7n/vTo.
Epic middle forms from verbs with con:
sonantal root-endings without a tach-vowel

ACKTO,
7raA.ro,
yeVro,
SeWo,
0X0-0
2nd
singular, oXro 3rd singular, wpro,
irfJKTO.
.
Infinitive TrepOai
aXfto/os,
= TTpO-(r6aL,
from
8.
Xeât, opOai,
acr/^vo9,
Participle
ap/xevos,
or
6Vy/x,evo5,
Sec. 21, used adjectivally with
Imperative Xeô,
oVo,
0/30-0,
Sec. 63, 3.
2.
Forms with tach-vowel

eXiTro/^v.
IXtzror,
!<vyoi/,
Middle
the
The moods correspond
to those of
present.
For reduplicated forms, see above.

(Xt?r,
To
<#>vy),
these forms with unaltered short root-vowel
the ear
itself
attaches
the
idea of momentary action,
whereas the lengthened present-imperfect form by its sound and length expresses the idea of duration, compare
eXtzre,
3.
Forms with change
of vowel
with syncope of the
radical vowel or metathesis, as in tTrpaQov from Wp0<o, a
special change of the root in the strong aorist

to distinguish the aoriet
/cTi/, IrpaTTov,
in order
from the imperfect

IT/S^TI-OV.
CKTCII/OI/,
root
imperfect
The
aorist formation has
been
lost in
Latin through the
want both of the augment and of the distinction between

primary and secondary personal endings. The following verbal forms are regarded as sporadic remnants of the
simple aorist; parentes, parents, in meaning
in contradistinction to
parientes = ol
TIKTOVTCS
\
= ot TCKOVTCS,
the
strengthened present form
the archaic indicative tago, tagit
with the present tango, compare the

aorist rcraytov
;
Homeric reduplicated
pagunt with the present pango, root pag, compare Tn/yw/xi, passive aorist lirdyyv. An aorist form distinct from the present cannot exist in Latin except
where the present stem
is
strengthened by
/,
/, or
by
the introduction of nasal sounds, the omission of which
makes the recognition of the
aorist possible.
LXI. GREEK AND LATIN PRESENT STEMS.
The
forms.
present stem comprises a very numerous series of
These are caused by the addition of vowels and
consonants to the root, by lengthening the root at the

beginning, in the middle, and at the end, and they often
differ
very widely from the root.
Each of
these forms has
its peculiar meaning, denoted by the suffix or the infix, which need not here be more fully specified intensive,
128
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

desiderative,
is
durative,
inchoative,
passive.
iterative,
causative,
intransitive,
The
present
distinguished
by
the primary personal endings both from the imperfect,
even where
strong
this
latter
has no augment, and from the
aorist,
and
especially
from
the latter
by
its
lengthened
root.
i. is
Present stems identical with the simple root, to which

(a)
added the personal ending,

t, </>a
:
Forms without tach-vowel.
Vowel-root
</>a//.ei/,
plural
fyicv, ITC, tacrt
= imast, itasi, ianti ;

with compensatory
is
<are,
<a(ri
= </>avri
etc.
Doric,
lengthening
lengthened,
<a#i.
eT/u,
In the singular the root-vowel

<r;/u,
There
is
change
of
quantity between the singular and plural in such primitive forms

;
the stem
is
is
strengthened in the singular where
the termination
lighter,
but
lightened in the plural,
the terminations of which were originally heavier.

pare Perfect, Sec. 58,
ct/xt
Comthence
2.
Consonantal root
cs,
CO-/AI,
JEolic
/,
e/A/u,
Sec. 52. Latin sum,
etc., Sec. 52.

;
From the
est
root
to go,
the supine itum shows the bare root
ed, to eat, for the
2nd
singular, see Sec. 52, 3rd singular
= edt,
dissim.
= edti,
so
volt, fert, dat, stat ;

is
ist plural
damns,
datis ; passive ddtur ; so se
joined immediately
to the root in the infinitive in
esse, to be, esse, to
ferre =ferse,
wise, Sec. 40.
velle
(ft)
with progressive
= edse, = assimilation velse,

eat
:
Forms with a tach-vowel

Latin root
/',
TI'W, rto/x.ci/,
compare
t/tei/,
^cpw, A.yo>.
to go,
in
ist
singular to
to,
3rd plural eunt
= iunt,
tens,
conjunctive earn
= iam,
(/ is
participle tens, with inflexion of the tach-vowel
changed
to
e,
except in
but on the other
Present Stems.
I2C
hand compare
a vowel)
2.
;
euntis,
before
all
endings beginning with
veho, lego.
The vowel
is
of the simple root
is
strengthened
(a)
where there
immediate addition of the personal ending.
Sporadic strengthening occurs in the indicative singular thence ct/xt, of primitive verbs root i, present stem
:
ct9,
eto-t,
to>,
eto-0a,
tots,
3rd singular
eto-t.
Conjunctive and
;
optative
loit]v,
<t>rj<ri.
are inflected with a tach-vowel
toêv,
<]fs,
Sec. 55.
Root <a, present stem

/,
<f>rj,
<f>rjfj,i,
Latin root
strengthened to
=d
is,
it,
imus,
itis,
(compare on the other hand

/,
t//,ev,)
passive itur, imdas, stdmus, statis,
perative
lie,
infinitive ire.
Compare
rj
stare ; famur, fari. Also in Greek,
remains in the plural

in cw,
of verbs in
vy/xt,
which are secondary forms of verbs

^>opr//xt, atr?;ftt.
as the Êolic opry/u,
(/?)
Where
inflexion
with the tach-vowel occurs the strengthening of the vowel

is
universal
}
<pvy<D,
</>vy
XetTrw, XLTT
\rj0<i)j
XaO y
with
v,
T^KO),
t,
TttK
TCVÔ),
TV%
rporyo),
rpay
7rA.eo>,
',
Tt
o),
also
Tt.
Verbs
TrXv,
in cw, as pew,
x^
from a root in
pv,
xv
had
in the present
cv,
an
original
vowel -strengthening
F
from v to
but the v changed into
afterwards dis-
appeared, compare yXv/cv?, genitive yXv/ccos from cfos;

further strengthening in TrAoxo, paiw, xô/xat, besides the
more frequent Epic

^wr/> / dico from
dicus ; fido from
^//V
TrXctw,
Latin
//^^?
from due in
dfo#,
in indicare, causidicus, veridicus, male-
fid
m fides,
ferfidus ; nubo co-existing
with pronuba.
3.
Reduplication of the root with the vowel
of the
130
An
and Latin.
present-tense reduplication, which has an intensive-durative signification, while the
vowel of a root which ends in

:
a vowel
is
lengthened in the singular

8tSo>,
root So, present
Stem
StSo,
singular
'
Si'Soyu
crra,
[o-ra, tar?;, fcrny/xi j
0, Ti0c, TiOrjî
Sec. 32, with
I, t
=
;
te, 117, f?7//,i
jijdmi.
Compare 8t^/x.at,
SiSo//,ev,
Plural without lengthening,
fora//,o>, ri0e/xv,
te/xev.
Root
Sc, /0
/#//, StSiy
imperfect
/fySas;
II.
XI. 105,
StSen-an>
Od. XII. 54; root
/?a,
root
Xpa, KLXprjpi.
Nasalised reduplication
Trt/xTrX^/xt, 7rt/Mrp77/u
from
TrXa, ?rpa in TrXâ), Trpôo.

:
Reduplicated present stems with a tach-vowel

root
root
yiyvop.au
j
= yiycv. yei/ 18, J#f = teS;w,

,
TrtTrro)
TriTrero),
/At/xi/o)
/u//,i/o>
t^co
compare jf^
==
>/<?, see also
(by
reason of the
suffix
/^) see under 5 below; XtXato/ât,
yiyvwo-Kco, SiSpao-KO), TtTvo-/co/xat, Trtâvo-KO)
with suffix
<TK.
The
stems
present reduplication maybe retained in other tensetavo) root df Sec. 3 1 ta7rra>, ia^w Ftfc% tcxAAw,
: ,
,
Ttratvw,
StSacrica);
compare future
StSwcrco
Od. XIII. 358.

TratTraAAw,
?rat-
Diphthongal reduplication in SaiSoXXw,

<âa-o-a>, TTOITTI/VO),
8etS(o,
SetStWo/ât
the simple root-vowel
is
repeated and nasalised in Tra/âiW

irregular
More
uncertain
root
Sec.
and
reduplication
in
TraTrraiW
from
Trra, TrTaK in Trrrjcrcra), dpapto-KW, ftapftatpw, jnep/^ptô),
27, KaxXa^w, Tra^Xaô)
II.
XIII. 798, root

OTrtTreva)
</>Xa,
Sec. 25,
root ^>vp, Sec. 37?

II.
root
OTT,
Sec. 19, 2,
IX.
80, TiyXeâw root âX, a7ra<iovca> Stem
a7ra<^, aorist a,7ra^)tv, root a<, v^vew
from vcw in Trapo^-
vcov
Od.
I.
147.
ytyvo/xai, j/db,
j/^//
Latin gigno=gigeno, as
the perfect reduplication
mA?, compare
i,
Sec. 59,
jm?,
j^zf/,
Present Stems.
*= seso, siso,
131
with ^ before r for / as dederunt
= dedisont,
Verbs with
;
root sa,
original
sdtum,
compound
TTI
perfect se-vi.
and
stable reduplication, coquo Sec. 19, 2

in irWi
;
bibo
=pipo, root pi,
compare
potus Sec. 18; vivo
Greek root
fii
Sec. 22
dedo^ according to the analogy of
the perfect reduplication.
4.
Present stem with consonantal suffixes
w with
in-
tensification of the root-vowel,
cvyn;/u, SCI'ICW/M,
p^yw/At,
mjyvv/u ; without intensification, opw/u, ewv/u, in which the first v is assimilated from <r, oAAv/xt from 6Xv, with progressive assimilation
etc.
;
o-roporvftt
= oropeoT.
Suffix
Stem
i/a
:
o-ropeo-,
These are
all
denominative.
(T/CtiSl^ftt
KLpVTJjJLL
(Kpa.WVfJil),
;
by the side Of
also with the suffix /#/ tfcveo/xa

/x/tyv).
Suffix v
TrtVa)
(Trtetv, Trt^t), TO/O>,

:
8a//a),
Tc/x.i/0),
<t>6dv<o,
<f>6w<i).
Suffix av
t/cd'va>
compare
compare
9ap,/3.
t/cavds, /ctâvco,
aufavw, a/xapravco j
^tyyavw,
with nasal
infix Aay^ctvw,
Xa/A/?ava>,
afjLptw,
/iai/âva>,
âvSai/co,
raôs, craôv, root ra<, nasalised

j/^^,
5f-z//,
Latin
//<?,
/<?-#/,
stra-vi, sperno, spre-vi,
sUum, cerno, cre-vi, sterna, from pono, posno, posino, po-st-tus.

suffix
:
Present stem with nasal strengthening without

tafigtf
undo, rumpo, sdndo, (undo. (tag), findo,f
The
nasal
consonant grows into the root and becomes fixed infingo,

finxi,pingo,jungo, by the side of figulus, pictum, jugum.
5. Suffix/^, /, /, according to the different changes determined by the laws of sound. J vocalised Scuo/x,eu root 8a, cSao-a/xi/v ; tStw with fixed t Sec. 39, 3 / thrown
132
An
/,
and Latin.
and
/, <ai'voo,
back as
/?atVo>
/?ai//a>
root
/?a,
suffixes v
TCtva), 7Ttp<o (frcp, eTrapoi/,
7T7rap/xat), ciXw
/cpti/ea),
= cX/eo
(dA^vat),
*pu/a>
K/oti//a>
future Kp/to,
/cAlVo) /cXivai,
:
aorist participle Kpt0ei?,

\
TrAvVco TrAwu),
ZKXiOrjv
as a
mixed sound
cd/.,
according to Sec. 34, 3

aorist 7re<pa8ov,
oo>
68;'.,
;
co/Aai
<paw
</>ptK,
Kpaa> root /cpay

TTTVcrcro)
raorcrw root ray, ra/c,
root TrraK,
root Atr;
root TTTV^, (^ptVcrw root

in
assimilated
oAAo/xat
compare
with
o-reXXw,
oêXXw
Homeric,
connected
6<a X<D,
in
as ctXw with tXXw; / is dropped between the vowels
OTTVO),
by the
side of
OTTUIO),
/<?
also <v'w, Êolic
<^>i;tw,
^vo>.
Compare
Latin verbs in
of the 3rd conjugation with /

capio, fugio^ fodio, morior,
syncopated as
in the
co-cro/ât
^/0 cupimus,
patior, gradior, as
opposed to the fixed

;
/ contracted
to I
4th conjugation
ero = esjv,
erunt = esjunt,
as
eor/.,
which
is
a present with future significa-
tion.
is
dropped
in derived verbs in uo, as statuo,

^^?,
tribuo, in verbs in eo as moneo, in
or
0,
as
<z#z<?
for
amajo, amas = amais.

TraXXco, percelh) fallo
is
assimilated in pello
compare
compare orôXXw,
has
easily
vello, curro.
6.
The
suffix
ovc
generally an
inchoative sig-
nification
which may
suffix LO-KO
diminutive
)y
be recognised, compare the in veavtV/cos and adolescens ;

ytyvcocr/co), StSpacr/cco, TTt
OvrjarKd),
it
reduplicated
found with a subsidiary vowel dpaptcTKco, cvptorKw, cTravptcrKw j in denominais
lives yrjfjao-Kw.
One
of the root consonants

OTC,
is
some-
times dropped before
as StSao-Kw from stem
Present Steins.
root
etcncci)
133
root
&)%
root
j
Sox,
IK,
see
So,
Sec.
21,
TVAC,
SCI&'OTCO/LUU
&*,
TiTvovco/tae,
is
root
TV^ Sec. 17, Xacr/cw

or
TTO,
;
root Xa/c
ITK
<TK
aspirated in Traoô) root ?ra0

find
instead of
in opvvfu,
we
x n cpx ^ 011 from

i
epo-K
is
root
= 6p lp
to
connected with eX in eX0e/ ; K
weakened
y in
/uo-yw,
compare //>^? root
/uy, ^/V, Sec. 27.
An
suffix appears in the Epic forms of the imperfect and aorist to denote that a continuous action is repeated or that an
iterative signification of this
and Ionic
iterative
action
is
begun
in time past
C^CO-KOV, SOOTCOI/.
Compare
Latin nascor, pasco, nosco,
cresco,
disco
dicsco^ posco
=
\
porcsco root pore, proc, prec in precor, procus, Sec.
18
apiscor^ adipiscor, paciscor, profidscor, revivisco, nasalised
nanciscor ; of denominatives obdormisco, concupisco, obliviscor, invelerasco, aresco> maturesco> delitesco.
7.
The
dental suffix ta or further formation of the root
by means of the determinative / participles and verbal adjectives

labials
;
compare
is
/ in passive
mainly found after

Kpv<f>a,
TT/TTTO)
root
TVTT,
KpvTiTO)
compare
Sec. 32,
compare pa^,
)8Xa7TTO)
OOLTTTW
cra^r/v,
ySaTrro)
ySa^ry,
a^mo
IfiXdfirjv
fiXdfirj,
taTrro),
4,
nasalised; after gutturals, TIKTW TCK, TTCKTW TTCK; after a
vowel
dvvrco
connected with avvw.

to
Compare pecto,
nccto,
flecto ; t is
weakened
d in
tendo, -fendo root
Qw
Sec. 24.
8.
The
aspirated
suffix
or root determinative
4,
is
found in Trp^w,
7rA^0o>, Sec. 36,
<j>6wv0, co-ô) eo-^tw
by
dissimilation from the stem eS0,
dto-0<o, fiapvOo),
OaXiO^
lengthened Homeric forms
^yc/oeôvrat, participle with
134
present
TXOV,
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

eo-êôv
reduplication,
/2i/:?ao-0a>j/,
from
of
aorist
opeyco,
imperfect
I.
opeÔcov
22.
II.
XXIII.
30,
p.TKldOoV Od.
9.
In Greek and Latin the present stem very generally exhibits the form of derived verbs, the other tense stems
that of primitive verbs, Sec. 39, 4; but the inverse relation also exists, e.g., in Trero/xat TrcTô-o/xat, petimus petlvi
petitum, cupimus cupivi.
LXII.
GREEK IMPERFECT.
The
*s
imperfect, which expresses duration in past time,
formed by annexing the prefix of past time to the
present stem which conveys the idea of duration, as well

as to stem-lengthenings, expressive of this idea
modifications,
and
its
secondary personal endings. Formation without tach- vowel eri'î/, eStcW, fcm/i/,
:
with
(a)
fyi/,
eSci/cvw
cr
Root es ist sing, fy with the dropped, ^ with the v rejected, â, ea Ionic, 2nd sing,
;
l$i]v Sec.
60.
with the radical

rjrjv.
cr,
yarOa,
fycrOa
3rd sing, ^v,
ê(i/), Zrjv,
i st
plural ^/x,v,
Doric
^5;
2nd
plural ^re,
52 ; 3rd plural rjo-av from without augment co-av, but retaining the or of the root
compare dual
Sec.
on the other hand the Ionic present

perfect with a tach-vowel lov.
i,
is
cacrt
early im-
Epic imperfect
rjia,
Attic $a, ^ctv, Attic plural
with augment and
present-tense
I/ACC,
intensification
ô/xev,
rjiov
by the by the
side of Epic myv,
torav
Epic
side of
rjio-ai/
Sec.
52,
with transition to the
Compound
tach-vowel conjugation.
Aorist.
135
Compare Latin eram from esam>
asam, with
m in the
and
in the
person singular as in sum, inquam, compound imperfect in bam from fuam, a

ist
formation which, in default of the augment, and different
readily adopts.
primary and secondary personal endings, the language For the conjunctive optative of the
sem,
imperfect eram, essem,

Sec. 72.
(ft)
rem
in
composition,
see
For the
inflexion with tach-vowel eêpov, see Sec.

etc.,
52.
Contracted verbs cTipw,
from
ertjuaov,
/being
dropped between the verbal stem and

ending.
cSi'Sow,
the personal
Forms of
Teis,
inflexion without tach-vowel, as erects,
follow the example of the contracted verbs.
3rd plural
crav Sec. 52.
Middle forms Sec. 53.
(2)
COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS.
A.
GREEK COMPOUND TENSES.

WEAK OR
SIGMATIC
LXIII. COMPOUND AORIST.
(SO-CALLED 'FIRST') AORIST.

i.
E elation
to the strong aorist.
Its function is the
same
as that of the simple aorist, to express
momentary
can only be formed from such (mostly root) verbs as have a present stem different from the bare stem or the root, whether this
action in past time.
latter
But as the
stem be vocalic, as
/?oAA.o),
7Ti0<o,
or
consonantal as rvrrnD,
aorist, originally
fjiavOdvw, Trao^w, the

is
compound
a supplementary one,
native
verbs,
annexed
to pure verbs,
denomistem
is
and
all
verbs whose present
136
the
An
root
as
in apû,
and Latin.
ypa<o>,
itself,
Aeyco,
or a
mere
nominal stem, lengthened by /, as in eA7riu>, <uAao-<7w, TcAc'w, Sec. 39, 2. Only a comparatively small number
of verbs,
suffix
e.g.
those with vowel lengthening or a dental

TVTTTCD,
in the present, as 7m0o>, AdVo),

9
and verbs
cases with
in
fu
have both
aorist
forms,
in
some
the
difference
of an
intransitive,
or neutral,
and a
transitive, or active signification, as for example Tcrr?//^
/3<uW
On
the
other hand the
same verb very
fre-
quently has, besides the
weak
aorist active, the so-called
root, that
second or strong aorist passive formed from the bare is, from the stem of the strong aorist active
,
with
17
annexed, as
evyi/v/u,
eêvfa, l&yjjv, /SAaTrra),
l/?Aai/ra, ipxdfirjv.
The
formation of the
compound
aorist
has, in the later period of the language, even
where the
strong aorist might have
existed, displaced
and over-
grown the
2.
latter.
Formation of the
compound
l
aorist.
'
The
past
tense of the root as, es (asam)
to be
is
annexed
to the
verbal stem as auxiliary verb, with a long vowel in vowel

stems, together with the augment.
The vowel which

p.
begins the auxiliary verb

in the
sing,
c,
is
dropped,
or v
a,
falls
away
ov.
ist sing.
The
stem- ending
is
only in 3rd
eSeife adik-s-a(f).
Second
sing, imperative
y
Original form from root dik was adiksa(m) conjunctive So cAvo-a, Xvo-a>, Av'o-ai/u. diksami, optative dik-saimi.
Middle
from
eXvcra/x^v,
Xvo-wfJiai,
\v(raifjir)v.
2nd
Sing.
e/Xvcrco
cAixrao-o.
Imperative
active
AOow, with fixed v

would
and
o instead of a; middle Aôrat instead of, as
Greek Future.
137
be expected, Xv<ra<ro, Xvoxo, compare the present form Xvou from Xuco, Xvco-o. cr is doubled in lo-o-a, root Fes,
creXeo-o-a,
connected with
TeXeq/a).
o-
creXco-a,
stem
reXes,
IKT/O,
rcXc'a),
is
dropped
root
after F in
x*>
;
= e/o/Fa,
Homeric
in X, pj
v, p,
l^cva
= excFa,
after
stems ending
with compensatory lengthening, as coreiXa,

for
corcXcra,
c//<ra,
ai/o"a,
<f>r)va
fjp,vva 9
e/cptva,
by the side of
Homeric
cKcXo-a,
wpo-a,
ecepo-a,
The
corcXXav,
o-
is
assimilated
in the Êolic lê/x/Aa,
Denominatives with /^, and contracted verbs, have, as in the future, a long vowel before the auxiliary verb, and a at the end of a stem is
lyewaro.
generally lengthened
to
rj;
tyforjo-a,
eriprjo-a,
c&JXoxra,
except
TJpoo-a,
cfcaXco-a,
r/vco-a,
es,
and
also, in
analogy to
verbs with the nominal stem
ereXeora.
Êolic optative
Xixreiav,
forms are
Xvcreta,
Xva-ctas,
Xvcrctc,
3rd plural
Xvo-ctr/?,
instead of, as would be expected, Xuo-co/v,

in analogy to tcfy
3.
The
earlier sigmatic aorist
formation had a tach-
vowel instead of the stem- ending a as in the imperfect and strong aorist of the O-conjugation ; Homeric tfov, tfes
= war.,
Xcf
0,
cô-cTo, SVO-CTO,
more frequent
,
in the imperative
of T,
OpO-CO,
j
OpVCV
OpCTO,
8cfO, XcÔ with

Svcrco.
elided
from
opcrccro, etc.
otcrc, oto-cre,
ô-co,
LXIV.
This
is
THE GREEK FUTURE.

compound
cs,
formed
like the
aorist
by means of
an auxiliary verb from the root
but in the form of
138
An
and Latin.
which as
in
a present lengthened by the

present stems,
suffix /#,
it
many
to
Sec. 61, gives
a future
cor/w,
signification.
Original form asjami, in the Greek

eo-a),
weakened
This form is compare Latin ero from esio. preserved as an independent word in the middle
o-w
voice,
CO-O-O/ACU.
ccr/.,
whence
eo-o/xai.
Original form of
the
compound
tense-stem dasjami
= Swo-oo.
The
Primary
personal-endings as in the present.
various forms
of the future are determined by the fuller or weaker form of the auxiliary verb, which is always added to the verbal stem after the final letter (a) by retaining or
dropping the
o-
of the root of the auxiliary verb,

into
t,
(fi)
by vocalising
(7)
by changing
into
c,
or
(8)
by dropping the
1.
original/.
The
original Doric future in
<rio>
cr/<o,
as
from
TT/oaycr/,
<vAaio/xes,
Saxri'oo ;
compare desideratives
in crcuo.
2.
The
so-called Doric future, with
changed to
ccrcreTai.
in
the Attic middle forms, as <eufofyuu from ^cvyo-eo/Acw,

irXevcrovfJiai,
SO also ecro-emu, by the side of
3. The ordinary form in which / is dropped, and the ending shortened to <rw in stems which end in a mute Or a vowel, as A.v'cro), crnjoxo, Scoo-cu, cacrw, Tipjora>; TVI/Ô),
Xcfya>,
ir/oaô).
The stem-vowel
present
in
<;o//,<u,
lengthened as in the independently of the present in

is
TrAcixro/Aat,
Tevoâi,
TTCVCTO/X-CU, cXcvcro/xat, tfrOrjorofJicu, Aiyô/x-at
etc.
The
present reduplication
is
sometimes retained in
Greek Future.
the future;
139
Futures with a
;
Homeric
SiSoxrw Sec. 61, 3.

a/ooorw,
short vowel-stem-ending
KaXcVw
see also
Com
pound
4.
Aorist.
The
asigmatic future results from dropping the
a-
between vowels, and the insertion of a tach- vowel
between the stem and the ending, which can also be considered as a retention of the first sound of the auxiliary verb CO-CD. In liquid stems, uncontracted Epic and Ionic
TVw
<ai/a>,
from
Ti/cr(o,
KTvo,
ftcvco),
or contracted
ySaXw,
afjLwu Attic, by the side of isolated Epic forms

<r
where
Kvp<T<D,
is
retained
Kcpo-a>,
without a tach-vowel,
<f>\)pcrtt)
êpo-o/ât,
jceXcra>,
in stems in
/>
and A;
in
other stems, as cSor/xat from coWo/xai, /x,aôv/u,at, Epic and Ionic p,ax<rofj.ai, Trco-ov/xat Epic -rrco-eoftai, rcXca) Epic, rcXoi
Attic, so too reAeVo-a), TcXeo-w, like the present,
self indeed
which
it-
=TXcr/o>, SeC. 39, 2
KOfttOJ, K0/Xt(0, KOjJLltOfJLeV
from
KO/UO-CO),*
without subsidiary vowel /fy&u from /&-
)8ao-a), cXco,
eXa?, Sa/xcu
from
Sa/xacra), Sa/xas.
tr
This
IS
the
so-called
Attic future in which
is
rejected
o-
and the
word contracted.
in verbal stems in
Future form without

v,
and contraction
IV. 56
;
as dvvco for dvvo-co
II.
epvw
latter
XI. 454
et
passim; ravvw Od.

or
XXI.
174.
The
by dropping the original resemble the present.

* So Curtius,
pass into future forms which
Gramm.
KO/J.I,
KOfu-cw, stem
Sec. 263. Perhaps more correctly from connected with KOfjudj, whence Koplfa
Kqmyu, by the side of KOÛ in KO/JL^LV Od. VI. 207 ; so there lies at the root of the future forms ATrtw, 0/xwrtcD, by the side of ATTiVw. 0poj/rtVw, ^p/o-w, from 5<rw, the weaker nominal stem
for frwid, thence the future eXTTieo-w, e\7rtu>.
140
5.
An
The
and Latin.
As such
;
future without tense-characteristic.
t/u
Epic, Ionic,
and Attic
is
especially used
the Epic
verbal
fit.
forms
22,
/?o/&cu,
8770),
/?6to/uu,
2nd
singular /Jeg f
root
Sec.
ISo/xat,
irto/u,cu,
VCO/ACU,
by the side
as
of
the future form vtVo/xat

aor.
II.
XXIII.
o-
76, xeo/û
f,
compare
eêa with
loss
of both
and
from
LXV. THE COMPOUND OR WEAK GREEK PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT, TOGETHER WITH THE FUTURUM
EXACTUM.
i.
The
perfect in
KCL
is
found in
Homer
only
all
when
forms.
plural
the root ends in

fttfirjKa
a vowel, and then not in

with
ist
coexists
;
plural
/2e/3a//,i/,
3rd
/2e/?aao-i, /?e/3aajs
cor^Ka, ecrra/Acv,
2nd
plural also
TtOvrjKa
K/
TT\rjKa root rXo, rerXajnev,
TerXiyo)?;
^
root
Homeric
7T^>v/ca
infinitive
T0va/x,v
K^KIJ^KCL root
3rd plural Tre^vWt, SeSotKa plural SeSt/xcv. In the later language KO, is found after vowel, dental, and
liquid Stems, as
TreTretKa, ecrraX/ca,
<0apKa,
K/cpt/ca, reraKa,
moreover
from the lengthened original stem eS side by side with eSrjSws. Akin to this form of the perfect are the aorist forms ZOrjKa, eSw/ca, ^/ca from the vowel
cS^So/ca
roots
0e, So, I,
confined however to the indicative.
In
regard to K lengthening the stem in oXe* 6XeKu>,

the perfect 6Xa>XcKa,
compare
f^/x,i
and
in ^KO>
from root
c in
with
a fixed perfect signification compare IX^KW in
IX^/oyo-i
Od. by
XXI.
365.
As
regards the root-form

8a/c,
TH-CIK
in Tmjo-o-o)
the side of irra in TTT^T^V,
Sa^ in
8tSao-Ko>
by the
side
Aorist
of 8a in
fect
and Future
Passive.
141
Safjvai, epvKa>
comes
to
by the side of />va>, the * of the perbe considered as an original root deter-
minative applied to form the tense.

2. The compound pluperfect in the earlier language found chiefly in intransitive verbs, the perfect of which It is formed by the has the signification of the present.
is
addition of a past tense from the root
cs
to the perfect
stem;
thence
ist sing,
originally eo-a(/x),
ea,
rj,
Sec. 62, thence

17,
tw
compare fy la eram en-eWâ Ionic and Epic,

TroAcis
civ Attic,
compare
from
TroAeas.
2nd
77$,
sing, originally co-as,
thence cas Ionic and Epic,
as
Attic.
17,
3rd sing, originally co^r), thence

3rd plural
ccrav in
ce(v) Ionic, ci,
civ Attic.
which
or is
retained.
3.
The
middle-passive futurum
is
exactum,
which ex-
formed by the addition of the future ending in the middle form to the perfect stem, which implies the idea of completion.
presses completion in futurity,
perfect Stem XcXv from
ycy/aai/ferai,
XeXv//,ai, TTCTrpaêrat
Stem
SeSô-erat.
Isolated forms
:
of the futurum
exactum active from the perfect in *a
LXVI.
i.
THE GREEK AORIST AND FUTURE

simpler form of the passive
aorist,
PASSIVE.
The
it
and the
form more closely
allied to the strong aorist active

'
whence
aorist, is
also
is
called
strong/
or the so-called 2iid
formed by the addition to the root of the auxiliary
142
vowel
e
An Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

c,
(or perhaps the auxiliary verb

?),
to
go, in
f\
with causative signification

in the indicative
which
;
is
lengthened to
and imperative
personal
to verbs
it
takes the augment,
and the
it
active
endings without
tach-vowel;
is
almost confined
active
<ava>,
:
which have no strong

etc.,
aorist
e.g.
root
$av
tydvrjv
conjunctive
optative
<av-t7/-v
faveirjv.
Imperative
2.
The weaker
aorist passive, the so-called ist aorist
passive, only
77,
differs
from the former in taking 6 before

stem
c,
or in annexing, conformably to the laws of sound, the

partially
syllable 0e to the verbal
lengthened as in
Kpi6rjv.
the present
06,
lirpdÔrjv, cAeic^î/, tyeuo'Orjv,

0e,
This
perhaps the root
to set, to do,
is
here used in a
compare veneo, venum ire. Cognate the formation be of the German preterite of may the weak conjugation by compounding the stem with
passive signification,
to this
the root
of tuon,
to
do,
answering to the Greek 0c
salbota,
Gothic do, O. H. G. to: thus Gothic salboda, O. H. G, H. G. salbte, though here certainly only with an
active signification.
Compare
in Greek, the lengthening

in
of the stem or formation of the present with

root
Trpa, <l>QwvQu, aorist
form l<r^9ov, imperfect
Od. V. no(?).
3.
The
passive future forms are formed by annexing
the future ending of the middle to the stems of the two

passive aorists, or the middle form of the future from
the root 0e 07/o-opu to the verbal stem
as
Latin Compound Tenses.

Xv0T?o-o/A(u.
143
future form
The Homeric
II.
dialect
knows no
in
Orjo-ofjLai,
a passive future in
rja-ofjiai
occurs clearly only
once,
fect
/uyjyo-eo-flcu
X. 365
on Scô-cpu compare perelse in
SeSaT/Ko,
is
everywhere
Homei
the
passive
future
expressed by the middle forms.
B.
LATIN COMPOUND TENSES.

LXVII. SUMMARY.
On
account of the poverty of the Latin

inflexion
language
in forms of original verbal
stems and
new
formations are
compound tensemore numerous in it

:
than in Greek.
forms of the
They are the following weak perfect in si and ui, vi ;
(a) the
(fi)
two
the tense
is
and modal forms derived from the

to say,
infinitive perfect, indicative
perfect stem, that
thefuturum exactum, optative- conjunctive perfect,
and conjunctive
pluperfect.
These are compounds of the perfect stem with the

future
properly the present with future signification,

the optative -conjunctive present, the infinitive
Sec. 64,
present,
and the indicative and conjunctive-optative imthe auxiliary verb esse. of (y) The indicative and perfect The future in bo. With reconjunctive imperfect. (8)
spect to the auxiliary verbs employed in these formations
these verbal forms divide themselves
into those with
si,
root or auxiliary verb esse

sim, rim, sem, rem,
fu,
and the endings
so,
ro,
and those with root or

-ui,
auxiliary verb
Greek
<v,
and the endings
vi,
bam, bo ; both
144
An
Introduction
to
Greek and Latin.

from
visa,
roots are
amalgamated
in the endings ssv,
uero, vero, uissem, vissem.
LXVIII.
i.
WEAK LATIN
PERFECT.
is
The
perfect in si
esi,
which
a remnant of
appears in priperfect form from root es, original dsa ? with root endings consonantal verbs stem or mitive
whether these be gutturals, dentals, or labials lexi = from present stem /##, by legsi in intellexi, or legi, panxi
:
the side of the earlier pepigi,
punxi by the
vig,
side vlpupugi,
fluxi from stem flug, vixi from

after / only in vulsi> after
lusi, clausi,
traxi, vexi, rexi ;
in mansi, after
;
in sumpsi ;
is
misi from
lud-si etc.
the guttural
alg,
dropped
between r or /and
s in alsz,
torsi.
stem
fulsi fulg, indulsi,
fulsi fulc, sparsi, mersi,

/itsst frOTDLfU^si, cessi,
Regressive assimilation in
pressi; ussi from us in uro Sec. 33,
gessi; hausi, haesi
from haus-si.
Syncopated forms
dixti,
archaic infinitives dixe, scripsti with which compare the

detraxe, despexe^ surrexe.
2.
The perfect in
ui, vi,
from the perfect of the auxiliary
verb fui with initial dropped ; u remains after a consonantal ending of the root or stem, after vowels it is
hardened into the semi-vowel v in

the perfect
is
vi.
(a)
This form of
analogous
ire,
chiefly found in derived verbs
to the contracted verbs in
Greek
in are, ere,
as
amavi from ama-fui, delevi, audivi; verbs with infinitive in are and perfect in ui instead of avi, as the archaic
form necui instead of
necavi, sonui
from sonare, form the
Weak Latin
Perfect.
is
145
identical with
perfect from the present stem which
the simple root
of at ; avi
is
nee, son, hence the ending is ui instead from the present stem of derived verbs
ama, amo from amao ; verbs of the so-called 2nd conjugation in eo with perfect ui instead of evi form the perfect
by dropping the stem-ending e as if from a consonantal stem thus monui instead of monevi, so the participle
:
passive
with short tach-vowel monitus, habitus; ferveo
hardens v to b in the perfect ferbui; e is retained in abolevi, delevi, and in verbs with an inchoative present
form
suesco, quiesco.
io,
The
formation of the perfect of
verbs in
infinitive ire,
by apocope of the
of the
present stem
is analogous; thus salui, aperui instead of aperi-vi; with syncope throughout in rapio, perfect On the other hand the perfect rapui, infinitive rapere.
ivi of present
stems in
esso,
as
if
from
essio,
in arcessivi,
capessivi, lacessivi, coexists with the simple perfect facessi,
participle Itus, infinitive ere,

fects
analogous to
by the side of arcessire. Perthe /-stems where the present stem =

(ft)
the root: petivi, quaesivi.

is
The
perfect form in
vi, ui,
however found also
in a
number
of root or stem verbs

sco ;
with a partially lengthened present stem in no,
to
these belongs eo, im, which except in the supine itum and in the changing of / to e before the vowels a, o, u
passes over into the J- conjugation, Sec. 61,

sero
i.
also
= stso,
in
perfect sevi, Sec.
61, 3, lino livi
levi, cresco
crevi,
sino sivi, gnosco gnovi ; certain verbs
whose root
ends
a consonant make by metathesis in the perfect

sperno sprevi,
tero
sterno
after
stravi,
trivi ;
calui,
the perfect
colui, volui,
roots ending in /
n r:
con-
10
146
An
and
Latin.
sului, exeellui, fretnui, vomui, genui, tenui,

tetini Sec. 59, serui; strepui;
supine tentum,
mposui frompono compare from posino, posno, where the root consonant s has been dropped, s reappears, hence the archaic form posivi, and
/
is
follows
then dropped, and we get the ending ui in posui ; ui double consonants texui, stertui. (y) Lastly,
denominatives in uo from a noun-stem in u form the perfect in ui instead of uvi by syncope of v and shortening
the
11,
like the derived
verbs
in to;
as
aeuo,
arguo,
statuo,
tribuo ; argui
from arguvi, statui from staluvi

audivi.
stem
statu, tribu
compare
3.
A combination
of the two forms of the
compound
perfect, the sigmatic in si
and
that in ui, takes place in
perfect forms in sui, as messui, root met,
from metsui, nexui co-existing with next from nee, pexui a rare form for pexi from pee-to.
compare messum, necto stem
The v
of the perfect ending vi disappears between

it
vowels and
is
contracted to
in
isti, It, isse,
peristis,
dives^
redisscm, nossem, audit, audissem compare dis from

ditior, sis,
from
si vis;
is
also
dropped
in the plu-
perfect
and futurum exactum.
LXIX. TENSES AND MOODS FORMED FROM THE

PERFECT.
i.
Second future or futurum exactum.

earlier form.
so, sis,
(a)
The
is
shorter
and
To
sit
the bare verbal stem

es
annexed
esio*
he future
or/o>,
from root
(compare
ero
from
OXD Sec.
64) with the signification of the future
Tenses formed
or
from
Perfect.
147
more properly futurum exactum, as axo, capso, faxo, The longer and more recent formation so rapso. (/?)
:
is
annexed
to the perfect
stem in
or
si,
between
vowels becoming r: dedero from dediso, dederunt from dedisontt, stetero, scripsero ; syncopated forms of the perfect in
si,
dixis
= dicsi-sis,
jussit
= jub-si-sit ;
for
so in the
perfect stem
of derived verbs in vi,
amasso from amaviso,

dropping the per-
where
s is
doubled to compensate
or
fect suffix vi,
by syncope and
assimilation, peccassit,
habessit
from hdbevisit from the original perfect of the
2nd conjugation in evi. Instead of these archaic forms in which s is retained and v is assimilated to ss, the more
developed language constructs forms with r as amavero, habuero ; the last being produced by syncope of e at the
end of the root and by vocalisation of v. sideration of the clear and thorough-going
also are to
(y)
In con-
signification
of even the shorter forms, etc., as futura exacta, these
be regarded as early future forms of the futurum exactum constructed from the perfect stem with
/
syncopated,
lies
as
faxo
= fac-si-so,
faxim
= fac-si-sim.
There
at the root
of these forms a hypothetical
perfect form in si faxi, axt, capsi, by the side of the perfect forms proceeding from the original reduplication
fed,
egi, cepi,
Sec. 59, 3.
2.
Conjunctive-optative perfect.
es,
:
The
optative from
root
sim from stem, esiem,

dederim
is
annexed to the perfect

?),
stem fecerim from feci-siem (or fec-esim

legisim,
legerim from
= dedisiem,
tutuderim
tutudisim.
Ar-
chaic syncopated forms are faxim =fac-si-sim (see above,
148
An
and
Latin.
faxo), dixim, taxim (indicative tetigi\ axim, comessim, conjexim, ausim

side of ausus
= audsi-sim,
compare indicative ausi by the

negavi-sim, as negaverim
sum ; negassim from with r instead of s and e instead

; habuerim.
of
before
r,
habessim
from habevi-sim
3.
For the
infinitive perfect see
above
from
Sees. 40. 68, i.
Syncopated form
dixis, dixti.
dixe,
archaic
dtc-si-sse,
dixim,
4.
The
pluperfect indicative ends in

^v,
ram from eram

annexed to the
^ tsam,
Compare
compare
?a,
ca
Sec.
62,
perfect stem in /. feceram, dederam^ steteram
= dedi-sam.
the passive amatus eram.
Conjunctive sem
optative of the imperfect (e)sam, esaim compare amem from amaim, Sec. 56, 3 is annexed to the perfect stem
in
./,
with the s doubled as in essem, legissem
= legi-sem,
fetissem, fuissem indicative
fueram.
Earlier syncopated
forms axefaxem horn fac-si-sem (see above, faxo> faxim) y

intellexem, dixem.
LXX. FUTURE
IN
b.
Besides the originally optative form in e of the stemverbs of the 3rd conjugation, and the originally optative
form of the derived verbs in
io
of the 4th conjugation which
have a in the
ist sing.,
both of them optative forms which

besides also the termination
came
so
to
be used as
es
futures,
from the root
applied to the perfect stem to form

the Latin language forms another
the futurum exactum;
Imperfect Indicative.
special future, simple
149
from
and precise
in
its
signification,
derived verbs in
a, e
of the ist and 2nd conjugations,

fore, root
by annexing fuo of the present

come, to the present stem as the
fu
(<jf)v),
to betro)
Greek future
suffix in
comes from the root

after
cs.
From/k? comes by
is
aphseresis uo,
vowels
vo,
which
hardened
to bo, bis, bit
(com-
pare bis
= dvis),
;
compare
also the imperfect
bam from
is
fuam
Sec. 7 1
amabo,
docebo.
This form of the future
rare in stem-verbs, as ibo, ddbo, stdbo ; archaic also dicebo,
audibo, scibo ; everywhere else, in conjugations 3

in consonantal, J
ist sing, in
and
4,
and
U
e,
stems, the optative form, with
a instead of
elsewhere
is
e,
which has passed

leges,
into a future signification,
used as legam
audiam,
statuam.
LXXI. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE.

The
esam
imperfect from root/#,
is
fuam,
annexed
to the root or present
compare eram from stem like the
future in bo
by dropping the first letters and hardening the- u by transition from v to b, Ibam, ddbam, stdbam ; stem verbs with a mere tach-vowel lengthen it anoma-
lously to eas legebam, as also
do derived verbs of the J

a and
e join
conjugation audiebam, compare dederunt from original

dederunt ; derived
verbs
in
bam
:
without
a tach-vowel to the vowel-ending of the stem amdbam, docebam, and so do derived verbs in i in the earlier and
later poetical language, scibam,
audibam.
SO
An
and
Latin.
LXXII. IMPERFECT CONJUNCTIVE.

As
the optative form sem> see Sec. 69,
4, is
annexed
to
the perfect stem in the conjunctive pluperfect, to express
the subjective idea of completion in past time, or in
other words to denote the conditional preterite, so in the
conjunctive imperfect
in past time, that
is
it
expresses subjectively duration
the conditional present, by being
annexed
to the present stem. auxiliary verb as
The
conjunctive imperis
fect of the
an independent verb
essem from esaim with ss instead of esem, erem, as might
have been expected, (a) sem with s changed into r is annexed to a root ending in a vowel, as forem from
fosem> irem, darem, starem
= stasem.
(ft)
s is retained
without tach-vowel
as
when
to
the root ends in a consonant,
essem
from
ed>
eat
= edsem,
;
possem from potsem
with regressive
gressive
velsem^
assimilation
with assimilated s (provellem,
assimilation) in ferrem,
from fersem,
compare
fert, vult.
io
(y)
In stem-verbs ending in
A consonant, in those in
of the 3rd conjugation with
syncopated inflexion, in those in uo, as well as those with

a tach-vowel
e,
and
in derived verbs in #,
e,
z,
sem
is
changed into rem

caperem, acuerem,
after
a vowel, as dicerem from dicesem>

}
amarem
docerem, audircm.
INDEX.
Page
Adverbs
-99
152
Letters
Index.
Page
Page
5
Liquids
Medials
....
its
4 Root, the, "the expression " of a general idea 49 Roots, "always and uncon37
ditionally monosyl-
lables"classes of
,, -
Metaphor,
importance in the formation of lan-
guage
* *
...
-
75 75
formation of
3
75
a change in the Metathesis, " position of sounds
,,
,,
Greek pure vowel marks and peculiarities of or phonetic Types -
70 63
74 2 73 78
Mood, Conjunctive and Optative (Greek)

,, -
,,
113
115 113
Conjunctive and Optative (Latin)

-
,, ,,
, ,
primary and secondary pronominal " The indivisible atoms

of language, the primitive elements of words which cannot be further ana-
Subjunctive (Latin)
Nominal
fixes
stems
are
(those
in
suf-
which the verbal
attached to
lysed"
...
a noun stem which ends with a consonant)
Noun, the
79 Sound, Consonantal laws of

,,
Numerals, Cardinal Ordinal ,,
...
-
Complex
86
Si
Participle, the Philology, divisions of
Lingual formal elements ,, of ,, material elements

of
,,
...
-
63
4
4
Phonetic decay, "Degrada-
-4 -4
4
radical
elements
and mutilation of an older and

tion
fuller form'*
of-shifting,
law
of
Types or Roots, "the

fundamental " ments of language
,
ele-
Types or Roots, "the

irreducible
resi-
duum
Prepositions
21, 23 (Grimm's law) the material basis of 6 the science of (Glot,, tology) 7 1 1 Sounds, analysis of 18 Spirants
,,
...
-
of linguistic "
analysis
...
-
,,
original
-56
-
Pronouns
Stem, the 100 Stems, Comparative formation of 97
Nominal
Reason and Language Inseparable Reduplication, law of
,,
,,
6 83 76 81
Superlative
-85
-
I
-
Verbal
,,
,,
78
"An
67
Nominal verbal
a-stem
-79
-91 -91
-
amplification of the root in order to " express relation
o
72
uj,,
91
Index.
Page 141 Verbs, personal endings of ,, 135 persons of Latin tenses of 143 101, Perfect and voices of ,, ,, Pluperfect (Greek)- 140 Vis Inertiae (Laziness), effect Future Greek of 137
153
Page 103 101
Tense, Aorist passive Greek

,,
Compound Greek
f,
117 102
,,
,,
,,
,,
passive Greek in bo Latin

-
10 142 Voice,Middle-passive (Greek) 1 1 1 148 (Latin) 112
,,
Futurum Greek
Exactum
-
Vowels
141
,,
.,
Imperfect conjunctive 150 Greek 134

,,
,,
indicative
-
,,
Latin
149
,,
Perfect, the, tenses and
consonantal influence exposed to greater changes than consonants
changes of under ,,
ii 12
14
21
moods formed from 146 Present Greek and

Latin
-
fundamental
(Indo-
Germanic)
127
Word, the 5, 87 "the complete form ,,
.orist simple or strong A< (Greek) 125 .orist simple or strong A<
(Latin) simple Perfect
"
,,
of language
bination
The complete comof
and
sounds
6
- 1 19 Pluperfect (Greek) weak Perfect (Latin) - 144 ,, 118 Tenses, compound of verbs ,, 101, 117
,,
Tenues
27
5
,,
Verb, the Contracted

,,
phonetic expression of a complete and indepen" dent perception -formation or inflexion

single
which express mean" ing and relation " the
80 Words "The
79
87
Denominative
-
bodiments and
only
conceptions'*
Desiderative ,, Verbs, moods of-
80
101
phonetic emthe exponents of
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Baur, F. - A Philological Introduction To Greek and Latin For Students (1883)

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REESE LIBRARY

AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECHCRAFT.

THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF LANGUAGE.

GRAMMAR. By WILLIAM DWIGHT ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH "

and Growth of Language."

Author of " Studies

By. H. C. Bow EN, Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price is.

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, &

A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION TO GREEK AND LATIN

TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF

Late Fellow of Kings Collegf^muArMgi^ **

THIRD EDITION REVISED.

LONDON AND AYLESBURY

(Thf rights of Translation and Reproduction are

have simply endeavoured to put Professor Baur's

making the work

than the original,

has not even

are given for

Greek and Latin words wherever Professor Baur

are due to the

and the Rev. G.

suggestions while the work

was passing through the

The Nature and The Elements

and Stages of Language

The Indo Germanic,

The Gmcco-Latin Language

PART I. THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTOLOGY.

Greek and Latin

Change of Vowels under Consonantal Influence

The Greek Consonantal System

Significance of Consonants to Philology

THE CONSONANTS AS ROOT CONSONANTS.

Guttural Tenuis K, corresponding to the Latin

The Dental Tenuis T, Latin

E. have/" in the beginning of a word

of the Guttural, Labial, and Dental Tenuis,

T, in Greek and Latin

Guttural Medial F, corresponding to the Latin

The Dental Medial

A, corresponding to the Latin d,

Gothic and Lower German

The Labial Medial B.

of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for this

often/ in the beginning of a word,

German and English

SEMI-VOWELS. PERSISTENT SOUND OF CONSONANTS.

XXVI.--The Nasal and Dental Liquid

The Nasal and

The Lingual Liquid A.

ing to the Latin

the rough breathing in Greek, at the beginning

Greek Pure Vowel Roots

XXXV. The Laws of

FORMATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS.

Primary and Secondary Roots

Nominal Stems, including

Comparative and Superlative Stems

Stems of the Numerals

PART III. WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION.

THE NOMINAL INFLEXION. DECLENSION.