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PRACTICAL
MASONRY, BRICKLAYING,
AND
PLASTERING,
BOTH PLAIN AND ORNAMENTAL;
CONTAINING A NEW AND COMPLETE
&c.
OVENS, FURNACES,
&c.
CA L
TREATISES ON
&c. &c.
I'LLL
DESCRIPTION OF
IN ALL
THESE ARTS,
LONDON:
THOMAS
K E L L
^'.
.\
T E R N
T E R R O W.
MDCCCXLI.
London:
Bartholomew Close.
PREFACE.
IN submitting
the present
Volume
to the Public,
we have
acknowledgments for the very favourable reception which the previous work on Carpentry and Joinery* has met with, and we feel much gratified in having been,
in
scientific Principles
of employing
Wood
we now proceed
to deve-
lope, in a similar
manner, the
Our plan
ing them by grouping together those principal branches which have a natural
relation to each other,
in
which a work;
man
in the
by the knowledge
as
new
as
it
will
Work
itself
practical
utility.
will
its
plan.
First,
we begin with
given a
its
branches
Next we
* The
plete
System of Lines,
ciples,
and CABINET MAKING being a new and comUse of Workmen; founded on accurate Geometrical and Mechanical Prinin Carpentry, to Roots, Domes, Centring, &c. in Joinery, to Stairs,
Hand-rails,
Niches, &c.
and
in
Cabinet-Making,
to Furniture,
Work
is
completed
in
One
Shilling each,
or in
Six Parts at Five Shillings each, containing Ninety Plates, and upwards of
cuted by Artists of the first-rate Talent.
Two Hundred
Di.igrams, exe-
IV
PREFACE.
Secondly, a Treatise on
Bricklaying
is
introduced,
Tiles, &c.
;
The Theory
of Brick-bond
and their application in both Plain and Ornamental work, with specimens
of Ornaments, in the various styles that have been adopted in that department at
various periods.
Fourthly, of Slating, in which the various qualities of Slates are fully explained,
for
buildings.
Fifthly, of
full
description of the
:
workmen
in all these
A
is
given of those
in the
body
of the work, by which means a greater facility will be obtained in consulting the
AVork.
The examples
selected from the
engraved
and are
chiefly
dis-
tinguished Architects and Civil Engineers, viz. Messrs. Wyattville, Soane, Rennie,
Telford, Brunei, Perronet, &c. &c., as
we
Our
and endeavours
in the pro-
secution of these Works, have been to combine Theory with actual Practice, and
to render both familiar
and easy.
CONTENTS.
BOOK
Intkoduction.
with the modern use
I.
MASONRY.
PAGE
The
compared
I
Chapter
I.
Parabolic Arch
Elliptical
Arch
draw a tangent
Of
S
the Cyclograph
Chapter IL
Stone Cutting.
To form a plane surface, 4. Winding Surfaces, 5. Angles formed by plane surfaces, 5. Of the construction of semi-circular right arch, 6. Of the forms prothe intersection of Arches, 6. Elliptical Arch, with splayed jambs, 7. To duced by Arch, To an oblique 7. find oblique circular Arch, find the joints of the joints of an 8.
Oblique Arch,
Vaults, 10.
9.
arched
An Archway
&c
-.
11
Of spherical Vaults, or Domes and Niches Of ribbed Groined Vaults. Raking Mouldings Of the Materials employed in Masonry Of Mortars and Cements Chapter III. Of the Construction of Foundations Chapter IV. Of the Construction of Walls Of Wharf, Dock, and Revetment Walls Chapter V. Of the Construction of Bridges, &c
12 13 14 21
30 33
35 38
Theory of Bridges
Illustration of the Principles
42
of Bridges
47
31
Chapter VI.
54
55 58 59
Chapter
VII.
60
61
Chapter VIII.
Ornamental Masonry
Appendix
to
63 77
77
Ornamental Masonry
Description of Plates
Chapter IX.
82 83
BOOK
Introduction.
II. BRICKLAYING.
88 96
96
Chapter
Chapter
I.
Bond
II.
100
101
103
104
108 108
Ill
common Groins
London Docks
112
Docks
113
VI
CONTENTS.
Chapter IV.
The
On
PACE
Principles of Brick Vaulting, as under the Hall of Christ's Hospital
Mr. Tappen
Chapter V.
On the
to
Wapping
and of the setting of Coppers
Various other Designs for the sections of Tunnels, Sewers, Culverts, and Drains ..
Chapter VII.
Fire-places,
133
a Copper Boiler for Brewing
to
136
137
Chapter VIII.
Gas Works
139
1
!
On
Fire Bricks,
&c
setting five Retors in
141
an Oven
Retort Furnaces
Chimnies
for
Gas Works
Metal
. . .
149
,
On On On On On
Chapter X.
156
158 159 160
in
the
the Properties and Construction of Blast Furnaces the Construction of Fire-places for
Warming Rooms
Dwelling Houses
163 166
An
BOOK
Introduction
III. PLASTERING.
171
Chapter
I.
Of the Gothic
style
of Ornament
Chapter
II.
Of the Elizabethan style of Ornament Of the old English style of Ornament Of the Roman style of Ornament Of the Grecian style of Ornament Of the French style of Ornament Of the Materials and Compositions used in
Manner of forming Columns or
177
178
Internal Finishing
Pilasters in Scagliola
183
Chapter III.
Of External Compositions
Roman Cement
Terra Cotta, and various Methods of using
Mastic
;
184 184
it
185
manner of using
it
187 189
192
1
Chapter IV.
Operations
92
193
called
Ribs
194
1
95
196 196
Roman
Cornices
196
Gothic Cornices
197
CONTENTS.
Chapter IV.
Vll
PACB 197
French Cornices
Working Ornament by hand
Modelling
197
198 199
20t)
Casting in Plaster
~00 200
to Plastering
Fixing Ornaments
Chapter V.
201
Chapter VI.
An Explanation of
the
203
BOOK
IV. SLATING.
205 206
207 208
The
best
Method of
them
212
214.
The kind
of Slates to be used
in
Comparison
216 217
217
The
Slaters'
Tools
Valuation of Slaters'
Work
in Slating
218
Plumbery or Plumbing
On the Properties of Lead On casting Sheet Lead On casting Lead Pipes
Laying of Sheet Lead
219 219
219
220
221
On
CHAriER
II.
various
Pumps
in
Terms used
House Painting
The economical
application of Paint
224
224
225
<
Of Of
235
226 226
Putty
The
best
Modes of executing
Painting
Of
Painting Stucco
the Colours used in Painting
227
228 228
2?9
On
On
Chapter
Painting in Distemper
Graining
III. Glazikg.
On
Work
On On On
valuing Glaziers'
Work
Windows
Glaziers'
231
2J
Charges
Cleaning
232
On
the
mode of Measuring
Work
232
The same
Volume
;
we recommend
is
not adopted, the Plates will be most convenient opposite the Pages, as below.
MASONRY.
Plates
I.
BRICKLAYING.
Page
Plates
Page
e.
Description of Arches
II.
Cyclograph
Stone-Cutting
XXIX. XXIX.
XXIX. XXIX. XXIX. XXIX.
On
Brick-bond
of
96
Fields
/,
Plan
Cold Bath
III.
Prison
g, Description of
h,
103
Arches
105
with
V. Construction of Arches,
&c &c
&c
6
7
7 8
i,
Door,
107
&c
107
10 10
11
i,
The
ing,
....
12 13 14 33
/,
Ill
Ditto
....
112
ffi.
n.
0,
The Principles of Ditto The Principles of Ditto The Principles of The Principles of
Ditto
Ditto
113
114
.... 116
p,
119
....
XV.
36
41 51
XXX.
XXXI.
129
XVI. Bridges
XVII. London Bridge
XVIII. Bridge of NeuiUy
129
..
48 49
.
XXXII. Tunnels, Sewers, and Drains XXXIII. Design for Coal Oven, &c
129
XIX. Bridge
XXXIV. XXXVI.
XXXVII.
XX.
50
51 58
XXXV. On
Copper Boilers
XXI. Domes
XXII. Construction of Spires
XXIII. Light-House
Retorts
154 159
165
60 57
76
77
78
Shaft
XXIV.
XXXVIIL XXXIX.
Pump
XXV.
Mouldings
XXVI. Balustrades and Parapet XXVII. Chimney Shafts XXVIII. Gothic Arch and Chimney
PLASTERING.
XL. Gothic
XLI. Gothic
Style of
79 80
Ornament Ornament
.... 201
Grecian Chimney81
in the
Style of
XXIX.
6,
Chimney Piece
Grecian
81 81
Roman
Ditto
style
XLIV.
French Ditto
202
XXIX. XXIX.
c,
d,
Design
for
Monument
in
82
XLV.
Slating
212
The
Publisher respectfully recommends to each Subscriber the following highly useful and necessary
Addenda
;
:
correctly
Being a
of Mea. ascertaining the average Value of the differeut Artificer's Works employed in Building ; with every Clause in thi the suring and Valuing in the various parts of the United Kingdom ; comprehending, also, the Substance of Gentleman, the Building Act. Intended as a Key to, or Illustration of, these Works, and will be found highly useful to the Surveyor, and the Architect, as well as to all Persons anywise concerned in the Art of Building.
THE PRACTICAL BUILDER'S PERPETUAL PRICE-BOOK of Sequel to " THE NEW PRACTICAL M.A50NRY AND CARPENTRY," elucidating the Principles the particular Customs
The Addenda is completed in Eleven Numbers or Two Parts, in Quarto, illustrated with suitable Plates. It rtuly, in Octaoo size,/or the convenience qftlte Practical Builder, Surveyor, If c, price Eight Shillings, sewed.
is
PRACTICAL
MASONRY, BRICKLAYING,
BOOK 31 AS O N R
I.
&c,
Y.
INTRODUCTION.
Art.
1.
lYxASONRY,
practically considered,
It,
is
hewing of stones
into
the particular forms required, and the union of them by level and perpendicular joints, con-
The
operations of
Masonry
require
much
some
it
skill in
will
be necessary to divide
but
first,
we may
was
its
and
fall
of the Empires.
Italy,
among the
These
countries seem to have been favoured with every thing which could contribute to their beinc
eternized
for they
abounded
their
The
skill
and mechanical
called King's
" a
the
magnificent structure at
Cambridge,
Lord Orford,
work
that
and
its
it
has,
from time
It is to
to time, received
the
homage
in
of those
it,
who
merits.
as in
was given
to the selection
of
durable materials.
Modern masonry
is
chiefly directed to
somewhat
different objects
skill,
and
if
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
CHAPTER
I.
Arcues
is
Thus we have
a
circle,
and
when
the intrados
style
an
ellipse,
or a parabola.
Sometunes they
called a
Scheme
to
The
the
To
describe a Parabolic Arch, the span and height of the arch being given.
1.
Method
draw
to
Plate
I,
Figures
and
2.
Let AB be the
CD
Divide
span: bisect
AB
in the point C,
and
CD
;
perpendicular to
AB.
DC,
Make
Produce
CD
making
DE
;
equal
join
into
EA, EB.
EA
into
and,
3,
EB
&c.,
lines will
Figure
is
is
rise
of the arch
is
considerable.
is
Fig. 2
adapted to the head of an aperture, where the radius of curvature of the arch
is
very great,
but small.
Method 2.
Fig. AB
3.
and
CD
parallel to
CD.
Divide
1, 2, 3,
AC
into
AB, and
AE
same number.
From
the points
&c., in
AE, draw
AC.
lines to
D,
intersecting perpendiculars to A,
drawn
1, 2, 3,
&c., in
Through the
points of intersection
BD.
To
determine the joints of the arch -stones, or to draw a straight line perpendicular to
In the curve take any other point, as B, at pleasure, and join BA.
Bisect
Bh
in e,
and
draw eg perpendicular
equal to
8.
to
AB,
Make fg
then join
fe;
draw hi perpendicular
hg;
then hi
will
Or, draw
ah
2.
parallel to
AB,
to
meet and
DC
in a;
and make
Figure
D6
1
Da;
b,
to hb,
it is
the joint.
and
apply to figure
ARCHES, &C.
Practical
Method of
from
centres,
and of drawing
9.
the joints.
Let
AB
Bisect
AB
in C,
and draw
CD
perpendicular
respectively
to
CD
Draw
DE and AE,
AB and CD. Divide AC and AE each into three equal parts. Produce DC to g, and make Cg equal to CD. Draw lines from the points of division in AE to the point D, to then, e and / intersect other lines in ef, drawn from g through the points of division in AC
parallel to
;
will
Bisect Bisect
/D
in h,
i
AC in k.
with the
ef by
fh
in
i.
Draw
q parallel to
AB.
From
:
i,
fq.
fq
if,
intersecting
AB
in
I.
From
h,
i,
describe an arc
fe
and from
le,
By
arc,
transferring the places of the centres to the other side, the half,
DB,
of the semi-elliptic
ADB, may
be described.
To draw a Tangent
10.
to
With
the radius
AC,
as a centre, cross
AB
in the points u,
v,
called
the
focii.
Let * be a point
su and
sv.
Draw
usv,
and st
will
Or, by finding the position of the centres, and that of the lines for describing the curve, as
in jig. 4, the joints
may be drawn,
as g'r from
li,
st from
i.
Figure 6
is
marked
out.
out,
Figure 7 a
marked
for
drawing
them
as before.
The Cyclograph.
11.
For drawing
is
may
also
be applied,
&c.
as at
is
in various cases, in
1,
Figure
of the plate
II,
and C,
which
inserted in a tube,
B, to the height of the arch or curve, then fixing the joint by means
Figure
1,
No.
1,
is
its
Figure
2,
4i
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Figure
3,
No.
1.
1,
the biass-work,
No.
2,
is
a side view of
figure
3,
No.
4,
Figure
No.
2, exhibits
the joint
when
No.
1,
and No.
3,
sec-
tions oi figure 4,
and No.
2.
slit
Figure
to
5,
in
it
which
move
in,
when
is
altered to adjust
is
and
it is
by tightening the
fixed.
Figure 6
is
a section of the joint and tube to a larger scale, with a steel drawing-pen inserted
;
instead of a pencil
it
is
Figure 7 and
CHAPTER
II.
STONE-CUTTING.
12.
in formino- as
many
may be
necessary, in such
surfaces
nient
may
include the intended form, with the least waste of stone, or in the most conve-
way
Upon
worked
to them.
first
may be
as
little
re-working as possible.
to explain
it
we proceed
may be remarked,
be done
in
any
much
at the
and
In
at least as
much regarded
to
maxim should be
To
1,
plate
III,)
AB,
of the stone;
this
called a draught.
Another draught, AC, should be made along another edge, from one of the
first
;
extremities, as
A, of the
in
a diagonal direc-
STONE CUTTING.
tion,
5
all in
so as to meet the other two, and form a triangle; the three draughts will be
one
in
plane.
Run
a fourth draught,
AD,
which the
first
draught at
E
/5
and then reduce the intermediate parts between the draughts, so that the whole of the surface
may
BD
and DC.
It
enables the
workman
to reduce the surface to a plane, with less risk of breaking the edge of the stone
;
and
also to
examine
its
wmding can be
detected.
15.
To
let
Aa
(Jig. 2,)
on the
arris
dg, be drawn
lines,
parallel to
parallel to
AC.
i,
The
and from
to k,
AaB,
may
will
every where coincide with the surface, and also with the cross-draughts, then the surface
CD
AB, then
the line
divided into 'equal parts, and the lines be, ef, dg, drawn parallel to
must be
the line
CD
them
into the
in
parallel to
AC.
till
//,
e to
i,
&c.,
surface finished, so that the straight-edge will apply in a direction parallel to the plane
it will
AaB,
n. Of
The
angle
made by two
planes,
which meet
one another
to the arris
;
in
in a plane
perpendicular
and
in
two
lines
one
in the
one plane,
will
be
This may be
by drawing
two
lines,
AB
at right angles to
at the point
it
E, and
line
CD,
so that
may
AEB,
will
may be
EA
and
EB
to
will
be always
in the
same
line
plane.
Also, a line
any point B,
in the
Une EB,
EA,
From
this
planes,
when two
6
18.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Let
ACB
and
arris
upon the
cutting
plan.
in the point
Draw
DE
perpendicular to
DC,
CE
E, and through
draw
AB
per-
pendicular to
CE.
With
is
the radius
ED
CE
in
and join
AF
and BF,
AFB
drawings.
Of
19.
the Construction
of a
Se??ii-circular
Right Arch.
Divide the opening into two
Let
ABCD
{Jig. 4, plate
EF
AFB, which
the intrados
tlie
GHI.
mq, nr,
GHI,
of the extrados, into five equal parts, and draw the lines k
o,
Ip,
E,
which
will
of the same
form, they
Choose a stone of
sufficient length to
wall,
and of breadth
Reduce
the space between the joints of the intrados; then square one end,
parallel to
ac
to
abed, and
wall.
pqm
1,
{fig. 4,) so
that
extremities
pq
may
1,)
when
a])plied to
bd when
applied to the
other
then hollow out the intrados, and cut the joints or beds according to the traces, as
exhibited at figure 2.
entirely finished,
and
all
manner
but, instead of forming the heads on the stones themselves, a bevel, such as
Shewn
in fig. 4,
koA, may
The upper part of fig. 4 represents an arch-stone, accompanied with the moulds of each
side,
which
will
Of
20.
cutting
it
the
Forms produced by
which
will
be produced by a plane
we propose
the curves of an
MFL
an arch, and
BADC
its
plan,
and
let
it
be
CA, then
section,
may
be found thus
in the curve,
line
of the arch to
meet the
of section
CA,
as in the points 6, 5, 4.
From each
from the
perpendicular to
CA
;
set ofF
CA,
ML.
As, make
EG
equal to
is
NF;
^k
equal
g d,
&c.
the form of
half the arch required, and the other half will be of the same figure.
21.
The
line of intersection of
is
two arches
in a plane
is
:
make
let
BD
line
be the
line of intersection,
2, 3, in this line
draw a
in the direction,
a, b, c, in
points,
The whole
of the figure shows the plan and sections of a plain groin, with the joints of the
T/ie Elliptical
22.
To
Arch,
Figure
Figure
1,
on plate V,
is
2,
the Elevation.
The
qrstu,
ABCDE
is
the
:
first
vwxijx, the
is
fifth
The
The
breadth of
of
tile
these beds
The
lengths
to the lines
And
also,
fronts of the
The
distances kf,
I,
V,
AE,
of the impost.
To find
23. Let
the Joints
1,)
of an Oblique Arch
in
Masonry.
ABC
DEF
DF,
of the arch.
Make
the angle
DFG
equal to the angle which the wall makes with the jambs of the arch, and draw
tance from
KN,
at a dis-
is
represented by
GFNK
represented by
GHLK,
and that
FIMN.
8
Divide
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
ABC,
many
number.
Through
3, &c.,
draw hnes
\ q,
2r,3s,
Sec,
KN of
and
let
the wall at q,
2,
Sec,
at n, o, p, &c.
In figure
draw the
hi,
straight line
AB
ABC,
hg, gh,
ABC.
Draw
the perpenn,
diculars
ACE, gin,
Make
AC equal
1
;
to
AH,
figure \;
:
gk
equal to k
figure
hi
to lo, figure \;
im
equal to
line
mp, figure
and so on
&c., to
CD.
Likewise make
all
AE, g n,
soffit
o,
K\j,kq,ms,
EF, which
will
of the arch.
The
pond
parts
CA E, klon, Impo,
&c., are the heads, or exact forms, of the ends of the stones
of the arch, and therefore the moulds of the ends of the arch-stones must be
to these figures.
made
to
corres-
To find
on the
Let
s, u,
From
draw the
lines Jr,
J t, J v,
&c.,
&c., then
From
the points
;
q, s, u,
draw q
a,
AH,
GF
in the points
a,d,g, &c.
draw re,
AH,
cutting
GF
&c.
Draw
be,
ef
hi,
&c., parallel to
DF.
bed of the stone answering
to
Then,
to find the
to the joint q
r,
draw the
straight line
abc.
No.
1,
ba, figure
1,
1.
Draw ae
make ae equal
parallel to
to qr, figure
equal to
GK or HI,
t
;
&c.
In No.
1,
draw cd
e,
and e d
parallel to
then
will
and No.
3, to
the joint u v
and so on.
Nos.
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3,
&c., are the forms of the moulds for the beds of the right-hand arch-stones
and Nos.
&c., reversed
viz.
for the
on the left-hand:
the crown
;
No.
1,
and No.
2,
to,
and on each
side of,
No.
2,
and No.
In working the stones, the beds ought to be numbered the same as the moulds,
the arch-stones
order that
may be
The
the
work one of the beds, and mark the form of the mould upon
rest
from
it.
To find
24.
the Joints
Let
ABNO
{figure
1,
rtmn
is
the
plan
AMrn, OQsn,
the imposts
rm and sn
being the
lines of the
jambs.
OBLIQUE ARCHES.
Suppose the obliquity of the arch
construction, the figure of the stones
to
9
for
its
may be
Find the centre C, of the span rs, which join with the points of
straight hnes
by the
At
make
the angle
rCD
obliquity; in
CD
PE, meeting rC
E Upon EC
:
Ea6cC,
Per,
arcs meeting
EC
in
c';
will
Par, V
b' r,
and
PC
Pa"b" c"C;
and,
join
PC a", PC b",
and
PC c",
C
will
may be determined by
In
the triangle
PCE
we
at
CP
and the
side
PE and EC can be found then, in the triangle ECc, we have given the angle at C, EC to find Ea equal to Eo' lastly, in the triangle EPa' we have given the sides
;
PE, Ea',
The The
general formula
the face of the stone and 180Xn> cot. req. ang. =:cot. obliquity x sin. where w is the
is
Pa'E, which
the angle
made by
its
bed.
',
number
and
?w
series, 1, 2, 3,
is
&c.
last.
The
As
formula
is
= cos.
obliquity
cos.
^.
:
a particular example, suppose the obliquity to be 73, and the' number of stones 11, the
10
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
of the stones,
in
One
when
its
finished, will
;
appear as
in
figure 2
where
PDE
and
construction
PDE
iace,
and
Oblique Arch.
26. Let
ABCD,
(fig.
1,
DC,
(fig. 2,) on
DFC
DFC
into as
many equal
is
number of
in this
instance,
five.
Draw
draw
and perpen-
marked by dotted
To form
jamb
HBCL,
will
make
a bed for a stone for the springing-course, and work the four adjacent sides each so as to be
at right angles to
IIIKL.
MNOP
MN
may
coincide with
KL
and
IH
make
parallel to
each other.
The
stone, being
now brought
to
the
mould
CNORQC,
NO
may
CN
with ab.
Draw
work
dghe
and the
fiirst
the mould
STUV,
(fig.
1,)
abed,
(fig. 4.)
to
its
Then work
also
zontal surface
apply the mould of the head to the ends of the stone, as in working the
arch-stone, and
draw the
d,
The
key-stone, exhibited
is
m figure
5, 'is
wrought
in the
as
completed,
represented by figure 6.
A
21.
Semi-circular
Semi-circtilar
Arched Vmdls.
To form
this arch.
to
be made,
its
BC
A
is
the two
EL
by which
arch
GHc
described.
Divide the arch into any number of parts, at pleasure, and through the points of division draw
the lines Ut,
to give the
K^, wN,
will
heads of the stones the proper projection, for intersecting the semi-circular vaults.
in the plan, the
To mark
vaults, let
fall
the
perpendiculars
CO,
SI,
QR,
R,
I,
RT,
IV,
OF,
POR
and EFL.
ARCHED GATEWAYS.
11
side of a stone, take the thickness
To
of the wall
AB,
end of
this line
draw
then
ZAN,
dress the two heads by this bevel, applied square to the bed
trace a line parallel to the arris,
set off
b,
and
and on the
soffit
by the curve
Gw, and
that
is,
ANr, and
wQC
rest
is
is
The
explanation.
An Archway revealed
in
order to
give room for Gates to ojien when they are made to the height of the front Arch.
28.
The
elevation {pi.
X, figure
1,)
will give
is
the impost,
BB the
reveal,
Let
ABDC,
that
efg
the reveal,
^C
the splay.
of the reveal a
e'
b;
and,
at the
C and
of the splay, draw the perpendiculars CF' and DG', in which find the
points
F and
make
I'L' equal to
to
gC,
{fig. 2.)
perpendicular
FG
may be
in this
The most
the splay.
dicular to
parallel to
joint-line
complicated joint
OP, formed by
To draw
1'
/?^. 2,)
I'
Draw
I'
S' perpendicular to
;
L',
and Q'
draw U'
parallel to P'T',
meeting the
O'P'
V, and
is
Draw Make
bed
to
{fig- 2.);
draw
U'W
will
perpendicular to I'L',
make
hi,
ik parallel to
AB.
kl equal to
O'V, mn
abcdln
and
all
the joints which are cut in this forked angle are found in the
same manner.
join dp.
To
No.
1,
prepare an arch-stone, as
plan,
whose length
is
equal to
am
lAefgCK,
the
soffit
On
tail
of
No.
1,
draw ab,
to
mark
of the stone.
2
erf,
PUACTICAL MASONRY.
representing N'P' on the elevation.
a curved bevel
h' I',
draw
Then,
reveal,
witli
{fig. 3,)
f,
gh. No.
1.
By
h,
by
b'l',
till
the forked-joint
in the
will
appear
form of No.
The
3,
is
Of
29.
The
joints of a
Spherical Vault, or
Dome,
portions of conic surfaces, and the vertical joints are planes tending to the centre.
Figure
1,
plate XI, represents the plan and section of a spherical dome, with the joint-lines of the stones;
and, where the
number of
is
The
first
operation consists in dividing the plan and section into the proper
number of
stones,
and drawing the joints; the points through which they pass being transferred from the plan
the section by the faint dotted lines
to
shown
in the figure.
The
next operation
is
to find the
moulds
is
a cylinder to
will
mould cut
the same as
to a bevel,
the plan of
the wall,
and the concave surface may be worked from the under-bed same curvature
is
having
its
as the
dome.
of the section; and,
in the section
will in like
The
is
included in the
lines, 5-6-7-8,
manner,
to
being applied to
its
angle
bad
will
be the bevel to
is
surface.
the diameter
11-12,
on the upper
surface,
and
diameter dq, on the lower surface; to these draughts work the conical
shown
in fig. 5,
to a
completes the
set.
it is
With
foreign authors,
cmlk, and
we
Take
fine
GROINED VAULTS.
and, from C, draw lines through
13
{Jig. 2.) equal to a
Zi
and c;
b,
also,
make ab
in the section,
and from
like
then
will
chml
In
manner h efg
marked with
letters
corresponding to
those of the parts whence the measures are taken in the plan and section.
30. Spherical Niches are constructed in the same
is
When
Dome
has an
the same
division
corresponding
moulds.
Of Ribbed
32.
Groin Vaults.
the most difficult to construct
;
The
is
Let
ABCD,
{fig.
first division
;
of a ribbed-groined ceiling
GH
fig.
the ribs
meet
The
conditions to be attended to in the construction, are, that the plan of the ribs must
circle
meet within a
body -ribs
little
to obtain these
be taken to remedy
it.
1,)
to turn
on the centre, B,
till
it
be
parallel to
;
BA;
and
is
BE
BI
will
traced from
BE,
in the
lines.
The
pannels
enough
to correspond with
but, in
some
made
to
bond
and the
by dowel?,
The
is
an octagon, (fig.
5,)
is
these are
and
cast in
Roman cement
but
in
Of Raking
33.
Mouldings.
designs,
in
which
be
proper manner.
l-t
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
1,
Figure
plate XIII,
is
a, b, c, d, e,
is
the mould-
ing at the angle of the break, or projection of the pediment, with this moulding given,
to find
we have
Let
af
parallel lines
and
let
a k and
is level.
At a convenient
place draw
2> t
parallel to the
edge a h of the
b, c, d,
level
ogee
c/i,
and
in the
given
di,
parallel to af,
ct, perpendicular to
pt
the points
also,
parallel thereto,
distances
p q,
and
s'i',
diculars to t'p', or af, meeting the lines af, bg, ch, di, ee, in the points A, B, C,
points, will
To find
at the top of
the pediment,
to t" e,
qp,
to t" s",
Draw
e.
"d, r"
c,
also
perpendicular to t"
Then
abode
will
be the
common
section
is
1.
CHAPTER
II.
BuiLDiNG-STONE
is
a dense
it
it
is
formed
is
or the
manner
in
which
it
its
is
The
texture of stones
of a mixed nature.
called
hme, and magnesia, with small quantities of some of the metals combined with
alkalies
;
acids, water,
sufficient quantity
the nature of
Slaty stones
more or
less
strongly together
easily sepa*
when the
and cohere so
may be
MATERIALS.
rated, the stones are called Slates.
15
The
the stone, and they should always be horizontal, or as nearly so as possible, in a building,-
otherwise the action of the weather will cause them to separate, and
stones generally have a slaty texture, and the direction of the layers
fall
off in flakes.
Sand-
may
;
often be discovered
in others, the layers
lie
by
when they
may be
parallel
to them.
may be
workmen
only attain
is
it.
Among
by
most durable
in
which the
slaty structure
least
distinct,
When
injured
38.
Granulated stones
When
the texture
is
grains or concretions are small, stones of this kind are always strong and durable,
cretions themselves be so.
the con-
Granulated stones are sometimes open and porous, but when they
frost,
are uniformly
so,
the expansive force of the congealing-water to be distributed in every direction. 39. Stones of a
compound
structure,
that
is,
partly laminated
;
and
for
])artly
it
granular, have,
more or
less,
may be
observed, in
it
parts, render
very liable
away by the
40. All the kinds of stone, in the quarry, are found divided
joints,
by
and
it is
difficulty
The
qualities requisite
tenacity,
resisting the
decomposing
effects of water,
and
of the atmosphere.
they must also often have to resist the impetus of floating bodies, and particularly of large
masses of
ice.
Those
stones which are the hardest, are not precisely those which have the
this
we have a
familiar illustration in
is
much
harder,
far
more
easily
The
causes that accelerate the decay and destruction of stone in buildings are nearly
the same with those which occasion the destruction or wear of rocks on the surface of the
globe
parts.
they
may be
mecha-
nical division
and separation of
its parts.
IG
43. Decomposition takes place,
in water, or
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
when
the stone contains parts that are, more or
less,
soluble
Iron,
and
in
almost
all
stones,
and
it
is
When
stones
The
kind of decomposition
is
always
still
further hastened
iron,
;
by increase of temperature.
which does not contain
in
its
arid,
some
;
instances,
when
united with clay and magnesian earth, they are of a gray or greenish gray
iron
air,
finally,
the
iron,
latter
first,
But
:
stones, containing
combined with
jaspers,
full
&c.
affinities
but
or perhaps can be, known, respecting such changes, unless the com-
Disintegration
is,
is
by mechanical action
the chief
cause
the congelation of water in the minute pores and fissures of stones, which bursts
is
them
slaty,
or irregularly granulated.
fail
The
in
from
this
cause;
often thawed,
and
filled
again at night.
piers of bridges,
to
water and
45. Granite
is
compound
its
sihceous rock,
;
in
the proportion of
its
constituent parts,
and
degrees of hardness
;
is
In the selection of
gi-anite, in
given to that
ease,
and for
common
purposes,
will
it
may answer
very well
but,
harder granite
Bridge.
be found much more durable, such as the Aberdeen now using for London
In Cornwall,
many of
decay, the felspar in that granite contains a portion of potass, and to this
composition
may be
The
built of
MATERIALS.
been selected with
of decay,
building.
fret
17
care, for
it
in
front of each
to
Cornish granite was used for the Waterloo Bridge, and shows some tendency
in the piers
;
away
the
is
of Aberdeen granite.
Kind of Granite.
foot.
^'^7"
..
..
'
Cornish Granite
166
lbs.
Peterhead
Do Do
164
different in external appearance
;
Aberdeen Blue
46.
..
well as chalk
lime.
Of
almost
infinite variety,
deno-
minated marble.
in its
Though
in
most indurated
in
state, as in crystalline
change
the course of
is
many
centuries
when exposed
the decomposition
more
rapid.
the
highest polish, are those which will prove the most durable.
softer kinds,
The common
all
lime-stone districts
47.
The
Roe
employed
in architecture
they can be worked with great ease, and have a light and beautiful
appearance, but are porous and possess no great durability, hence they should not be employed
where there
is
much carved
;
is
on the other hand, on account of the ease and cheapness with which
architects,
who appear
to .have little
much
in
its
quahty; but
we
paid to
its
many of
the
modern
building mouldering
away
on the whole,
it is
less injured
House.
we may
The
Vll. afTords a lamentable proof of the inattention of the architect to the choice of the stone.
in the
Bath stone,
in
which the larviiig has been farthfully copied, but, fiom Ine
Probably the arcnitect
may
predict that
was bunted by contract, which precluded the use of a more durable bat more costly stone.
18
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
are most compact and durable, and preserve their coating of smoke; the wliite stones are
if
effect
is
columns of Somerset-House.
all varieties
in their
neighbourhood.
The
and
is
stone
it
is
so
much
may be
and
wear
required.
The Painswick
little
variety
is
waste; the Ketton seems to be the most durable, but none of theso
steps, stairs, or other
works
49.
The
^"f safely
.
"''^
" '"
;i
ou
172^
1 70
lbs.
83,000
1
74.000
132
1231
..
.. ..
129,000
Portland Stone
30,000
17,000
Bath Stone
50.
in their
to
have a greater
and
sometimes combined
The
iron
is
fre-
quently in the state of black ox^de, and in this state rapidly combines with a larger portion
of oxygen,
when exposed
to the
Stones of this kind, in their native beds, some hundred feet under the
by
blasting
yet,
when
exposed
for
some months
becomes
soft,
and shivers
into
small pieces.
rarely
sufficient
air
in
them
be effected by
and
the
and the
loss
which
this
many
public works
is
well
known.
is
The most
;
the
common Whin-Stone,
called basalt
bv
geologists
this stone is
it,
found
in
many
villages
are built of
the
neighbourhood of Kelso.
grain,
when broken,
beds
it
is
in its natural
is
in
irregular masses
MATERIALS.
hard for the finer works of masonry
in the
;
19
is
found
in loose blocks
beds of
rivers,
and places of a
where
it
ther, for
some
varieties of whin-stone
decompose by exposure
the
manner of other
argil-
become
rotten.
By
and
it is
said to be
frequenfly cleaned
Whin-stone and
in
it
indeed
damp weather
runs
is
damp,
down
in streams,
The
and, according to
experiment,
52.
lbs.
may be supported by a
Of Sand-stones
common,
argillaceous
Sand-stone
common
to
The
quarries of
siUceous sand-stone about the cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh afford very superior kinds,
which contribute
riority,
in
is
no small degree
the supe-
however,
built of brick
have been
laid out
and executed,
Dowager
value.
The
stone
is
when exposed
to the weather,
it
is
Most
part of
Kelso
stone,
is
built of
it,
vicinity.
it is
be procured from
There are
also
many
other excellent beds of sand-stone in the course of the Tweed, but that
is
little
Dry-
plenty of sand-stone
;
it
is
of a deep red
so
seams
it
is
not,
therefore,
generally
useful as
some other
at
it.
many
as a durable mateis
The
cut
but the sculptor, Mr. John Smith, of Damick, has shown his
it
On
is
a bed of sand-stone, of
excellent quality,
for almost
it
may be
applied.
to
a great extent, by the proprietor, Sir George Douglas, of Springwood Park, but has not been
20
biou'^lit into general use.
It
is
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
of a white yellow colour, and rises from the bed in masses
In the old buildings, in the neighbourhood,
purpose of masonry.
there
is
uncommonly
soft
I)uilders
is
found
it
it
will
be of immense
:
from
its
beauty,
but we
conclude that
it
is
of a nature not adapted to resist the weather, and that, in process of time,
to wetness
by being exposed
and drought,
it
becomes of that
soft state
we
find
it
in
among
little
be wrought with
In Dumfriesshire are great quarries of sand-stone, both of a red and white colour, exceedingly
good
Maxwelton are
The
masses here are very small, and prevent the masons exhibiting their
in cutting figures,
to
If
we mistake
this stone
is
found abundantly
on account of
its
we have
yet
The
quarries in the other parts of Scotland, being nearly of the same nature with those
already described, and this remark applying also to the quarries of sand-stone in England,
we
it
since
its
utility,
as a building material,
is
very gene-
known.
kind of argillaceous sand-stone
is
it
much used
is
in
London,
for
steps,
is
an objection
absorbing
damp
rapidly,
which
cold and uncomfortable for flooring. strength and the weight of a cubic foot of the diflerent varieties of sand-stone are
The
:
under
,,,.,,, Weight of
163
1
a cubic
lbs.
foot.
Pressure
^^^^j^
it
will bear
with
^^ ^ ^^^^^.^ ^^^
lbs.
Dundee Stone
Bromley-fall Stone
119,000
. .
1
57
09,000
157
1
..
.
102,000
54
98,000
82,000
152
..
21
we
generally employ
matter for connecting the stones together, and rendering them firm and compact.
works are
to
be exposed
built, this
it
will
Hence
is,
that
we have
occasion for two kinds of mortar, one that will set and harden under water, called by Smeaton
a water-mortar, or cement
oo.
Common Mortar,
it
and on the
we
shall,
many
discovered by Smeaton, Dr. Higgins, &c., but which, not being generally known, have never
may be used
to
burn
common
if
mortar,
composed
chiefly of lime
and
a piece of one
its
of them be slowly burnt or calcined, so as to expel the whole, or nearly the whole, of
carbonic acid,
is
it
loses
its
weight
added
a finely-divided powder,
If this
The bulk
of the powder
stiflf
into a
sets
or solidifies as a hydrate oi
air.
This constitutes
common
water.
it
Hydrate of lime
consists of
Common
it
trace of iron.
It
much
in external characters,
as chalk, marble,
common compact
limestone, &c.
common
mortar.
;
The
hardest
marble and the softest chalk make equally good lime when well burnt
slack
when
whereas
make
it
slack.
It
was
also observed
common
little
it
has
be effectually excluded
22
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
an instance of some which had been covered up in a ditch for a very long time, and yet was
found
57.
to
be of an excellent quality.
Sand.
it
To
in the
it
expensive,
is
besides,
would be of
The
commonly used
to
sand,
and
this sand should be of a hard nature, not very fine, but angular,
affinity for lime, also
able degree of
free
it
is
should be
reason
is
soft
or earthy matter,
The
obvious; for mortar, composed of soft sand, cannot be harder than that sand.
Sea-sand makes
to
good mortar,
particularly water-mortar.
Very hard-burnt
brick, or
tile,
reduced
a coarse
powder, also makes an excellent substance to mix with lime, for many purposes.
The
common
mortar,
is
easily ascertained
by
trial
enough
propor-
should be added to render the mortar rather short than tough under the trowel.
tion varies from
The
parts of sand to
of lime,
to
parts of sand to
of lime,
by measure, the
proportion differing according to the coarseness of the sand, the nature of the limestone, and
the precautions used in burning
it
;
all
set proportions
those
who
In
many
is
impossible to procure
an enormous expense.
Making Mortar.
The
instructions given
is
by Dr. Iliggins
;
for
making stucco-mortar,
wanted
We
first,
will,
therefore, insert
them
in this
Of
drift-sand, or pit-sand,
;
which conis
sists chiefly
the
freest, or
may be most
by washing, from
;
clay, salts,
thirdly,
that
suffers
bulk
in
washing.
Where
kind,
size
described, cannot be easily procured, let such sand of the foregoing quality be chosen as
may
in the following
manner
sifted in
and
let
the stream of
is
much
Lynn-sand,
sneci-
commonly used
fically lighter
in the
London
than sand,
may
and coarser
23
in
in the receptacle,
be washed
so as to
sieve,
into
two parcels
a coarser,
less
which
will
remain in the
which
to give
to
which
will
which
is
to
fine
sand be
dried separately, either in the sun, or on a clean iron plate, set on a convenient surface, in the
manner of a
sand-hea'v.
in
slaking,
that which
is
the freshest
made and
closest kept
that
which dissolves
in
vinegar with the least effervescence, and leaves the smallest residue insoluble, and in
Let the
lime,
chosen
according to these rules, be put in a brass-wired sieve, to the quantity of fourteen pounds.
finer
it
will
it
be
let
the
hme
be slaked, by plunging
suffering
it
to
be made
and
let
the part
of the lime which does not easily pass through the sieve be rejected
the lime be thus used, until as
are quarts of water in the butt.
and
let
fresh portions of
many ounces of
Let the water, thus impregnated, stand and through wooden cocks, placed
at
covered until
it
becomes
clear,
different heights
be
drawn
tcater.
off,
as fast
and
is
called lime-
The
with
it.
Let
fifty-six
lime-water on
and
especially
on the unslaked
part be immediately sifted through the last mentioned fine brass-wired sieve
let
the lime
instantly,
and
let
This
finer
which
may be
in the usual
but
be
sifted,
so as to be
much
commonly
sold for
making cupels.
The
best materials for making the cement being thus prepared, take fifly-six pounds of the
;
placed horizontally
it
may
flat
liquor,
To
24
the wetted
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
sand add fourteen pounds of the purified lime, in several successive portions:
up
together, in the
mean
making
fine
mortar
all
and beating
together.
Tlie ouicker and the more perfectly these materials are mixed and beaten together, and the
is
it
will be.
to
be applied
shorter
in all
common
stucco,
it
it
ought
to
be worked expeditiously
it.
The
ground on which
it
is
to
be laid
ought to be well wetted with the lime-water in the instant of laying on the cement.
is
The
is
lime-water
also to
be used when
it is
when
a liquid
When
fine sand,
juantities
such cement
is
required to be of a
still
it
pounds of the
wet
it
and
in the
jf lime, or thereabouts,
-he
It is
used
in
work intended
or stucco.
But
it
may be
applied to
all
same manner.
When,
for
is
required
much
be provided.
Of
this coarse
or rubble, take
fine
fifty-six
pounds,
;
of the foregoing
coarse
and of the
cementing-liquor,
purified lime,
somewhat
less,
of the
ther in the
When
the cement
Gray
cement
is
obtained, either
is
making
cement and of
flint,
hard
stone, or bricks, in
to the
moulds of the
air,
open
to hardeti.
25
When
is
such cement
is
powdered
terras
be used
and,
if
the sand employed be not of the coarsest sort, more terras must be
added, so that the terras shall be one-sixth part of the weight of the sand.
When
such a cement
is
it
may be
may be used
powder
is
in the place of
;
sand
or other
six
finer
more than
times the weight of the lime, nor less than four times
weight.
The
more
will the
cement be
liable to
Where
the above described sand cannot be conveniently procured, or where the sand cannot
be conveniently washed and sorted, that sand which most resembles the mixture of coarse and
fine
sand above prescribed, may be used as directed, provided due attention be paid to the
is
to
is finer,
Where
sand cannot be easily procured, any durable stony body, or baked earth, grossly
sizes
may be used
in the place
of sand, measure for measure, but not weight for weight, unless such gross powder be specifically as
heavy as sand.
softer, lighter,
and
too
fine,
in certain circumstances, to
not require so
much
make
and a
Hme-water
sufficiently useful
may be made by
When
may be used
in the
that
fourteen pounds and a half of chalk-lime will be required in the place of fourteen pounds of
stone-lime.
The
proportion of lime,
is
as prescribed above,
may be
is
venience,
when
to be applied where
it
and,
may be
diminished.
The
may be
and
so
that the
fill
calcareous matter of the lime-water, and the matter attracted from the open
air,
may
and
26
PRACtlCAL MASONRY.
of almost every well-dried or burnt animal substance
especially
The powder
bone-ash
;
may be used
;
instead of
and the
whose earth
will
mineral
fuel,
will not
burn to lime,
will
The
may be
in
those
circumstances especially which admit the quantity of lime to be lessened, and in those wherein
the cement
is
The
art of
building,
and
in
making
artificial
As
the preceding
it
differs, in
many
particulars,
is
from the
founded.
common
make
process,
may be
which
this difference
When
is
much
;
clay, the
workmen
lay
down
made by
will
be impossible to make
crystal-
good cement
lization
for
it
is
depends on the
it
;
of the
litne
whole mass
into
must be evident
that,
changed
in
one single particular, by the process of being mixed up with lime and water, the mortar, of
will
less,
portion to the quantity of friable substances used in the composition of the mortar.
On
the
other hand,
stance,
if
is
a stony sub-
and not
and as the
lime,
by perfect
crystallization,
becomes likewise
of a stony nature,
stances,
will itself
must
follow, that a
be a hard,
solid, unfriable,
for
one of the
method from
is
common
old mortar, and other rubbish, from antient buildings, which are frequently
made use
of,
as all
less,
is
of muddy,
soft,
particles.
that,
Another
essential point
when
is
capable of being
made
into
good mortar
or durability of the mortar depends on the crystallization of the lime, and, as experiments have
when reduced
is
must follow
27
;
will necessarily
be veiy imperfect
that
is
to say,
it
also necessary,
is
may be
the
purpose
the best
and spring-water
The
Roman
an opinion that
their constructors
in
com-
parison with ours, might justly be called cement: and that, to our want of knowledge of the
materials they used,
is
inferiority of
modern
But
a proper attention to the above particulars would soon sHow that the durability of the antient
edifices
their mortar
materials used.
The
following observations
will,
we
of doubt
Lime, which has been slaked and mixed with sand, becomes hard and consistent when dry,
by a process
similar to that
stalactites in caverns.
But,
when
exposed
to
the
air,
the
calcareous matter
it
contained in
begins
to attract
carbonic acid
In proportion as
does
so,
it
and
to re-assume
its
or marble.
When
to all intents
The
the lime be
all
it.
reduced to an
or crystalline
upon
It is this crystallization
left
which
is
for
some time
to
hard crust
is
though
or
its
it
takes place in
summer
of the lime,
evident that
on the formation of
crystals,
it is
crystals,
among them.
like,
The
making
is
answered by
sticks
full
If,
between
but,
when the
particles
difficult to
and strong.
That the
crystallization
may be
28
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
be used, the ingredients be perfectly mixed together, and the drying be as slow as possible.
An
and
and
stones,
In the old
Roman
works,
the great thickness of the walls necessarily required a vast length of time to dry.
The middle
in at
poured
lization
in
among them.
in
Thus a
performed
The
indefatigable pains
and perseverance,
for
all their
they would take care to have the ingredients mixed together as well as possible.
The
conse-
quence of
solid rock
;
all
this
is,
manner are
all
59.
com-
bined
Roman cement
or the effect
terras.
is
produced by
natural
mixture, as
bination
at a
is,
when we mix
Dutch
The
com-
and
it
it
is
much
less
we
advise
to
be resorted to
we propose
to
now known.
the kind of stones called clay-balls.*
Roman Cement
60 per
is
made from
The
best stone
contains about
iron,
cent,
of carbonate of lime,
and 8 or 10 per
cent, of protoxide of
inferior
The
stones contain
is
peroxide of
salts.
pro-
coast of England,
size,
and
at
Boulogne,
in
France.
it
The
is
stone
is,
after being
broken
to a
proper
and then
ground
to
fine
colour,
when
is
the stone
inferior.
is
good
to a
till
the quality
The powder
much
is
to
be used
and, in
order to use
river-sand
;
it,
mix
it
with not less than an equal portion, by measure, of dry, clean, and sharp,
clear water as will form
it
it
then add as
is
more
and
so
begins to
happens
building,
in
about
fifteen
for
the setting
may
commenced
in
less
When
the moisture on the surface disappears, and the cement feels dry
;
and warm
and hardens
is
increased
in cases
is
where
it
being
set.
&c.
;
They arc by some called teptaria, from being generally divided by thin eepta of carbonate of lime tudns helinnnfii
and by
other,
29
it
A mixture
same mass
of
mortar should never be made, for their setting properties depend on different combinations, and
which
interfere with
in the
Icement
the
worthless by mixture.
;
workman
If the setting take place too rapidly for the nature of the
the cement, in powder, be spread out so as to expose a large surface to the air in a
this
dry place; in
is
setting
powder
injured
by the
set.
process,
is
not so
much
being partially
An
is is
The
lime-stones adapted for this purpose are the blue lias of Somersetshire, the clunch of Sussex,
lias
procured at Aberthaw,
Wales,
for the
Eddystone light-house
Kind of Mortar.
Lime
in
Powder.
Puzzolana.
CIcaD Sand.
No.
I.
Eddystone Mortar
Stone Do.
2 bushels.
2 bushels.
1 1
1
I
2. 3.
2
2 2
bushel.
Do. 2d
sort
2
3 3
4.
5.
Face Mortar
Do. 2d
sort
2
2
\
i
6.
Backing Mortar
a stony
article,
Smeaton remarks,
No.
1,
will,
in twelve
months, acquire
will,
in time, acquire
the materials have been thoroughly mixed and well beaten together.
An
it
and, indeed
puzzolana.
63.
Terras Mortar,
is
also very
good
in
for water-works
it is
Andernach,
is
Terras
much used by
the
Dutch
stalactitical excres-
Smeaton employed
.
No.
30
Kind of Mortar.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Lime
in
Powder.
1
Terras.
Ciran Sand.
No.
1.
ii.
Terras JNIortar
......
2 bushels. 2 2 2
bushel.
1
Do.
2cl
kind
bushel.
3.
4.
5.
2
.S
2
is
;3
The customary
bushel of terras.
64.
a day's work of a
man
for every
When
neither
Roman
expense, then
basalt, clay,
Lime may
also
common
chalk-lime acquires a setting property resembling that of the lias-lime, bv being long exposed
to a certain degree of heat.
fit
partially destroyed
and
it
is
important that
CHAPTER
III.
SUBSTANTIAL foundation
;
is
of the
first
importance
in
masonry, as without
it
no work
can be durable
and yet
its
construction
soft,
is
and bricklayer
or marshy grounds
and the
with
little
Planking
fir,
of the foundation
in thickness
and
dilapidationii
having been occasioned by the decay of planks, the use of them has, by judicious architects,
been
lately
abandoned
is
and large
to,
used instead.
that a
67. Piling
had recourse
more
support.
The
piles,
CONSTRUCTION OF FOUNDATIONS.
earth, are
31
Their length
is
made
of
fir,
the ends of the piles are cased or shoed with pointed iron,
The machine
feet; with a cast-iron wheel at the top, about eighteen inqhes in diameter,
move
in.
is
weighs about
or seven hundred
This ram
slides
sometimes
is
in grooves,
of the upright.
ladder
down
in the frame.
When many
piles are to
be driven, double
men
may
alternately will
be necessary.
The
near together as
be considered proper to support the building, and the tops sawn off
filled
level,
and the
intervals
up,
chalk, stone,
and rubble
encircled
by plank-piling
all
grooved
on
and,
when driven
to
forced between to
Some
deemed
;
eligible
for
foundations,
fir,
within infirm or
swampy grounds
and have,
had recourse
and
to a cradle of oak, or
in quartering, strongly
feet,
in bays,
in lengths
:
up
bedded
in water-cement.
&c.)
The
if
foundation of
the quarters of
this,
because,
quently the sinking of the building would be regular, though not altogether prevented.
69.
The foundations
piles,
of Bridges are generally laid dry at the piers, by the water's being,
new
course, or
by erecting a cofler-dam.
A
ai-e
coffer-dam consists of a
double chain of
driven into the ground, at a sufficient distance from the intended pier, to
in
;
when
to
the piles
all
mediate parts
they are then finally planked inside and out, so as to form a complete case.
is
The
ever
then
filled
little
water can
has,
percolate,
in is
removed by pumping.
how-
been practised.
It consists
32
which
at
PRACTICAL MASONUY.
once forms a
floating-raft,
is
is
and the
floor
upon which
is
to be erected
composed of
stones,
so arranged as to float
till
it
has advanced in
height
so that, if sunk,
This
levity is
being
worked with
specifically lighter
The
pier
is
sunk either by letting the water into the vacuities, or by loosening the ropes
its
but
reception,
by drcdging-machines.
level,
the water out, or by means of the machines in the vessels, and the ground then satisfactorily
levelled.
M. Labelye
boxes
the bulk of the box, though loaded with the pier, producing a mass specifically
:
after
in erecting Blackfriars'
Bridge.
in the following
manner
The
piles
oflT
below
lov.'-water
mark
filled
on these
floor
piles a grafing of
timber was
This
is
a very simple
The
when
London Bridge,
as
piles,
driven
site
of the
pier,
and cement.
So soon
so that
the heart
To
protect the piers of this bridge, sterlings were constructed round them.
A
and
sterling consists of
an enclosure of
piles driven
bed of the
;
river,
secured by horizontal pieces of timber, bolted by iron to the tops of the piles
within, to the piling of the pier, filled with chalk, gravel, stone, &c., so as to form a complete
defence to the internal piling, upon which the stone piers are erected.
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS.
33
CHAPTER
IV
The
antients used
several
in
which more or
less
masonry
:
They had
and
XIV,
fig. 2,)
but the
whereas, in the
much
the courses are neither level, nor the upright joints ranged regu-
perpendicularly to each other in the alternate courses, nor in any other respect corres-
which
all
that
is
regarded
is,
To
in
saturate, or
cases,
fill
is
most
where small
it,
admit of
It consists in
while hot,
among
body of the
The
walls called
;
which
an equal thickness
and Pseudo-isodomtim,
when they
and the
are unequal.
solid nature
;
Both these
of the stones,
so that they do not absorb the moistness of the mortar too rapidly
is
prevented from
falling,
the wall
is
united.
by the Greeks,
were
built with
left
shell,
fill
the intermediate
Walls of
of three parts,
in the middle
faces,
space between the two faces was constructed in the same manner as the faces themselves
(fig. 5)
;
single pieces.
A, A, extending
34
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
wall.
These
different
methods of uniting
persons
all
who
are
and
durability.
The
existing examples of
Roman
when
sufficiently
prove
its
durability
in the
now
72.
The
modern buildings
is
is
often necessary
as a pro-
tection
from
fire,
and was
The
according to the nature of the materials, and the magnitude of the edifice.
of
Walls
entirely
hewn
stone
may be made
and
present
builders. 73.
it
rises,
for the
is
diminished
and
if
it
should be reduced in a
greater degree,
to
be supported by
floors,
it
much
reduced by internal
the external face of the wall having only a slight inclination, called
The
become
first
;
objectionable,
In
precaution that
next,
required,
is
to dig
tile
and
it
has been very properly recommended that where walls are wanted, the ground should be well
laid,
in
which are
to
support them.
is
74.
The
of
much importance
the strength of a
;
wall or to\^er
if
obviously greatest
when
all
for
they be oblique, they must have a tendency to slide away laterally, and the wall must be
:
walls,
little
together without regular joints, the parts in contact tend to separate the walls by their action
may be
of
some advantage
in
so strong as
kind.
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS.
It is
3o
hewn
stone,
not unusual to
make
but these
settle unequally,
The
Church
at
Rome
show some
75. It
is
not of
much advantage
in walls
to use
three times their thickness; otherwise, from the difficulty of bedding them equally, they are
liable to
hence proper crossing of the joints with stones that are not so long
is
a better method.
it
to strength,
We
it
will
be useful
to
buildings in Europe.
The
pillars pillars
86,000
lbs.
The
The
60,000
at
St.
Mary
Rome
60,000
41,000
Rome
is
pillar in the
of red-
sandstone
piers
*0,000
St. Paul's in
London
39,000
piers
St, Peter's at
Rome
XIX,
33,000 30,500
pillars
dome of
fig. 1)
8,000
The Bagneux
it
vertical,
and
in the axis
;
of each
pillar
hence, any
to
hazardous
Of Wharf,
11.
S^'c.
Walls
have frequently
to
fluids, or
of earth acting
;
and sometimes
built,
they require,
In
be most firmly
the object.
it is
them
be considered,
36
PRACTICAL. MASONRY.
is
1,
plate
.)
but an equ,.l
fig. 2.
less
material,
to
obtained by giving
exterior slope
it
an exterior slope, as
For
fortification,
^'auban used
make
this
of the height,
perish,
it less,
walls having so
-f
much
is,
slope,
hence
later engineers
sufficient.
its
make
i of
the height
is
or -vs
in
To
equi-
we would adopt
In some instances, the bulk of the wall has been increased, by leaving spaces in
filled in
the
work
to
be
and
have
been
built as in
Jg. G
and the
latest
change
is
to
make
The
79.
The
materially increased
mean
and
breadth.
The
deprived of counterforts,
it
would be
of the earth.
it
should be understood
let
that the
(.Af?- Ij
bank of earth
itself
may be
sloped so that
it
will
stand,
and
this
it
slope be
ac
plate
is
is
XV.)
it is
horizon
Now
it
is
sustained
it
abc;
be
less in weight,
the
line
da
then
is
when the
overturn
forces are found in a horizontal direction, the pressure on a foot in length, tending to
the wall,
is
A'S
-^
c'-\
and,
enect,
Its
PSc
Where
is
the height of the wall in feet, s the weight ot a cubic foot of the earth, and c' the
we
shall
mortar, and of the earth, because a wall generally has the whole stress upon
before the
mortar be
set,
become compact
and, also,
when a
wall oversets,
it
cannot be
sustained by a mere arris, but the angle would crush and shorten the leverage the weight of the wall
acts
with,
mav be
estimated at
-5:
of the leverage of
Now,
MI,
in
all walls,
t,
the
mean
the weight of a cubic foot of the masonry, will give the weight of a foot in length
/(/(<;
that
is,
the weight;
is
therefore,
^ = the
and making
it
= -^-
we have
he
/__. \/ 6 urn
^
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS.
82.
37
common
earth, n
= |;w=I30;*=96 lbs.,
height in
feet.
83.
For sloping
^ih
then n
.6043,
t
and
same as the
it
last,
= "ST h.
but a sloping back has
ofiFsets
will
mass,
much more
upon
it.
ge
he
times the
is
mean
then n
for
"*";
and
= he \ /5 \'
c (nt
r-Ts
1
and,
<
when
the slope
equal to the
mean
thickness,
common
we have
height.
horizontally, should
be "215 times
its
86.
fall
A wall ought to be
this
problem
will
show that
sufficient
If a plain wall
be not of
hence, for
all
sloping walls,
to the
7, 9,
and
resist
10.)
Where
walls
have to
becomes
*/
is
"'
:=
'~~~'
^'V/
130
lbs.,
wall,
(fig. 1,)
w=
and
i,
therefore
"44
//
88. If the wall has a slope of one-sixth, (as fig. 2,) then the
mean
The
we have
but,
in prefer-
ence, describe some of the most important works of this kind that have been executed.
In
exterior slope of \,
and
made
the wall
5t
He made
diminished counterforts at
feet,
from 15
to IS feet apart;
and
and
to the length,
and
The
exterior
less in later
works.
90.
Of
many examples,
which was
feet
;
first
used
by Jessop,
curve
is
West-India Docks.
The
feet,
which are 29
the face-
described by a radius of 72
is
from a centre
level with
feet,
by 3
ft.,
and
38
18 feet apart.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
As
the slope
is,
in this case,
the rule {art. 85) ought to apply, which gives G*2 feet for the
mean
thickness.
Where
less
than the
mean
thickness
is
at the top
of
the wall, there will be considerable advantage in increasing the thickness of the base, as has
been done by Mr. Walker, at the entrance-basin of the East-India Docks (see fig. 10)
wall of which
is
the
22
base,
and 3|
the counterfortt^
vertical.
2}
feet wide,
and
91.
As an example
of a sea-wall,
is
we have given
15
30
feet,
and top 1\
feet,
12
the counterforts are 15 feet wide, and 36 feet from centre to centre.
to defend
in
The
it
Plymouth,
is
shown,
XV,) but
it
is
straight-lined figure,
and wants a
to
2 tons
in weight, in such
manner
in
shown
in
the section.
1825.
92. In order to secure walls,
dove-tailing,
and
CHAPTER
V.
&c.
as
it
The
construction of Bridges
is
largely contributes
towards the improvement of that system of internal communication which diffuses the benefits
of industry and trade throughout the British Empire.
In the theory of the construction of bridges, mathematical science, in
cised,
ject.
all its
dignity,
is
exer-
and
it
has,
To him
especially
who
as
art
to
which the man of science can apply his speculative principles more successfully than
to the
39
theory, however, did not at one period keep pace with practice, but now,
will
in directing the
operations of
the mechanic, and the carpenter and builder will lean, with
of the mathematician.
The
construction of bridges
is
a subject
in
itself
highly interesting;
from the
difficulty
much power
over a contempla-
mind, and in
common
to see a
its
parts, over
and here,
also,
The
is
Holding
and embellishing,
their materials, as if
it
will
be found
ornament
obtained, utility
may
in perfect safety.
The
it
could not be
and we
find, in
the erection of arches did not always correspond with the progress of other arts, even where an
The
SIMPLEST bridge
is
is
composed of a
single tree,
;
thrown across
this is the
is
but,
when
power
is
necessarj',
and
this is also
side,
in the middle,
by some means
The
next step
not
is
very simple
and
stretch as
many
as
may be
necessary, from one tree to another, on the opposite banks of the stream, and
Bridges of
this
South-America and
in India,
by using
the
is
first
Tees
at
that
Straits of
Menai
feet;
and the
abutments and towers for fixing the chains are fine specimens of masonry.
suspension bridge of this kind has just been completed over the
Thames
at
Hammer-
smith.
The
hewn
stone,
and designed
as archways
40
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
rise
of the Tuscan order, the towers are 22 feet thick, and of the breadth of the bridge, and
48
feet
they have the singular and evident defect of having no passage for
foot passengers.
The
mode
96.
The
next
of forming bridges
is
from
This,
if
is
may be
built of rough stone without mortar, and such a process would soon present itself to a rude
people.
But,
mortar,
if
the stream be at
infer
;
all
hewn
we may
for
is
clear
hewn, and before a proper foundation for the pier could be had, the union and experience of
various arts were required
sort,
:
hence, then,
is
we conclude
accomplished,
which a work of
this
far
advanced
in civilization,
and has
the
command
With
much
well-regulated labour.
97.
of stone, the Chinese pretend that they erected bridges in this manner
arches were
many
centuries before
:
known
in
but,
claims that this empire has held forth for the high antifeel
but
little
assertion.
In
Egypt and
in India, countries
many
have
and
been known
antient
The Greeks
sculpture,
and carried
to
their
knowledge very
an obscure claim
used
it
much
less in
to the
Romans,
;
then, that
is
we are indebted
no certainty as
their
ciple in architecture
but there
to the time
when
it
was
first
practised.
It is
asserted,
but, if this
knowledge of the
we
believe
it is
may be
first
we know, from
history,
Romans were
the
to
apply
it
it
to useful
purposes
the oldest
in
Rome, and
41
like,
and
in erecting
monuments
98.
uncivilized nations,
into
Romans were
perfect
common
use,
we
description of most of the massy structures of this kind that have been reared in other countries,
chiefly to those
in
London.
in the
originally
begun
Mary
:
Colechurch, a celebrated architect of those times, and occupied thirty-three years in building
but
this
when
it is
considered that
it
was
The
bridge at
;
consisted of
twenty aixhes, and houses were erected on each side of the roadway
pier was taken down, and the two adjacent arches were converted into one, the span of which
was seventy-two
removed.
feet
its
breadth forty-five
feet,
it
were
The
remaining arches were very narrow, and the piers inconveniently large, being
twenty-five feet in thickness.
from
fifteen to
The
to
was nothing
recommend
and the
fall
of water under
it,
necessary to build a
new
bridge.
laid
99.
The
foundation-stone of
1220
feet in length,
and 44
of
feet in width,
having a commodious
It consists
thirteen large,
The
;
76
feet
the
25
feet
each
;
52
feet
76
feet.
The
The
others decrease
equally one foot on each side; every pier terminating with a saliant right-angle against the stream.
The
arches are semi-circular, and spring from about the height of two feet above
feet.
The
size
is
no
false bearing,
nor a
false joint in
The
one of the piers sunk, owing to being undermined by removing sand out of the
bridge was opened for passengers in 1750, and cost ^^2 18,800.
belye,
The
I,a-
The
engineer was
M.
100.
About
ten
another
was begun,
;
at
known by
the
designed by
42
Mr. Robert Mylne
one hundred
plate
:
PRACTICAL MASONRY
it
an
elliptical
is
is
feet in span,
(See
XVI.)
The whole
is
995
feet,
the breadth of
centre arch
the carriage-way
is
28
feet,
feet,
on each
side.
The
100 feet span, and the four arches on either side decrease gradually towards the shore, being
and 70
water-way of 788
feet.
The upper
side
surface of
on each
by an elegant open
stone balustrade.
Over each
pier
\&
an open
recess,
or balcony,
columns, with pilasters, which rest on a circular projection from the pier above the high-water
mark.
Each extremity of
circle,
the bridge
is
rounded off
to
left
in the
form of the
arches being
quadrant of a
elliptical,
The
and of wider span than those of Westminster, the bridge, of course, has a lighter
;
nevertheless
it is
and
will
was finished
the most important points of the theory of the art, in order that the reader
tion
may
see
its
applica-
more
clearly.
Tlieory of Bridges.
101. In the
bility; as,
Theory
of Bridges
we have
first to
sta-
by a proper knowledge
of,
and attention
this
The
a wall
celebrated Dr.
Hook
if
nails fixed in
this
curve
is
commonly
investigated
by
different mathematicians.
at its extremities
by two pins or
this
nails,
it
will
form
itself into
Suppose that
it
obtained a position in
the beads in the arch
then
;
all
formed
will
be the catenary.
we suppose
become
same
pieces of a cubical form, equal in height to the diameter of the globes, and retaining the
position, the stability of the arch
stability.
The
arch
is
now formed of
THEORY OF BRIDGES.
iiarian curve passes
43
proper curve of equilibrium
cur^e
is
it is
therefore,
for arches
when
;
this
this
must have
haunches
filled
104.
Suppose
it
horizontally,
on a
vertical plane of
Uttle
the arch
number of equal
and
perpendiculars cutting the suspended chain in particular points; from these points suspend
pieces of chain, so adjusted that their ends
may meet
and
it
may be
proper position.
If the
sum of
same
the small chains has, to the large one suspended from the
ratio that the material to
this
;
be
filled into
will
each side of
105.
this line,
it
The
curve of equilibrium
and ought
on
to pass through
this subject
have
remained
in the
middle of the
and
still
greater than
this,
if it
pass ever so
little
any part of the arch, for then the arch cannot stand, except by the cohesion of the mortar,
to
be depended on.
is all
The
that
is
neces-
sary to insure the stability of a bridge of moderate dimensions and of sound materials, and the
strength of an arch
is
beam
;
to support
a weight by an increase of
depth
in
its
dimensions
but a greater
depth gives
it
any occasional load on any part of the structure, but the magnitude of such a load
very considerable, in proportion to the weight of the bridge
;
seldom
with
cient
its
weight, and must be arranged for convenience of passage, and the depth will be sufB-
when
the stress on each square foot cannot possibly exceed one-eighth part of the pressure
for the arch-stones, or that load
(See
and
o5.)
44
lOG.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
The
may be found
for
manner.
On
a vertical
{fig. 3, plate
c6
by a
scale of equal
parts,
draw a horizontal
is
drawn.
then cb
:
Also
arch
:
if
ac be
107.
to
if
the pressure at
cannot be resisted
:
slide
on each other
if
this,
however,
an event not
occur in practice.
general pressure on any joint, passes beyond the limits of the arch-stones, the joints will open
at their opposite ends, unless they
fall,
and
if it
continue to stand
it
will
another form.
108.
it
only
as an increase in the weight of an arch of sufficient magnitude to cause the curve of equilibrium to
fall
within
its
base.
and
from a point d as
:
stones
tial to
lO'J.
then as ac
cd
weight of semi-arch
weight of the
pier,
and
this condition
is
essen-
line bd, in
is
order that
they
generally
much
in-
10.
The
IV
practical application
is
Let
= =
its
base
the
mean
X
a
s
the height from the base to the springing the angle the tangent of the curve forms with the horizon at the springing
Then
Ids zz the
=.
ae\
hence txtan
a:x - txtan
a:: io:hts
'"^"""'^'"""^
txtana
consequently
<= \
-;
/ JEl
4-
_1_
ltsy,lan a
Z^^/
ian a
THEORY OF BRIDGES.
111. Also if
45
y=
the pressure a square foot of stone bears with safety (art. 45-53), or one;
its
depth in feet
and
j^^
will
df; or
fj^^
ti
when
the arch
of the proper
;
we
fall
and
now proceed
view of the
this, in
beino-
known
that, if the
rises
and, conse-
current increased.
The
way of running
waters,
and
above
and would,
tables
tions
also,
work
we
shall,
therefore, present
two
men
is
We
many
one
do not pretend
useful purposes
will
be found
to
answer
of
The depth
has to be
attended
to, in
but we
be obtained with
similar exactness.
tables.
113.
We
shall
it
now
give an example to
Suppose
were required
;
that
Look
in the
upper
table, opposite
is
to
feet,
J,
and
;
135
will
this
about
1*6 inch,
will
and therefore
not objectionable
;
and, by the
be capable of bearing.
The By
effects
liable
may be
is
inspection,
will
be seen
is
that,
when
the velocity
the
sufficient to carry
The numbers
of
fact,
46
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
114..
The Rise of
Water
produced
bij
Obstructions
to
VELOCITY.
PRINCIPLES OF BRIDGES.
115.
47
The
is
men
in its
course.
The preceding
table supposes
them
to
they be square
is
conti-action
about
If times the head for rounded piers, and, consequently, very objectionable
in navigable rivers.
The
opinions of engineers respecting the proper form of this part of a bridge are various,
for
some contending
but,
it
is
divides the water with least resistance, and least contracts the water-way,
at the same time that these advantages are attained,
it
if,
the structure.
The
some bridge-builders
as a form
this
;
others
that
if
overcome
any other
inclination.
composed of two
arcs, containing
and
some whimsical
those
who use
the semi-circle and semi-ellipse, consider that they are the best calculated to resist the
shock of a loaded barge, or other floating body, that may come upon them, and that the
we have already
be adapted
to pass
most
freely
and
it
obvi-
We
commence our
among
in the
the bridges of
all
commemorates
is
unrivalled
XVI,)
1080
feet.
The road-way
The
in
28
feet wide,
The
between them, which are covered over with strong pieces of sand-stone
stress
The
arch-stones
48
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
tlic
The roadway
is level,
is
of the
apparent parts of the bridge are of Cornish granite, and not of a very good quality.
117.
To
apply our formula (art. 110) to this case, the weight of a foot in breadth of the
w
a
11
2,500 lbs.
the
'SS;
48
lbs.
;
feet
height
2.2 feet;
of the
point
where
curve of
equilibrium
abutment, or
the tangent of
150
con-
sequently,
stones,
\/
^s.\e to
add half the depth of the archfeet for the least thickness at
making about 21
Hence we
20
feet,
The
is
30
which
is
not
more than a
118.
To
crown we have
jc =
112,500
will
.1
lbs.,
is
tangent of a
=
;
"So
and by
(art.
bear
I
!>
114,000
a
lbs.
in feet is ii4oqox-83
^'~ '^^^
'
"^^
^""^
actual depth
is
4^ teet;
at the
resist
any change of
figui'e,
by yielding
abutment, which does not cause the curve of equilibrium to quit the ring of arch-stones.
it is
For
is
it
if
must be compensated
;
for
want of firmness
built
may
take place.
over the Seine at Paris, which was built by the celebrated French
is
engineer, Perronet,
fs
It
composed of
five elliptical
;
arches of 128 feet span, which spring from the low water line
is
the
founded on
piles,
work commences
lar,
The
arch a
there
is
segment of a
circle,
see fig.
\,
and the
section, fig. 3.
a small arch
is
for the
towing-path
effi^cted
by
inclined roads, as
is
shown by the
section, fig. 3.
(i-Q feet.
and
plan, fig. 2.
The
31
feet,
During the
ably,
changed
its
form considerin
and
its
was 3 inches
24 hours
little
in
first
published.
PRINCIPLES OF BRIDGES.
resistance to
49
still
sti-aight lines
before the centring was struck, as shown at ab, be, cd, {jig. 4.) and then: position, in regard to
fixed points at the extremities, were ascertained.
The
lines
became curved,
as
shown by the
at the
curved
lines
by the
on the
figure.
The
joints
opened
back of
The
160
is
250
feet
and the
stress
on the arch
The
which,
is
5"3 feet,
on a square
= -44,
we have (by
ari!.
= ^^^i^5!L_ = 4-6
feet;
showing
its
first
had
crown and
rise at
the
is
known from
the example
we
are
now
about to describe.
across the mountain-torrent, called the TafF, in Glamorgansture, and he erected one of a light
failed
safe
means of passage
feet,
140
with a rise of
The
arch was
finished,
the haunches
fell
into the
same dimensions
as the second,
and formed a
of circular
apertures through the spandril parts of the haunches, increasing in diameter towards the abut-
ments
this
expedient reduced the weight of these parts, so as to preserve the balance and
it
was completed
in
monument of
the
skill
of
The
at Over,
near Gloucester,
executed under the direction of Mr. Telford, the President of the Institution jof Civil Engineers,
is
It consists
35
it is
the apparent
arch being a
flat
segment of a
circle
is
further increased
* For the construction of Centring for Bridges, see our Practical Carpentry, art. 182, et seq.
50
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
The roadway
for carriages
is
17 feet wnle*
a foot-path of
feet
on each
is
side
The roadway
2 and
4.)
The depth
of the arch, at
tJie
crown,
is
4|
feet,
and
it is
Dean.
The weight
the tangent
2'7
ft.
when
there
is
no change of figure
to
be apprehended, and
feet,
this
is
with two walls, 7 feet thick, extending 42 feet from each (see
effective
the plan,
^^. 5);
these are
much more
By
and
the rule,
wc
easily
as
much more
which ensures
Of
Mr. Telford,
this is
it
is
The masonry
our next
example, and another of the immense works which Mr. Telford has designed.
bridges, the stress tends to force the abutments outwards,
is
In
common
in suspension bridges,
is
the tendency
is
to
required.
From two
579
feet apart,
over the Menai Straight, which divides Anglesea from Wales (see plate
XX,
fig. 1).
in stone,
On
the
Anglesea
feet
of 52^
span
The
weight of
the masses of masonry forming these arches balances the weight of the roadway, and the chains
are further secured behind the abutments, as indicated in the figure.
The roadway
is
is
at the
height of 102 feet above the level of spring-tides, and, consequently, there
a free space of
560
feet in width,
and 102
feet in height,
;
Fig.
2,
it
consists of
the middle
between them.
Fig.
3, is
a plan of the other end of the bridge, with part of the roadway,
nation of strong chains of tenacious iron, with ponderous blocks of stone, skilfully arranged
is
formed
and
across the sea, which separated the Isle of Anglesea from Wales.
123.
to it as
Bridge,
now
safe, is
51
The
The
150
elliptical
is
feet,
feet,
called
140
feet,
The span
130
feet,
with a rise of 25 feet above the datum, and abutments of 74 feet each.
This makes
the total length of the water-way 690 feet; the length between the abutments 782 feet; and the
total length, including the
abutments, 930
feet.
The
is
to
be 36
feet,
to the outsides
of the parapets,
56
feet.
CHAPTER
VI.
The Construction
of a
is
Dome
is
less difficult
fall,
sive centring
it
may
also
be
left
key-stone.
Many
alarm, and generally in consequence of the inadequacy of the supporting walls or piers.
The masonry
must
fit
of domes differs from that of arching, in the figure of each voussoir, which
If a
dome
with
its
^hs
of
its
if
the
masonry be diminished
The dome of
Rome,
built
by Agrippa,
is
example.
;
by the
antient
Romans
the plan
diameter 142
;
feet,
and
it is
mass
is
evident.
;
The dome
itself is internally
is
a hemisphere, with
29
feet in diameter
ft.
the thickness
ft.
10
in.
where
feet
it
joins the
it
in.
and 17
where
joins
52
the circular wall which supports
it
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
;
is
The
ribs
between the caissons are of brick, the pannel part of tufa and
pumice stones
in small pieces.*
is
The
it is is
of brick and
filled in
If
we
this
work we
piers connected
by a continued inclosing
where
it is
wall,
of ribs
and pannels
the depth of the ribs gives stability, and the pannelled spaces are filled in with as
much
lightness,
both in regard to material and thickness, as was consistent with the proper
In this remarkable structure, every artifice which theory indicates
is
em-
same
in respect to principles
and
filled in
between with
fine portico
light pannels.
The Pantheon
has
now
existed
and
its
of paltry
criticism,
but the
scientific skill
is
of an example to imitate,
On
to imitate the
dome of
the
Pantheon
but the
skill
126. Antheniius, a
Greek
dome
to the
church of
was
to
be
form of
the
dome he attempted
to raise
piers, of
at the
The
buttresses were solid masses of stone, extending, at least, ninety feet from the
and south, so
as to
These
effectually secured
the piers from the thrust of the two great arches of the nave which supported the dome.
But,
when
the
dome was
finished,
as there
in.
On
filled
;
up some hollows
on
fell
dome
It
pillars
It is said,
when the
wails were
I'aiseti
commun
people of
Rome
in the
as
tlie
remove the earth money was strewed among it, a uiound being place to wluie the eartli was removed; but the story is improbable,
pointed
tlie
for
sci-
developed
design of the edifice could not have had a difficulty in contriving a centre, and one of
53
and therefore
were erected on the eastern wall of the square which surrounded the
in,
Greek
cross.
piers of the
dome, and thus oppose the thrust of the great north and south arches.
for the third time
it
;
The dome
and though
it
was extremely
to
fill
flat,
with pumice-stone,
dome
falling a third
intended to be
formity and an example of ignorance, which should warn the architect not rashly to undertake
sufficient science, in a
Rome, an
elliptical
dome, 139
its
architects
knew
better
how
grandeur of
ment of
128.
supports.
The
inner
dome of
St. Paul's, at
London,
is
also elliptical,
it is
still
continues perfect.
The
lantern
is
summit
but the
dome
is
129.
The dome
rests, is
and composition.
fifty feet
The
peristyle
is
formed by
fifty-two
columns of
Above
is
dome
arises in
a beautiful curved
line to the
on which
But,
when
;
the
dome was
raised, the
columns
composing the
interior
began
decorating the interior, which consisted of four naves, with the lantern and
began
this
defect
was removed by
walling
up the inter-columniation
monuments of
130.
genius.
The
following table gives the interior diameter, the height of the top of the
dome from
cele-
when known,
for
The church of
St.
all
in stone,
it
but then
it is
vaulU of
weight
54
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Table of
the principal
to their Interior
Diameters.
Interior
PLACE.
diameter
in
feet.
Rome
2. 3.
Rome
Florence
.
4.
5. G. 7.
Temple of Apollo
of Saint Sophia -.
Constantinople
London
Rome
Puzzuoli
8.
9.
Temple of Diana
Mosque of Achmet
10.
1 1
Florence
Puzzuoli
Temple of Venus
..
12.
Florence
Paris
.,
13. 14.
15.
The dome
The dome
Minena
INIedica
Rome Rome
della Salute
.
. .
16.
17.
The dome
Madonna
Venice
The dome
The dome The dome The dome
The dome
18. 19.
20.
21
22.
23.
Ravenna
,
24.
25.
Marc
Venice
Paris
Ravenna
GROINED VAULTING
132.
65
When
is
tlie
is
equilibrium
a cubic parabola
and
if
result divided
by the
wall.
the quotient
is
133.
When
the weight increases from the centre to the circumference in proportion to the
is
may be
dome
will
be wholly counter-
acted by a resistance to tension in the circle, equivalent every where to one-sixth of the horizontal
thrust
;
and,
when
this strain is
amply provided
iron, the
for,
either
will
by chains of
dome
the ground
it
may
be
weight
upon them.
135.
The
plan of a
dome
is
is
pose
may form
they do not, however, possess the same property of resisting change of figure which belongs
to the circular base.
is
to
or piers, so as to be sufficiently strong without the connection obtained by binding the parts
together in a continued circle, then, the rule Cin art. 110) applies to this case, as well as to
arches,
where the whole weight of the dome divided by the circumference of the supporting
wall, or the
sum of
is
the
dome may be
crown, (by art. 106 and 111,) for when the connection of the parts
as a proper reserve of strength for duration, the arch
principles.
Of Groined
138.
Vaulting.
arch, called a vault, but so
particularly in
had been
The
plan
being a cross, the object was to find a graceful and varied form of covering,
in the
Roman Pantheon
for that
work
deep
ribs,
suggest
56
old Gothic hr'uUe at
PRACTICAL, MASONRY.
Durham,
now being
altered
is
and widened
the county of
Durham,
On
but
this subject
we have
much
plain soffit
better
we
and
common method.
for abutments,
When
by
piers or pillars,
but there
is
universally
felt,
and
often censured
commences
to
which
support
to
it,
pillars
and the
effect,
strength and fitness, which characterize the stone roofs of our cathedrals
is
most profound
in
neither has
it
descended
Her pemlant
to
our times
'*
roof, her
141. In a
dome,
if
the part supported be divided into triangular portions, the base of each
triande
is
ti-iangle is at
grams.
the same general principles apply, for they are but different cases of the same mechanical
problem.
142.
When
is
it
covers, the
curve of equilibrium
a semi-cubical parabola
is
tln-ust
of a part compre-
angle-ribs,
its rise,
one-third of
its
compartment.
it
will
be a
common
to
be found as in the
last article.
144.
The
is
parts of the groin which are on opposite sides of the pier balance each other,
and
it
usual to
make
are so connected, by the side-walls between them, that a failure from a pier being deprived of
GROINED VAULTING.
due of
or
its
57
arches
is
scarcely possible.
may be removed,
may support
145.
The
earliest
this
of Henry
filled
III.,
consisting of cross-ribs springing from corbels in the side-walls, with the pannels
;
Edward
III.,
To
this
ceeded
from
its
was confined
and
cloisters,
The
principal vaulted
Breadth.
Height.
1306
1349
200
ft.
40
ft.
82
ft.
at
Ely
100
140
46
81
1360 1373
34
45
Do.ofYork
Divinity School,
135
260
Oxford
1480
1508 1508 1516 1525
1535
Chapel of
St.
George, Windsor
65
289 138
SO
44i -
86
will
enable
many of our
" Where
147.
We
44y
is
3,)
and
we have chosen
length,
as an
289
feet in
feet in width,
and 81
feet in height
and divided
;
into rectangles, of
which the
rest-
width
Fig.
2,
is
the ribs and tracery of the vault in one part, and the form of the stones as they appear on the upper surface of the vault in the other part.
Fig.
1,
is
is
from
to
to
Fig.
3, is
a section of one of the ribs to a larger scale, showing the thickness of the
ribs.
These
Wastell and Henry Severick engaged to finish the raulliog in three yean,
these divisions of the vaulting are called "Sctereys," and, on the completion of each severey, they were to hare 100.,
there are twelve of them.
58
v'ork of the pannels
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
4^
in. thick.
is,
his n;inie
is
unknown
but
its
Henry
to posterity as the
master-
Of
148.
little
The
and generally a
convex
they vary from 6 to 9 inches in thickness, according to the quality of the stone,
The
base
is
and
When
a spire springs from a square tower, the walls of the tower are gradually inrises,
to the
shape
of
its
base
the
with lead
sometimes the
bedded
to
and run
in with lead.
The
must be perpendicular
surfaces,
and the
we have
England.
spire of Salisbury Cathedral (see plate
its
150.
The
XXI.)
is
sides resting
the wall
is
spire,
two by a passage
to
go round
it,
and one
by the parapet.
The
is
is
The
ornamented with
spire
is
ribs
up the
and the
divided
At
or stories of
the tower, and the whole of the spire, are evidently of later erection than the church, or of
the lower story of the tower; the stile of architecture
is
ments of the pediments, pinnacles, and open parapets, resemble the much-admired crosses
raised
by King Edward
I.,
at the to carry
It
spire
was ambitious
similar
it
England
404
feet
and though
is
4(J5 feet,
nor that
LIGHT-HOUSES.
of Strasburgh, which
is
b9
it
4-56 feet,
yet
its
an object of popular
the old tower 387 feet
filled uj),
To
and
that,
ties
of iron inserted.
it
appears
to
the
west.
The
date of
its
erection
is
151.
The
was finished
in
we do not think
spire
they seem to owe their effect to fine proportions rising unbroken from the base to the summit
nevertheless
spire
and the
effect of
one perfectly
Place.
plain,
ending in a needle-point,
152.
may be seen
at the
built in
Langham
When
is
a spire
is
an exact pyramid,
arrises,
though
;
straiglit,
appear concave
it
to the
and
further,
may be proved
that
where there
strength in
not a perfect coherence of the parts, the figure should be convex to be of equal
its
all
parts.
We have
we had intended,
to the interest
because, in our eyes, the beautiful spires of some parts of England add
much
and
effect
of the country.
CHAPTER
A
VII
LIGHT-HOUSE
)r lantern,
is
means of producing
li.Tht
in
so as to render
guide
seamen
154.
Those
present very
for the
little difficulty
rooms
masonry.
In some
instances,
is difficult
piling, grating,
(See Chap.
III.)
But the protection of the commerce of Great Britain required that light-houses should
indiffer-
be erected on isolated rocks of the ocean; noble works, which no man can regard with
ence, rearing their heads amidst the tumultuous waves, while the dwellers within trim their
lamps
in safety, to
guide their endangered fellow-creatures through the peril? of the storm. (See
60
plale XXIII.)
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
To
raise a
at high-water,
was
first
to
be executed
in stone,
still
remains a
proud monument of
Mr. Snieaton's
first
light-
house, as will be seen from his excellent narrative of the work, was in the month of March.
1756; and, on the 5th of April, the following month, he landed, for the
stone-rock.
first time,
on Eddy-
In the course of the ensuing winter, and following spring, arrangements were
made
vided,
for
and various experiments were made by Mr. Smeaton with lime-stone from
him
from Aberthaw,
the Bristol channel, and puzzolano earth from Italy, was the proper mortar for this building.
(See
art. 62.)
stock of oak trenails was provided for fixing the newly-laid stones to the
and joggling,
(see plate
XXIII,
them from being carried away before the mortar took bond, or while
Things ^being thus
in preparation for the
second year's operations, the attending-vessel was moored in her place, near the rock, and the
foundation-stone of the building was laid on the 12th of June,
1757
and, by
much
perse-
verance, the ninth course, or third entire course above the top of the rock, was completed by
work was
at the
;
successfully closed.
Owing
till
to
the
2d day of
July, 1758,
when
14th course, or solid part of the building, was completed, which brought the work to the
entrance-door, or to the height of 12 feet above the top of the rock; and, by the latter end
of September, the 24th course, forming the top of the staircase and floor of the
first
apart-
laid.
till
October, the outward circle of the 29th course, or the arciied roof of the store-room, was
It
was not
till
the latter
was afforded
to
when
same
state in
which
it
had been
left in
the
been
left
But
it
wooden
dome
wooden
triangles,
left
on the top of
LIGHT-HOUSES.
61
the building, and were found, on landing in the spring, to be in good condition, together with
laid,
and was
still
By
the
hewn
early in the season, and were ready to ship from the work-yard to the rock.
this
season on the 5th of July, and by the 17th of August following, the
laid,
The
exterior parts of the building which are exposed to the action of the sea are of granite,
Fig.
5,
is
inserted to assist
in the
the tendency to spread from the thrust of the floors other courses.
and fig.
4, the
The
Bell
Rock
light-house
is
improvements
is
in the
;
mode of
2,
Fig.
Bell
1,
plate XXIII,
itself is
an elevation
and fig.
Rock
light-house.
The
Rock
sunken reef of sand-stone, the highest part only being uncovered at ordinary ebb-tides.
nearest land to the Bell
direction, about
1 1
The
Rock
is
it lies
in a south-eastern
miles distant.
The
in spring-tides are,
breadth
at flood-tides, the
whole
rock
is
from 10 to 12
it
In regard to
a low state of the tide, the water varies from two to three fathoms in depth.
is
23 fathoms
ward
side,
it
The
observations
made upon
it
the currents at
produces
all
the
among
Mr. Stevenson
first
and became
satisfied
of the
on
this
fatal reef,
upon
employed by Smeaton
who
in 1807.
first
From
object was to
moor
the tender
temporary
light,
and
vessel
was
also
provided for carrying workmen between the shore and the rock.
for supplying granite for the
Quarries were
The
principal establish-
62
ment on shore was Hxed
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
at Arbroath,
artificers.
By
strenuous
and unremitting exertions the beacon-house was erected, and the foundations of the building
prepared by the middle of the month of July,
in the
The
foun-
dation had the appearance of a great circular platform of compact red sand-stone, measuring
42
feet in diameter,
to
feet.
of the light-house
now
Each
marked, so that
its
The
stones were cut of a dove-tail form, on a plan similar to those of the Eddystone light-
house.
The
foundation-stone
at
the
Bell
Rock was
laid
ceremony, on the
10th of July, 1808; and, by the latter end of September, the works were
The
building, being
now on a
part of the margin of the foundation-pit, or about 5 feet 6 inches above the lower
bed of the
foundation-stone,
is
computed
at
388 tons of
stone,
consisting of
738 oaken
trenails,
The number
this season
to
and the
beacon
itself,
now
third
year from
its
entire one,
solid part
is
ward casing of
stone,
to in
which
of the foundation-
and about 17
feet
above high-water,
The
first
circumstance attended
position of the
upon the
walls.
fuci
The
manner determined
to
be from the
preli-
was consequently
May
and, from the very complete and systematic arrangement of the works, the
experience acquired by practice in former seasons, in landing and raising the materials.
we
Having already noticed the manner of attaching the lower courses of the
similar to that resorted to at the
stones,
which was
At
the
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
wall
is
63
till,
of the
medium
is
only 18 inches.
The
apartments are connected at the ends with dove-tail joints instead of square joggles, as in the
solid
and
in the stair-case
a girth raised upon the one stone, and sunk into the other. a manner which adds
The
much
to
the
fabric.
formed of long
from the centre of the respective apartments, and at the same time forming a
These
upon
floors
rendered perpendicular, while the side-joggles resemble the groove and feather in
In the strangers'-room, or library, the roof takes an arched form, but the curve
interior
is
carpentry.
cut only
upon the
it is
composed being
all laid
upon
On
ful,
was lighted
is
The
light
is
clear
and power-
and may be
is
when
the sky
The
light
alternately red
and white.
" Far
in the
bosom
of the deep,
my
watch
keep
ruddy
gem
of changeful light,
of night
;
The seaman
scuds,
my
lustre hails.
And seems
CHAPTER
158.
VIII.
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
Ornamental Masonry
stairs,
with them,
159.
Of columns.
These
among
comprise,
is,
generally,
conoidal
shaft,
with a
diminution
The
proportions of columns,
in height.
Those of Greece
at
vary considerably
are
little
to
t>J-
diameters
Athens,
more than
In the best
Roman
The columns
The Doric
(34
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
segments of
circles, finished
to
an
arris
but someiinies
is
The
genius of an architect
generally
them
highest pitch.
To
construct a temple,
led<re
The
The
is
a proof of the
been
it
bomb.
The
used as a magazine for powder, was struck by lightning and blown up.
The Temple
erected.
of
is
almost as entire as
when
first
The
These
modern
greatest accuracy,
The joining
more
than in marble
and
the practice used by the French masons, to avoid the failure of the two arrises of the joint,
formed at everj
It
This method
is
employed only
in
plain shafts.
;
appears
have been occasionally used by the antients, though for a different purpose
shaft to be
insignia,
In the French capital, they affix rows of lamps on their columns, making use of these grooves to
adjust
IGl.
them
regularly,
effect.
The
be adorned by
flutes,
are some-
times put
up
and the
may
Temple of
The
finishing the
was a very
common
practice
among
the antients
first
in
they placed the architraves and friezes, and surmounted the whole by the cornice
finishing
down
arose that striking proportion of parts, together with the beautiful curvature and finish given
to
all
In
chanical powers, and more accurate methods of ai-ranging the parts of large works, causes the
more
scientific practice of
executing them
applied to try
in parts to
if
be preferred.
When
a plumb-rule
is
its
plane surface,
if
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
162.
G5
With regard
nothing can be learned from the writings of Vitruvius, since his text
so very obscurely
It
Some
writers have supposed that the greatest diameter of the shaft was not at the
extremities, but at
tects
some intermediate
section of
its
height
make
thence to lessen the diameter continually, so that the sides might form a convex curve.
163. Sir William
We must,
requiring so
it
much room,
in
order to place
it
and
He
moreover
;
says, that
is
among
be found
in
Desgotez's Antiquities
of
Rome.
164.
How
columns could be executed with such exactness, or how the dimensions, after
standing so
many hundred
years, could
curve-Une of their sides was that of the conchoid, we are at a loss to know, since the curvature
of
all
is
when
is
equal
so that
many
circle,
may be
all
without
its
being
And
will
when
the
from a right
to the eye,
line,
however, be most convenient to employ such a curve as can be the most easily
described, and, at the same time, will require the least space to perform the operation.
165. It
is
singular that Stewart, the celebrated author of the Antiquities of Athens, has not
favoured us with the measures of the contours of the columns, taken upon sections through the
axes of the shafts of the columns of any Grecian edifice.
traveller, in his
in
answer to
tlie
attacks of Sir William Chambers, says, that the contours of the columns of Grecian temples were
lines,
this assertion
critical
by any example.
The
entasis of
till
lately
of the student of Grecian architecture, and had escaped even the exact and minute attention of
s
G6
Stewart and Revett
;
PRACTICAl MASONRY.
yet,
of
its
who
moment
The
entasis,
and scarcely
from
infer, that
it
effect to the
an example now remaining, but the columns of the Pscudodipteral temple at Paestuni.
in
his excellent
where he
between the
columns
These
facts
seem
modern
architects
We
will
venture to affirm,
that
instead of conoidal
167.
fillets,
Some columns
as
many
;
and
fluted without
less
than a semi-circle.
Roman
between a
fillet
and a
flute
one to four
and, in the columns of Grecian architecture, the profile of the flutes in the Ionic
is
fillet
and a
flute
is
from
OF PILASTERS. Pilasters
architecture,
;
Roman
architecture in
any of the
five orders.
In
Roman
and
is
if
such columns are placed within a recess, besides the pilasters behind
and
to
support the ends of the entablature over them; in this case, a quarter pilaster must be
placed in each interior angle of the recess, so as to range with the pilasters behind the columns
Plate 4, belonging to the same parts, exhibits the sections of the shafts through the axis of the
Portico and North wing of the Propylea, the temple of Theseus, the temple of Minerva, and the Choragic
monument
at
Athens
and Plate 5 exhibits the sections througli the axes of the shafts of the columns of
tlie
tlic
giDa.
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
and with the two
pilasters in the
67
entablature over the pilasters behind the columns and the extremities of the two entablatures
but,
if
placed partly within a recess and partly without, the two extreme pilasters in the range of the
faces,
Roman
architecture,
pilasters
to
have an
not only
and
capitals
may
range
in
a horizontal
line,
may
in
which
may
be seen
in the
Rome
upon
without columns, their faces and returning edges ought to be rectangular parallelograms.
170.
Engaged
for they
pilasters are
employed
Sec,
in
order to save
room
seldom project beyond the naked of the walls more than one-quarter of their
much
They
are sometimes
employed
being
less expensive,
as at the
Duke
and
Wade's house
in the
same
place,
many
Examples where
may be
;
Rome, and
in the portico
of St. Martin-in-the-Fields
in
and examples
with,
Rome, and
in
The
not be so great as
171.
when they
are alone.
The
trunks of pilasters are sometimes adorned with flutings, in the same manner as the
The
profile
of the
flutes
semi-circle,
and
may be of
flutes,
making each
interval equal
is
to
pilaster
within the
reach of accidents, and thereby liable to be broken, the angle must be taken away by an astragal,
leaving a
filled
fillet
flute.
The
flutes, as in
columns,
may be
with cablings to one-third of their height, and the returning sides of pilasters ought to
in a fillet.
The
capitals of
;
some
trifling difierence
be observed.
In the antique Ionic capital, the extraordinary projection of the ovolo makes
it
it
may
or, instead of
on the
front, as they
commonly
(38
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
them
till
twist
The same
room
However,
in
may be
in a vertical plane,
and
to afford
behind them,
much
the face of the pilaster than those which belong to columns of the same kind.
in the
Whitehall.
What
will,
in
cree, apply to
173.
The employment
and
sect in re-entrant
it
generally
and sometimes
Particular care
to introduce
OF ANTjE. Antae
when
monument of Philopapus
affords an
example
attached
in
which
pilasters are
used
in
Greek
and
As
the
word
those
the
We
name
to
a series of
but, in
and
in tlie
the capitals and bases are of the genuine Grecian Corinthian order:
Roman
it
for
to
be found
in the
much we have
said, as
some
of,
inform us, generally, that the capitals of antae differ in their form and proportion from the
capitals of the
is
not generally equal to that of the columns with which they are placed.
as the architrave generally projected
In Greek architecture,
shafts of
the columns, and as the flanks of the antae never projected beyond the vertical face of the
architrave adjacent to the capitals of the columns, these limits allowed very great latitude for
and thus we
were
is
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
of the tops of the
pillars
69
of the antae, and the upper diameters of the shafts of their respective
columns, did not always bear the same proportion to one another, but, in different edifices, had
ON PARASTAT^. Parastatae
manner of an order
;
pillars,
Greek orders of
architecture, or to
any
fanciful
compoand
may be
the entablature
affords an
may be
The monument
of Trasyllus, at Athens,
antcB, in the
same manner as
ON
ATTICS.
An
attic
is
crown the
first
by an ornamental
piece of masonry.
The
is
height of an
attic
order on which
it
less
than one-quarter.
The
base, die,
and cornice of
which they are composed, may have the same proportions to each other as the corresponding
parts of pedestals to which they resemble.
Sometimes these
attics are
breaks
may be
be stunted,
which belong
Pilasters,
to a regular order,
pedestals.
thus formed,
attic order.
179.
The
breadths of these pilasters ought to be equal to the upper diameter of the columns
may be any
The
fronts are
they are
sometimes, however, adorned with panels which are surrounded with mouldings.
180.
PARAPETS. Parapets
They
were used by the Greeks and Romans, and are composed of three parts
is
viz.
is
and the
in its
it is
intended to obscure.
is
ASHLARING. Ashlaring
its
a term used
that
is
by masons
is
all
regarded
plain work.
The
courses should not be too high, and the joints should be. crossed
its
regularly,
which
will
improve
its
solidity.
182.
CILLS.
These
;
half;
they
are also fluted on their under edges, and sunk on their upper sides, projecting about two inches,
in general,
beyond the
ashlaring.
70
183.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
CORNICE.This
;
it is
marked
particularly
by the
hence Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, cornices are employed, when, perhaps,
is
no column of either
of the building.
its
used in the work; so that the cornice alone designates the particular
style
In working the cornice, the top or upper side should be splayed away towards
it
may more
At
of the cornice, throughout the whole length of the building, that part of each stone which
comes nearest
be
left
way
a process by work-
men
this is
done
These
joints should
which
more
Roman
cement.
consists in forming horizontal sinkings,
;
184.
RUSTICATING,
and masonry,
perhaps
invented to break the plainness of the wall, and denote more obviously the bond of the stones.
It is often
groove forms
Many
antient
185.
BASEMENTS. Instead
a Basement, on which the order that decorates the principal story of these basements
is
placed.
;
The
proportion
not fixed.
It
nature of the apartments composing the ground-floor, without having any relative proportion to
the order above.
It
will not,
it
if it
has
186.
The
is
The
full rustic
may be
The
joints
rustic,
or
may
height of the rustic nor narrower than one-tenth part, and the depth about one-half of their
breadth.
Those
rustics
rustics,
The whole
recess
is
called a joint.
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
187. It
is
71
dif-
ferent figures
to
through188. Rustics with horizontal joints are very frequently practised in Great Britain, and
out the British dominions.
The
ancient
Romans formed
their rustics
perpendicular joints, and in this they have been followed by the modern Italian architects.
189
Rusticated Basements which are high are sometimes finished with a cornice, as in the
;
Strand-front of Somerset-Place
is
only to crown
it
with a plat-band, of
of the joint.
The
must be
190.
Whenever
there are arches in the basement, the plat-band which supplies the impost
as one of the rustics, exclusive of the joint
;
introduced to finish the basement, a regular moulded base to the same must be introduced.
the height of the cornice
To
may be
;
parts
may form
the plinth, and the upper sixth part the moulded cornice.
-191.
ARCHITRAVES
;
they have their faces sunk with mouldings, and also their outside edges.
When
by the
archivolts.
Archivolts give beauty to the exterior of a building, and the best examples of them
are to be found
among
the
Roman
buildings, since
it is
varieties
rounding the two vertical sides and the head. ^Mien the aperture
to the width,
it
becomes necessary
to enlarge the
with pilasters or consoles, and sometimes with both, in order to give the whole composition an
agreeable proportion.
193.
When
floors,
may have
its
windows
decorated with a
sometimes, instead of the architrave, frieze, and cornice, the simple architrave
surrounded
with columns on the flanks, and a regular entablature surmounting the columns
of the other stories ought either to have no ornaments, or a plain architrave bordering the
aperture only.
When
the ground-stoi^
is
ought not
to return
upon the
plain
upon the
flanks of
this
an architrave or
is
pilaster, or
upon a
Sometimes
margin
made
so broad as to admit of an
194. In the application of architraves to doors and windows, the breadth of the architrave
72
should never be
less
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
than one-sixth part of the breadth of the aperture
;
but
in
some respects
considerably more,
when
Pancras.
most admired works of architecture, we find the same object generally continued
level
;
may
differ
from
each other.
broken
into three or
more
may be adorned
but,
in reality,
the
apertures of Egyptian
monuments
may have
PEDIMENTS. A
Pediment
is
two equally-inclined straight cornices rising from the extremities of the horizontal cornice, and
meeting each other in a vertical plane bisecting the length of the horizontal cornice, so that
the three cornices
may comprise a
tympanum.
Sometimes, instead
forms a tympanum
198. Pediments,
in the figure
of a segment of a
circle.
with straight inclined cornices, are called triangular pediments, and those
Circular pediments are never so
buildings, or
surmount the cornice of an order, as they are neither so elegant, nor so useful
in discharging
among
the Greeks
but the
Romans employed
;
not only triangular but circular pediments also over the apertures of doors and windows
but
buildings, as
is
Italians.
Some
when
the whole
pai"t.
covered (they say) there can be no occasion for a covering to shelter each particular
fitness,
Beauty and
little
though beautiful
an evident absurdity.
One
instance which
leaves
is
and flowers
mass of materials
some
probably
still
continue to
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
201.
73
There
are
some improprieties
:
in the
in exterior
decorations
cornice
nor
between the inclined cornices, since the pediment represents the end
of a roof, for such a mutilation would represent an imperfect and unprotected house.
202. Vitruvius observes, that the Greeks never employed modillions or dentils in their pediments, both of them representing the parts in the construction of a roof which only appear in
the flanks of the building.
However, be
this as
it will,
which dentils and modillions are not employed in the horizontal cornices of pediments, as well as
in flanks of the building,
in
which modillions or
dentils
Roman
architects.
to
in the profiles
The
for the
have a good
wide aperture,
short,
will
narrower.
When
;
the
and
when
its
for,
when
small,
between them and the horizontal cornice, and, consequently, would not have any tympanum.
short, the height of the
In
The
face of the
tympanum
is
is
often sur-
mounted with square blocks of stone, called acroteries, which, according to Vitruvius, are equal
in
is
is
fixed
it
is
commonly,
and
is
of great
utility in
adds grace
and dignity
it
to the entire
At
the
same
to
The joints
lead, or
cramped on
their
upper edges
The Romans
BALUSTRADE. A
same manner as a
series
Balustrade
is
the pillars
to
The
is
perform
more
light
and
aerial construction.
74
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
208. Balusters are sometimes of real use in a building, and at other times they are merely
ornamental.
Such
when they
before windows,
or to enclose a terrace,
and three
so
may
lean over
them with
ease,
danger of
a building,
when they
finish
or even
and ornament,
when they
be proportioned
ought
never to exceed four-fifths, nor be less than two-thirds, of the height of the entablature, on
The
good proportion
is
make
rail
or,
when
the balustrade
may be
height of the base, eight for the balusters, and two for the
210.
The
accompany
profiles delicate.
;
The
may have
but they
large.
which the height of the base may contain three, the baluster nine, and the
of the square plinth
trades, the distance
is
two.
The
side
In balus-
nor be
less
than one-third,
The
rail
pedestals.
pilasters, or
But the
disposition
of the
it
pedestals
depend on the
situation of the
piers,
By
it
frequently happens
:
that the intervals are suflScient to contain sixteen or even eighteen balusters
pedestals
may be
may be
all cases,
The
As
duced
and
to
tinued in a straight line between the dies of the pedestals, otherwise they would predominate
of the columns.
ORNAMENTAL MASONRY.
21ii.
75
When
an order
is
much
the shaft of the column, or the superior breadth of the front of the pilasters
are neither columns nor pilasters in the composition, the die should never be
its
height,
213.
The
unknown among
is
modern
be found.
The most
FASCIA
its
is
in height, projecting
:
about
fluted
it is
under edge,
to
its
upper
edge
is
commonly
windows of
the ground-stories
viz.
215.
it is
A PLINTH,
its
in
the
first
in
beyond the
walls above
it
about
an
fall
inch, with
projecting edge sloped downwards, or moulded, to carry off the water that
may
on
it.
216.
IMPOSTS. These
They form
moulded
when
left
plain,
217.
a house, in order to conduct the funnels, and to discharge the smoke above the top of the building.
218.
and
all
of them be
made of
Scamozzi
recommends
which are
as
obelisks
and vases
in the
form of towers
may be seen
at
Neither
the Italians, nor the Englishman above cited, have been very successful in theu- desit^ns; but
ideas,
to terminate
a structure
The
smoke
For, as the
its
smoke ascends
buoyancy
;
in the funnel,
will
cool,
and
it
will
therefore loose
contains, as
and hence,
76
velocity in every point of
its
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
ascent, the funnel
it
rises.
Hence
current of hot air a greater degree of velocity, and thereby to prevent the rush of the cold air
making a separate
These
be made
may be
CHIMNEY-PIECES. A
Chimney-piece
fire
;
is
an ornament
in
generally rectangular,
walls
and
is
around
range
their apertures
but,
(lie
may be made of a
to
which require
be bold,
in
modern
in
the
The ornaments
allowed at
the present time, that the inhabitants of the British empire far excel those of other nations in
such compositions.
222.
and hyperbola.
is
In
always regulated
is
but,
when used' in
that of
an hyperbola.
224.
To
and
parallel to two conjugate diameters, the jioints of contact being the extremities of the diameters,
one of them at the lower extremity of the moulding, and the other at
In the ovolo, figures
1, 2, 3,
its
greatest projection.
to
jilote
XXV,
two conjugate
and
and
greatest projection.
in
Draw
BA
and
DA
to
respectively parallel to
CD
the centre
A.
Prolong
BA
E,
making
AE
equal to
AB, and
AD
and
CD
Draw
AD,
b, c,
drawn from
to
CD,
the points a,
in the curve.
77
tangents,
To
CB
per-
and Cp,
of the
the point
being the lower extremity of the curve, and the extremity of a semi-axis
2ioint
ellipse,
Draw
CI
to
Bb
meet
pendicular to
in
BC, and
join B/;.
Bisect Byj in
and drawC^.
Prolong
Bi
draw
Aq
parallel to
BC.
From
to
AB,
to
A^
in r;
meet
Bi m
s.
Make
Aq equal
be the
ps;
9^
will
ovolo required.
226. Grecian mouldings
may
also
circles
perpen-
on the contrary
side,
6 and 7
in
make
&c.
The
most elegant forms of mouldings are those where the point of contact
the curve
is
227. Plate
XXVI. fig.
1,
on
tlie
right hand,
is filled
is
panelled
much
may be
left
without
is
sinkino-, as
was generally the practice of the ancients. The compartment, on the right hand,
with arches, perforating the thickness of the naked surface.
ornamented
duces a very beautiful aerial effect on the eye, and very proper for the termination of a wall.
A
in
however, at
all
times,
it
has been
generally desirable to break the right line which terminated the walls of an ornamented building,
order that
it
aerial.
Hence,
in
Greek
was
at first
used as an ornament,
it
in
tiles,
in
Roman
of buildings were frequently decorated with pedestrian and equestrian statues, and sometimes
with an ornament similar to the
Greek
antifixa
At
the
dis-
The
V
7S
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
position of the architects of the present clay, with regard to the termination of their buildings,
seems
to
style
in
its
native purity.
Balusters to
and
The
members
the thickness
of the belly and breadth of the plinth are each one-third of the entire height of the baluster
itself
;
and Jig.
3,
4,
is
229. Figure
somewhat
2 and
3,
its
greatest circle,
7.
plinth, are
These two
balusters have an interval between their greatest circles, or thickest parts, equal to one-third of
The
may be
to 4.
of the belly
is
recommended by
Sir William
Chambers
is
and
fences.
In these,
tlie
and the
between them
is
one-half of the
As
balusters are
not
found
in
classic
architecture,
and
of various
improvements
in their
have
been made to
intro-
The
is,
desirable
the attempt
however,
and there
is
efforts will
is
Fig.
rise
6, is
surrounded with a
which
capital.
232. Figures 7,
tion to
8,
and
9, exhibit various
forms of
rustics,
by means of a
Fig.
8,
7,
section
and eleva-
each kind.
art. 184.
between them
and fig.
Fig.
9, exhibits
between two
rustics,
in
which the
arris is
rounded.
These forms of
is
Rue de
fig. 10.
233. Plate
XXVII.
The
all
design, fig.
1,
is
formed by a
of stunted
the abacus of any one and that of the next adjacent one;
which
is
supported upon a pedestal, the plinths are not separated, but have a small recess
in
The
plan
is
a horizontal section,
70
The
series
of columns
may be continued
to
effect will
attic,
which
is
decorated with
in
a to
of pilasters,
and
chamfered
order
The
elevation
shown
at
No.
1,
No.
2.
is
235. Fig, 3,
another design, in which arches splayed from the fronts are introduced, in
The
elevation
is
shown
at
No.
1,
and the
funnels
which
is
The
in the
have each a separate head, and the angles are cut away by splays, so as to form
of the
first
middle
all
exhibits the design for the termination of a stack of chimneys in the Gothic style
of architecture.
Our domestic
many
237. Plate
elevation,
XXVIII. fg.
2,
1,
No.
shows the
of
No.
No.
3,
Fig.
2, is a profile
the upper mouldings of the chimney-shaft, Jig. 4, in the preceding plate (being pkife
XXVII).
de-
238.
To
3, let
the arcs
ab and cd,
scribed from the centre g, be the two edges of the cavetto next to the glass upon one side of
an.aperture or compartment.
will
admit
of,
we must
described also from the centre g, with the distance ge, (intercepted between the horizontal line
line kb,
many
equal parts as
the points are in number, and this must be done in such a manner as will leave the points of
sufficient substance.
Thus
let
it
be required
to
ef
may
ef
point/
in
the perpendicular k
b,
extremity of the sixth part to terminate in the given straight line kg.
point /, by which opposite parts of the
first
The
first
is
centre
is
the
eye
is
described
first
the point 2,
is
is
described
is
the
last
completed
and the
is
the point
e,
formed.
From
2, 4, e, are
In the execution
fillet
the arcs
rqn, nml, and la, are very frequently in a plane parallel to the plane of the
is
of
ab, but the plane which contains the arcs sr, rqn, nml, and
la,
recedes at a
lines,
same
fillet
is
ba.
The
curve
sr
s,
vq, qu, urn, mt, and ta. are the sunk edges. These edges continually recede from the points
>
80
ffi.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
to the points
c, u, t,
a,
in
The
qnu,
mnu,
The
in
three compartments.
each other.
To
divided
and
division
these vertical
until
base
line
of the large arch which springs from the jambs of the window.
the radius of the two side-arches springing from the jambs, the same
Then whatever be
radius must be used for the corresponding parts of the arches which terminate the upper extremities of the
compartments
fications of the
muUions
will
all
these arches
may
intersect each
other,
and form
extreme compartments.
eyes and
the
fillets.
Each of
for fig. 3
all
is
The
eyes and
In
of the points,
must always be
a direction of the
The moulding
upon
is
a section of the
In this
Fig.
the curves, both within and without, are equal and similar, and both sides are symmetrical, as
The two
notches, one
upon each
is
side, are
surface of the
as the part
The transome
window
is
plain,
but
it
may be ornamented
same manner
as the
vertical
compartments;
but with
each head ought to be similar to the arches which spring from the
When
and when
is
called a trefoil-head
it
is
and 8 are
profiles of
240. Plate
XXIX
Roman windows
{art. 192).
Fig.
I,
the elevation
The
in
upon each
side immediately
under the
lintel,
81
The
sill
of the window
is
The
sills
of ancient
common
inches,
buildings,
when
the aperture
without an architrave,
or
Windows
The
elevation of
is
in imitation
241. Fig. 2, the elevation of a window, surrounded with an architrave on the two vertical
sides
the two vertical sides of the architrave are flanked with plain pilasters,
is
surmounted by a
sill
frieze
is
and
cornice, of
which each
supported by a console.
The
breadth of the
The
which shows the end elevation of the cornice and the side of
the console,
exhibited at Jig. 3.
to the
principal
stories of buildings.
242. Fig.
4,
is
The
1,
the
sill,
fig.
which
is
wider at
Romans but
;
among
the Egyptians
for, as it
has
already been observed that, in the remaining antiquities of Egypt, the jambs of
vertical,
all
apertures are
parallel to
each other
sills
and
soffits
The
is
one on each side of the aperture, supporting an archivolt, concentric with the semi-circular
Though
window
are
Roman,
the combination
is
XXIX. a, XXIX. i.
we
Decorations
for chimney-pieces.
want of
original precedents,
are under the necessity of applying such ornaments to the aperthat the ancients
tures of fire-places, as
we might suppose
warming of rooms.
d.
245. Plates
XXIX. c, XXIX.
Designs
for
monuments.
Plate
XXIX. c,
is
a design for a
monument
fillets
Gothic architecture.
are,
in ancient
building
face,
Gothic,
may be
Greek
architrave,
The
sill,
is
oma-
82
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
merited with panels, terminating with eyes and points, as usual in this species of architecture.
The
frieze is
forms.
top,
must, however, be observed here, that the pilasters have no apparent break at the
but are joined together by a part extending over the head of the architrave in the same
The
is
filled
and
eyes.
The
One
is,
carried perpendicularly, and mitre with a corresponding horizontal part, and thus forming three
sides of a rectangle
;
in the
from the spring round upon each jamb, and meet together over the centre of the aperture, and
thus form a Gothic arch.
rectangle,
filled
The mouldings
and the Gothic curves, contain triangular spaces called spandrils, which are generally
The under
is
often
Plate
a
XXIX.
(/,
is
dcree of
the Gothic.
CHAPTER
IX.
To
all
is
Masons' work
feet,
is
generally measured with two rods, about five feet long, each divided into
common
rule
is
generally
is
if less
valued as slabs, by
All
kinds of ornamental work, as groovings, flutings, joints, rebats, throatings, copings, &c., are
The
down
in a book.
It often
happens that
same
as the nature ot
83
After thb has been
accurately ascertained.
ruled into as
;
many columns
head of each
;
as,
placed in the
They
are cast
up
valuing,
and
finishing
the account,
surveyors are
up of
its
surface,
and
all
is
measured which
seen.
248. Sunlc-work
is
that which has been partly chiselled away, as the tops of window-cills, &c.
is
249. Moulded-work
architraves, &c.
that
which
is
The
several parts
its
length,
A distinct valuation
it
labour
would be of
little
CHAPTER
IN
Abutment.
arch,
X.
an
which
is
The
walls adjoining to the land, which support the ends of the extreme arches or roadway.
Aperture.
wall,
ing a rectangle
parallel to
it
;
of these four sides, two are perpendicular to the horizon, and the other two
The
is
called the
cill,
Sometimes, instead of a
If the
;
an arch
is
is
introduced, in
called an arcade.
Arch.
Part
suspended.
84
Archivolt,
is
PRACTICAL MASOXRY.
the architrave round an arch, formed into mouldings concentric with the in;
trados upon the upper sides of the arch-stones in the face of the work
by the archivolt
is
also
understood the whole set of arch-stones that appear in the face of the work.
Ashlar.
ashlar
is
term applied to
common
or fiee-stones, as they
come out of
the quarry.
By
so
also
front of a building.
If the
first cut,
work be
it is
smoothed as
plane-ashlar
pointed.
:
marks of the
tools
called
if figured,
it
may be
tooled ashlar, or
it is
random
said to
be rusticated.
The stone bench on which work cut and squared. Banquet. The raised foot-way adjoining the parapet on the Battardeau. See Coffer-dam. Batter. The leaning part of the upper part of the of a
Banker.
to
sides of a bridge.
face
wall,
which so
inclines as to
fall
Beds of a
Stone.
The
which
woik
in lines parallel
to the horizon,
In arching, the beds were formerly called sumtnerings ; but now, with more propriety, radiotions or radiated joints.
Bond.
in
when
carrying
up
in
built,
by sinking
it,
as
comes
bed of the
river,
Centres.
for
their
piling,
for inclosing
piers of a bridge.
cofter-dam
may be
filled
Drag.
working
on the edge,
in
soft stone,
which has no
grit,
Drift.
The horizontal force of an arch, by which tends to overset the Extrados of an Arch. The exterior or convex curve, or the top of the arch-stones.
piers.
is
This
term
side.
Extrados of a Bridge.
Fence-Wall.
Footings.
The curve of the road-way. A wall used prevent the encroachment of men or animals.
to
Projecting
base.
Headers.
Jettee.
under a
pier.
85
The concave
of an arch.
stones, so as to prevent the
Key-Stones.
Key-Stone.
Key-Stone of an Arch.
closing the arch.
The
stone at the summit of the arch, put in last for wedging and
Level.
or,
Naked, of a Wall.
Off-set.
The
whence
all
projectures arise.
wall, left
Parapets.
Paving.
The walls between apertures, or between an aperture and the corner. PiEKS of a Bridge. The insulated parts between the apertures, for supporting the arches
Piers in Houses.
and road-way.
Piles.
bed of a
river,
ing a structure.
to
be-
Push of an Arch.
Quarry.
The same
as Drift
which
see.
Random
the joints.
Shoot of an Arch.
Span.
The
same
is
which
see.
The span of an arch the extension between the two springings. order secure or Sterlings. A case made about a pier of
stilts,
piles, in
to
it.
See the
following article.
Stilts.
bed of a
with a surrounding
case of piling driven closely together, and the interstices filled with stones, in order to form a
Stretchers.
the wall.
Those
Through Stones.
Thrust.
A term employed,
in
some
The
see.
86
Tools used by Masons.
Compasses.
PRACTICAL MASONRY.
Tlie masons
is
Hod, and
made from
To
sand
facilitate the
is
and
left
sufficiently loose to
it
and
thus,
The workman
at
to
and
fro, horizontally,
he returns.
By
this
may be
any
loss of substance.
slow
and expensive,
process
ing
is
mills
in various parts of
rate,
Great
Britain,
performed
is
much cheaper
and
in
some of these
upon stone
produced.
chisels,
of different
sizes,
but
iron
all
They
are usually
is
made of
elastic
and
welded together
but,
when made
steel,
which
more
will naturally
is
produce a
The form
of masons' chisels
They
are
made about
in the
eight or nine
When
in the
the cutting-edge
is
expanded
is
form of a dove-tail.
When
is
the cutting-edge
is
lower end
sloped
down
in the
form of a pyramid.
the
edge of the
chisel
but,
if it
be directed inwards,
there
is little
so as to overhang a
forty-five degrees,
danger
Of
made use
of,
the tool
is
the
largest
that
is
it is
this operation
called tooling,
and
said to be tooled.
is
The
Point
of an inch broad on
cutting-edge.
It is
The Straight-Edge
being a thin board,
mequalities of surface,
is
similar to the
instrument
among carpenters of
the same
name
it
planed straight upon one edge, to point out cross-windings and other
in the
87
It is similar to a
dome
in contour,
is
rather cyhndrical.
The handle
employed
rather short, being only just long enough to be firmly grasped in the hand.
It is
cylindrical surface
of the mallet.
is
and likewise
for
Vault.
Under Bed of a Stone. The lower Upper Bed of a Stone. The upper
VoussoiRs.
ket/stone.
is
called the
Wall.
An erection of
Walls are of various descriptions, and, on some occasions, they are denominated from the
nature of the plan, whatever
wall
may be
may
straight wall
;
is
plan
(supposed
of
its
be horizontal)
is
a straight line
A
is
plan^ wall
is
lines, either
However,
may be
called a cylin-
is
may be
a cylindrical surface.
conical wall
is
88
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
BOOK
II
BRICKLAYING
INTRODUCTION.
250.
JcSrICKLAYING
we
is
251. Before
art,
it
will
be advantageous to investigate the nature and properties of the various kinds of bricks that
in this counti7,
this country,
where
alternate frost
artificial
but, before
we
enter
partial
will
in
warm
cHmates, are
made
sufficiently
As
clay
all
making
bricks,
some of
its
peculiar
certain operations
Alumina
is
all
clays,
ties
which we find
in clays,
all
clays,
which, being combined or mixed with them in various proportions, renders them peculiarly
valuable for certain purposes,
when
tliev
we
of clay, as they
lie
we
shall
to percolate
both ascending
:
and descending, and hence springs are by no means uncommon where clay abounds
but
if
clay of that plastic kind, suitable for the manufacture of bricks and various kinds of pottery,
be dug from
its
native bed,
and exposed
to the action
of temperature producing
frost, it will
be disintegrated
INTRODUCTION.
such minute division of
its
89
mixing with other sub-
substance,
more
fit
stances or materials necessary in certain cases, and which will be hereafter described.
When
and
if it
clay has
been treated
in the
it
must be moistened
sufficiently
with water, and be well beaten or wrought together without any admixture of other materials
it
will attain
as will render
its filtering
in a considerable
degree
It is in this
state that
it
prevent the water from passing through the brick-work, and thereby destroying any articles
usually deposited therein.
and when
it
and
it
be
will
made
be found
in
sufficiently
hard
warm
It is stated
this
until they
the process of
least.
states
that
such
Romans
within the city, for the laws did not permit any walls in public
made
thicker than one foot and a half; whereas sun-dried bricks of that thickness
story.
When
Rome
;
of brick, and
it
left
it
of marble,
it
is
evident
for
is
well
known
many
of burning.
Tlie use of bricks
is
of the greatest antiquity; the cement used in the earliest periods being a
kind of bitumen.
In this manner the city of Nineveh was built by Nimrod, and the justly
The method
time
This
is
stated
by Pocoke
to
to
be " Klouber-el
The
remains of
this
we
now
call
fire.
pure clay
is
found to make the most durable bricks, provided proper care be taken
well,
and
sufficiently
burned.
Many
of the
90
bricks or
tiles
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
made by
the
Romans
still
in existence
tiles,
a portion or
fragment of an arch
original hardness
;
may be
Roman
be made of
clay, containing
They have
wood
as
unknown, or very
as
of brick
very generally
more or
combined
that being the material that imparts the red colour to earths
when burned.
Bricks of
this description are usually
burned
in kilns, in
fire
completely sur-
by burning
which
is
the
method
253.
that
is
The
bricks of the antients were of various forms and sizes, and their triangular bricks
to certain figures,
made of
they are shaped in a mould, and, after some drying in the sun or
bricks generally
qualities,
known
to
our modern
that
is
to say. Marls, of
Bricks,
occasionally imported.
Bricks vary
in
quality,
according to the quality of the material of which they are composed, the manner in which the
clay
is
The
kind of Marls, called Firsts, are those usually selected for arches over doors and
windows
commonly used
The
little
Gray-Stocks are of the next quahty, and are generally of good earth, well-wrought, with
mixture, sound, and durable.
brittle,
badly burnt,
to vitrify,
Red
Red
Bricks, called also, from their use. Cutting Bricks, owe their colour
this
is
always
used tolerably pure, and the bricks of the better kind are called by some Claij Bricks, because
they are supposed to be
255.
made of nothing
London
else.
Many
are so largely
mixed with
gravel, that
it is
found neces-
sary to have recourse to the process of washing, and for this pui-pose, clay-mills are used, in
is
placed,
and plenty of water being poured upon and when the gravel has subsided
it,
the mass
is
to the bottom,
it;
the fluid
is
permitted to run off into pits where the superfluous water drains from
and when
INTRODUCTION.
it
91
it
upon the
In
it
many
parts of
used as
fuel,
when made up
into balls
and dried
in
laid together
to
consume, and offer a very convenient mode of using the refuse of coal and other materials.
The
principle of
is
so analogous to this
method of preparing
fuel, that
we have thought
may be
better understood.
The
very great
its
environs, produces an
collected,
and when
soil,
and
soil
also to
About one-fourth or
for
may
be,
also
of the
or ashes,
usually
in
his
is
it
fall
compressed that
it
will readily
it
drop out
upon.
In this state
fit
is
laid
upon
in the
to
be placed
clamp
to
be burned.
consideration will shew that bricks so
is
little
made
named;
that
burn themselves,
in
great degree,
it
technically called, be
carefully examined,
will
be found
to contain
through
the grates,
aiul
also a large portion of very minute cinders, quite capable of supporting combustion,
assisting to burn, or partially vitrify, the
and thereby
part.
may be
is
owing
wet
state in wliich
the clay
is
used
for,
it
in
consequence of
this circumstance,
if
extent, as to render
dry,
if
it
the mass be
bound
it
degree as
;
it
lays to
befoi'e
is
whereas
the mass,
drier,
and forced
mould by mecha-
solid
would be found to be without cracks, and, consequently, more durable and valuable
respect.
every
it is
already burned at the bottom, in a very open manner, so that the spaces between
may form
flues
92
or passages for the
laid,
PRACTICAL BUICKLAYING.
air
;
first
layer or course of
;
laid
between the
is
When
means
will
sufficient
have received
tliat tlicy
will
Those
that are very slightly burned are selected for Place-bricks, being very frequently
and improperly
walls.
much more
soft
and crumbly.
Those
that
are partially vitrifyed lose their shape, and are sold under the
bricks lose their colour, and become, in
in
name of Burrs.
This sort of
:
many
instances,
little
for
some
cases,
owing
clamp
will
be so com-
is
impossible to separate the bricks from each other, and hence very
considerable loss
is
257.
The Gray
Stocks, being
made of a good
monly used
in the fronts
of
common
buildings, for in the best brick-work the best marls are used;
the Place Bricks, for the reasons given above, are therefore weaker and
more
brittle,
and are
little
stress
is
laid
made of
little
and
in
paving.
ground down
and
make
and
their difference
is
owing
The
is
a brick-work
to
be had
London.
258.
We
and there
its
is
also
of our
is
own manufacture,
:
which, for
mentioned
called
this
it is
made
at
village of that
to the glass-makers
and chymists.
The loam
is
of a yellowits
reddish colour, and very harsh to the touch, containing a great quantity of sand
excellence
is,
particular
that
it
will
fire
without injury
and
it.
INTRODLCTION.
where
it
93
It is
stands
all
this
and
is
sold at a
high price.
The
bricks
made of
this
They
are
same way
as the earth.
The
are
all
brimstone colour
The
Dutch
to the
heat.
purposes
the
for ovens.
The
Stocks
fine
;
red cutting English Bricks are twice, or more than twice, the price of the best Gray
the
Red
Stocks half as dear again as the gray; and the Place Bricks, as they are
much
much
The Gray
Stocks and Place Bricks are employed in the better and worse kinds of plain work
the red stocks, as well as the gray, are used sometimes in this business, and sometimes for
arches,
the fine red cutting bricks are used for ruled and
259.
As
preferable to others,
for external
is
we
shall
London and
its
always used.
The
is
partly
and carted
spread out
it is
Previous to the mass of tempered clay being dropped into the mould,
well rolled about in a quantity of this sand which forms an external coating,
leaves the mould,
it
is
laid
sieve.
upon a board covered with the sand, and the upper surface
In this way two purposes are effected
;
also
covered with
it
by a
namely, colour
is
given to
the external surface of the brick, and, by being covered with sand, which becomes imbedded,
it is
in a better state to
it is
to
be dried.
It
with gravel,
but
it
is
also evident,
in so
moist a state,
is
bad
in principle
has been suggested to make bricks with tempered clay and ashes
much
drier state,
and
l)y
to being dried.
94
PRACTICAL BRICKLAIING.
in
Several patents have been obtained for applying machinery to this purpose, but,
plastic material, like
using a
tempered
clay, so
much
difficulty
was experienced
in feeding the
moulds,
and separating the superfluous quantity of clay from the surface of the mould, so as to leave a
well-formed mass therein, that they have
all
Much
difficulty
;
was
for this
and when
so adjusted,
was found
sand, gravel,
and pebbles of
all
We must,
object for improvement does not offer itself to the attention of the mechanist or engineer than
the one under consideration, and
it is
much
to
efforts
of those
pressed,
who
for,
we have no hesitation
in saying, they
were by
The Red
all
is
the finest of
it
all
bricks.
are not at
for
it
;
in others,
is
they confound
to
mortar
this is
answers
in
of the disposition and fineness of the joints, and has a very pleasing
fine
eflfect.
The
is
Red
Brick
is
in
and, as
it
much more
beautiful,
somewhat more
costly.
This kind
also the
most beautiful of
all in
set in putty.
in
The
261.
brick walls,
in
The
down
flat
or edgeways.
flat,
thirty-two of
:
placed edgeways,
number
in the front
work of
That
and the
fine
people
will
be brought
to think of
them
so that
it
lies,
in
Gray
Stocks and
Red
Stocks.
Of
and
this
judgment
is
We
see
many very
beautiful pieces of
workmanship
in
Red
Brick
them
to the
In the
the colour
is
and disagreeable
eye
and, in summer,
it
INTRODUCTION.
very disagreeable
there,
;
95
though the oftenest used
is,
it is
most improper
in the country,
from the
difficulty
of getting gray.
is
But a
less
farther consideration
;
tliat,
in the fronts
of
more or
stone-work
conformity as can be attained between the general nakedness of the wall and those several
it,
the nearer they are of a colour, the better they always range
and
is
if
we
upon two houses, the one of red and the other of gray
brick,
is
where there
little
stone-work,
we
shall not
be a moment
in
doubt which
it
to prefer.
There
something harsh in the transition from the red brick to stone, and
in the other, the
less violent,
and they
Hence,
the
;
Gray Stocks
come
to the colour
of
when they
it,
it is
Where
there
is
no
wood
and
this,
has yet a more violent contrast with red brick than the stone-work
in this
more
sudden
and white
no violent change.
The Gray
late
Stocks are
quality, in the
neighbourhood of London.
The
Duke
of Norfolk had the bricks brought from his estate, in that county, for building the
St.
James's-square
but the event shews that his Grace might have been
The
is
is
in its
the seeking for earth that will burn pale, and that will
see
it
The
examine
and be ready
to
merited by their
goodness.
The
utility
all
the country, arises from motives too obvious to need a definition; since
to
generally considered
eligible
purpose, both in point of beauty and duration, and inferior to nothing but wrought stone.
96
PKACTICAL BRICKLWING.
CHAPTER
I.
Plate
XXIX,
c.
The mode
m fgurc
1,
being
Flemish Bond,
4,
Figure u
in
is
English Bond, in a
the same.
and figure
Flemish Bond,
in a
7,
Figure 5
G,
14-inch wall.
Figure
in
English
Bond,
in
English Bond,
Figures
8, 9,
10,
In each pair,
if
The
which have
By
a Course, in walling,
is
meant the bricks contained between two planes parallel to the horizon, and terminated by the
faces of the wall.
The
thickness
is
bricks
also
denominated a Course.
The
of which every course between every two nearest courses of headers consist of stretchers, constitutes
English Bond.
disposition of bricks in a wall, (except at the quoins,) of
is
The
in
a header, and of which every brick between every two nearest headers
stretcher, constitutes
Flemish Bond.
to
265. It
is,
therefore,
Bond
is
throughout, in the same course or horizontal layer, and consists of alternate courses of headers
and
stretchers, as
shown
in the plate
the headers serving to bind the wall together, in a lonto prevent the wall splitting crossways, or
Of
to
be feared.
A respectable
mined
mode
of brick-work affords
it is
as
work of
this kind,
wheresoever
so
if at all,
composed of one
piece.
"07
Romans was
are very thick, and have three, or sometimes more, courses of brick, laid at certain inter-
on
stretchers,
wall,
and sometimes
at certain distances in the length, forming piers, that bind the wall together in
;
a transverse direction
the intervals between these piers were filled up, and formed panels of
(articles
also,
Bond
same
court-e,
alternate headers
and
trifling; yet,
to obtain
;
it,
strength
is
sacri-
for the
purpose
and
laid in
and an
interior,
and
wliole length
in
but, as the
of this at
all
headers can be introduced only where such a correspondence takes place, which, sometimes,
may
Walls of
little
to connect
little
them
better than
rubbish.
The
practice of Flemish
it
Bond
has,
that there
now
Bond
to
be seen.
The
alone,
frequent splitting of walls into two thicknesses has been attributed to the Flemish
Bond
Some have
of hoop-iron, occasionally,
the horizontal joints between the two courses; others have laid
;
last
method
by
bricks are
the strength
is
required.
Other methods of uniting complete Bond with Flemish facings have been described, but
they have been found equally unsuccessful. In fgures 2 and
4,
{Plate
LXXXV,)
;
the interior
bricks are represented as disposed with intention to unite these two particulars
facings being on one side of the wall only
;
the Flemish
but
this,
Another
evil
the difficulty
of
its
execution, as the adjustment of the bricks in one course must depend on the course
workman
the
first is difficult
of the under-course being covered with mortnr, to bed the bricks of the succeeding course;
2c
9S
and, for the
PRACTICAL PRICKLAi'ING.
workman
to carry in his
;
yet, unless
it
correspond, dividing the wall into several thicknesses, and thus rendering
or separation.
subject to splitting,
But, in the English Bond, the outside of the last course points out
how
the
next
is
workman cannot
mistake.
The
outer appearance
is
all
mode executed
it
and
its
adoption, in
Each course
is
to
2d, Every brick in the same course must be laid in the same direction
is
but, in no instance,
its
may
but to be so situated that the end of one may reach to the middle
it,
contiguous to
three-quarter bricks necessarily occur at the ends, to prevent a continued upright-joint in the
face-work.
3d,
level
A wall,
1,
which crosses
have
all
course in the same parallel direction, which completely bonds the angles, as shown bv
3,
figures
265.
and
6.
in the
practice of brick-work
lies in
its
sub-
that
is
of
than
generally imagined
for,
if
a brick be actuated by a
It is,
greater pressure
upon
it
also,
many bad
effects arising
quality should
tity
of materials of which
is
as nearly as can
be
effected.
Here we may
when
that
is,
the irregular
this,
on one
without continuing
99
this is the least;
of the two
evils,
and
may
act as a
But even
this
beneficial,
because the
s
full
its
removed from
;
first
line of direction,
which, in
walls,
united
and
it
is
farther to
be considered
made from
from the
each
purpose
therefore, like a
to
man
shoulders,
naturally bends
and stoops
in
which mutable
state the
is
ornaments of Brick-work,
as,
is
want of experience
ought
to
in
which
is
the most
to,
difficult
the faces of arches are often found, after the houses are finished, and sometimes loose in the
The
first
much
in reality,
;
no more than a
the insides
for
it
should be a standing
maxim
(if
make them
the exact gauge on the inside, that they bear upon the front
edges
by which means
and
all
gravity.
The
because
latter observation,
it
is
an egregious
fault
significancy.
The proper
method of skewing
arch
is
their height.
For
instance, if an
;
one of
fifteen
inches, five;
and so of
all
quantity consists of an
in the
odd number
;
by so doing, you
state
it
in
which
all
for strength
and beauty.
First,
one
is
a line drawn from that through the point at the bottom, to the
all
200
PKACTICAL BUlCr.LAYlNG.
CHAPTER
FOUNDATIONS. If a projected
commonly be found a
sufficient
IT.
to
have
celiarj),
or under-ground kitchens,
there will
foundation.
When
in large
stones with the rammer, or by laying in thick pieces of oak, crossing the direction of the wall,
wall,
and running
in the
same direction
ground
The
last are to
be
The mode
with this
havinff found
of ascertaining
shake,
it
is
by the rammer
is
if,
by
striking the
ground
;
tool, it
used by well-diggers
to
and,
how deep
remove the
in the
may have
a solid bearing, and not be subject to slide, which would be likely to happen
in the form of an 'Inclined plane.
the
ground prove
variable,
way
is
to (m-n
llie
which carry
shown
in
XXIX, e.)
In this case,
is
sink without carrying the arches, and consequently the ground on which they he, with them.
This practice
is
excellent,
in such cases,
and should,
therefore,
be
When
be paid
is
to
to the other.
will
for,
suppose
the middle of the piers to rest over the middle of the summit of the arches, then the narrower
the piers, the
to
When
the
arches of
suspension are used, the intrados ought to be clear, so that the arch
but, as already noticed,
it
may have
full effect:
will also
;
for
it
is
it
to
have
it
unequally so
because, in the
;
would
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS.
368.
101
is
WALLS, &c.The
In places
to
be considered.
much exposed
used, and the softer reserved for in-door work, or for situations less exposed.
use as
much water
it
it
to
a time,
covering
This
:
is
a better
mode
exposed
to the air
its
for,
in thus suf-
we
hme which
constitutes
hardening quaHty.
is
used,
sieve.
by admitting
make
as
little
water
is
to
Whenever
it
mortar
tenacity,
soft
;
to the bricklayer.
in winter, rather
In laying bricks in dry weather, by wetting the bricks, or by causing water to be thrown over
will greatly
add
to the strength
Few
but
workmen
are sufficiently aware of the advantage of wetting bricks before they are used
experience has shown that works in which this practice has been followed have been
much more
is
it
It is particularly serviceable
where work
up
thin,
and
&c.
in,
if
well secured
as
it
frost,
which
when
it
succeeds
much
rain
heart of the wall, and the frost, by converting the water into
ice,
expands
its
it,
tenacity, before
has
In working up a wall,
all
it
is
five feet at
a time
for, as
is first
brought up
will
remain com-
paratively stationary
and,
when
raised to the
much
as the
work proceeds.
In carrying
up any particular
to receive the
work on the
in
right
and
part,
left.
any particular
all
for,
wherever
it.
it is
so done, the
workman should bo
answerable for
269.
may
arise
from
The
;
distinctions of
Bond have
we
shall
now
detail
them more
in
particularly
XXIX, e,
depths
shown
in
figures
1, 3, 6,
and
7.
3d
702
The bond of a
ivall
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
of nine inches
is
represented by fig.
or vertical joints from running over each other, at the end of the
place the return corner-stretcher, which
is in is
its
length
a quarter-brick
is
placed on
its
side,
forming together
for the next header, which lies with its middle upon the 6J inches, and leave a lap of 2J inches middle of the header below, and forms a continuation of the bond. The three-quarter brick,
or brick-bat,
is
called a closer.
effecting this
is,
Another way of
course
;
for,
when
which, when
middle
will
come over
the joint below the stretcher, and in this manner form the bond.
In a fourteen-inch or brick-and-half
laid that the
upon one
side, is so
upon
joints
between the
stretchers.
is
only half a
brick thick on both sides, which breaks the joints in the core of the wall.
shown
2,
in
figure 6.
lie
wall, is
represented
m figure
between two headers, the length of the headers and the breadth of the stretchers extending
the whole thickness of the wall.
4,)
laid as in
figure
2,
with a half-header, opposite to the middle of the stretcher, and the middle of the stretcher
Figure 5 exhibits another arrangement of Flemish Bond, wherein the bricks are disposed
alike
so as to form
The Face of an
I'lemish Bond,
English Bond,
is
and that of
by figure 20.
is
270. Brick-nogging
dis-
with brick-work
filling
up the
intervals.
In
mode the
make
wall
is,
Thin pieces
of timber, called nogging-pieces, laid horizotaliy from post to post, are so disposed as to form
brick-work between every two posts or quarters, into several compartments in the height of the
story
;
its
wall.
271. Cornices.
thus, fig. 21
In
many
;
pleasing combinations
may be made;
and
CONSTRUCTION OF WALLS.
272.
103
is
As
infirm, or
where
sound ground
soil,
occasion
we
shall, therefore,
make no apology
to
in laying before
ing description,
the
surrounding walls
all
may be
generally applied to
circumstances.
Fig.
1,
Plate
XXIX,
ABCD
is
the sur-
rounding wall of the old prison, e,f,g,h,i,k,l,m,'&, the surrounding wall of the intended
Penitentiary, which was built
to six feet in depth.
soil,
The
upon which
circular
buttresses or counterforts were erected to strengthen the wall, at a distance from each other,
varying from 28 to 36
walls, a, b, c, d,
feet,
according to circumstances.
Fig.
2,
a portion of the
new and
old
being the elevation of the new part, exhibiting the foundation and the super-
incumbent
wall.
six piers.
pier a
circular buttress,
was erected
of the buttresses.
The
exhibited
at/g.
3;
the plan of the buttresses of the old wall being rectangular, whereas that of the
is
new
wall
circular.
new
wall, containing one buttress and a part of another, with one aperture and part of another, in
order to show the brick-work in the foundation, and superincumbent part of the wall, to the
greatest advantage, as also the use of the invert
and
insistant arches.
The
plan of this
is
shown below,
at Jig. 5.
The
will
members of the
institution of civil
engineers,
273. "
A piled and
it
and the expence of such a foundation would have been greater than the whole of the wall and
coping taken together.
The advantage
is
in that direction.
"
The
circular piers give the greatest lateral stability with the least quantity of work, present-
ing a convenient form towards a public way, and secure from escapes on the prison-side by
avoiding angles.
side, arises
being destroyed,
this kind.
The
By
this
101
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
adding much additional weight, and thereby
to raise the
ground
in
feet
with
these large apertures the ground settles uniformly, without pressing unequally against either side
its
vertical position.
:
The
viz.
the
failui'e
some foundations that had been taken up, about three years
secondly,
and
economy
for,
if pile
would be superfluous
to
go
cution
ciple
with good materials and workmanship, a work upon this printo the
CHAPTER
*
274.
III.
section, the
under
line or intrados is
aperture,
and the
joints
be perpendicular
a straight
line.
In such a case,
still
radiate to a centre in the middle of the breadth of the aperture; but these
soffit,
be perpendicular to the
when
the intrados or
soffit
was a
curved surface.
extremities,
An
arch does not always imply a mass of bricks or stones supported at the
The
principle of a brick
or stone arch arises from the radiating directions of the joints, which, in fact, divides the arch or vault into separate bricks,
in the
It is
lesser
ends
the radiating joints, can descend, for the aperture through which any brick has to pass being
narrower at
tlie
bottom than
to pass
through
it,
Hence a mass of
bricks or
stones, connected
by radiating
;
may
be a plane surface
what
is
Arches
when
which are
scheme arches.
105
the springings
to the in-
of a scheme arch are in two planes, each being at right-angles to the tangent plane
trados at the
commencement of
the curve.
The
springings which are neither parallel nor perpendicular to the horizon, are called, in
Straight arches must have skew-backs,
275. Fig.
1.',
head of an aperture,
shown
Upon
the width,
AB,
describe an equilateral triangle, and from the vertex, C, with a radius equal to the thickness of
circle.
Draw DE,
at such a distance
is
from
of four courses of bricks in the face of the wall, and draw the skew-backs,
at each extremity of the arch.
AB
and
DE,
one
Draw
be a tangent
the point
will
Find
when
the operation
be complete.
is
Fig. 14,
the profile of the head of an aperture with a part of each jamb, the head being
It is
a scheme-arch.
Fig. 15,
is
a semi-circular arch.
The method
of describing
elliptic
as follows (see
Plate
XXIX. g.)
Let
AB
CD
its
AB,
Draw
a-
parallel to
CD
1,
Ax and AC
to
lines
Make Cz
equal
in
Ax, draw
AC,
in
D, intersecting
the angle
straight
to
1, 2,
in
the points
in h.
y and
n.
Make
Dtih equal
the angle
bisect
sect
wDC, and
a.
prolong
DC
Cr
AD,
to
meet nh
yn
to
be joined, and
let
1/nhy
in
/.
perpendicular meeting
nh
in
i.
AB
r,
in k,
and
nh
inter-
AB
In CB, make
equal to
C I, and
from
h,
through
draw h u.
In k r,
t.
make
and
in
CB, make
Cs
equal to Ck.
From
and
q,
describe
will
ny and
tit,
the arcs
y A and <B.
Then
Ay?)D<B
CA, CB,
to
i,
Prolong the
lines
iy and in,
qu and
;
qt, as also
E, o,p, w,
q, k, s,
F, and
make
DG
then,
by the same
centres, h,
F.opGwvF,
which
will
of the arch.
tiie
The
are
observing that
extrados must be divided into parts, each equal to the thickness of a brick.
2e
106
277.
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
Gothic Arches.
Let
AG
AB
DC
the
AG, and
let
CB
be a tangent to
perpendicular to
AG,
To
in the curve.
3, 3
Prolong
CD
and
in
AB
and DC.
Join
AE,
D/ make DE equal to the difference between the two perpendiculars, and divide AE and AB each into the same number of equal parts, as
lines is dirided into
in this
Through
the points,
1, 2,
&c., in
&c., in
a,
ft,
AB, draw
I, 2,
AE, draw
right lines, to intersect the former right lines, (concurring in C,) in the points
c,
&c.
Through
these points
AabcdeC,
may be
constructed.
The
extrados Hnes,
lines
3,
HJ
and
IJ,
are found
by
drawing them
279.
in the
at
AC
and GC.
To
span
describe a Gothic
Arch by
centres.
In fig.
draw
Cm
AG, make
Ak
equal to
AB.
In
in
Cm, make C^
equal to
A;
or
7h
AB, and
n.
join kl.
Bisect
kl by a perpendicular, meeting C
Prolong
k to
From
the
m C,
C n,
Then
Am C will
Prolong
AG,
H and
I,
and prolong
;
kn
to o.
Make
AH
equal to the breadth of the course which forms the head of the arch
k,
then
with
o,
tn,
may be found
the centres
the extrados and intrados of the other half of the right section of the arch.
readily
But
CD, which
divides the
Make D^j
intersecting
equal to
D k,
and prolong
in q,
CD
to q.
Draw
to
mr
q m.
parallel to the
spanning
line
GA,
CD
prolonged
Join
rj},
and prolong
rp
to s.
Join r
then,
C *,
to
radiiis
making GI equal
Again,
meeting
t
ps
prolonged
in the point f
r,
and
tlnis
we have described
280.
One
into bricks,
by drawing the
joints,
is,
equal parts, and not the inside curve, as this would occasion the bricks to be of a greater size
whom
greatly indebted
and
;
it is
important to remark,
in the construction,
2, that
when
AB
is
DC,
the curve
AC
is elliptic
when equal
to the half of
BC,
it is
parabolic
and when
less, it is
GOTHIC ARCHES.
107
281. In order to show the construction of brick arches in the Gothic style of architecture,
we have
at
Tottenham,
in
The
elevations
details, are
Fig.
1,
Plate
is
triple aperture,
each
of which
Here
it
may be
is
much below
These three
arches are hooded with labels, of which the mouldings over the arch of the middle aperture
vertically, in
No.
],
exhibits a section or profile of the label-mouldings to a scale sufficiently large that the smallest
distinct.
fillet,
No.
2, exhibits
a section of the
sill,
consisting of two
for dis-
below with a
hollow,
work.
Fig.
2,
Elevation of one of the side-doors, where, instead of vertical joints at the apex of
is
introduced.
The
;
label-moulding,
is
Fig.
plate
is
XXIX.
i,
of the label,
triple-lighted
window, plate
XXIX. h.
It will
be proper here
heads of these
windows, instead of cutting the bricks which form the arches from rectangidar bricks, they were
previously prepared to the arched
burned; and though the joints of the bricks were always marked
to preserve the beauty
appearance of joints
be expected,
in order to
No.
and No.
2,
the window, exhibiting the manner of laying the alternate courses of brick in the piers and
jambs.
The
capitals in the
two horizontal
sections,
letters in
the
2,
in the
Fig.
shown
at
D, No. 2
Jig. 3,
is
shown
2.
at C,
No.
and Jig.
4, exhibits
shown
at
A, No.
108
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING
CHAPTER
JV.
Introductory
282.
JPriiici^jles
and Observations.
simple vault
is
or otherwise supported
upon
gene-
The
which
is
a portion of a cylindrical surface, or that of a spherical surface, never greater than the
Tlie surface from which the vault rises
is
called
its
springing.
If the vault
be the surface of a semi-cylinder, or that of a hemisphere, the two springings are both contained in one plane
;
if
the springings are generally inclined planes, as they ought to be, and if the intrados be a portion
will
be
vaults are
Cathedral, London,
are very seldom used in private buildings, except in walls over the apertures of doors and
in order to
All vaults of which the axis of the intrados has a horizontal position
;
groin-vault
that of
is
cylindric surfaces, of
which
common
point, so that
concavity of another.
may
are right lines intersecting each other, and are in the same horizontal plane.
tions of the cylindrical surfaces are circles,
When
the secis
that
which
is
called
When
upon a rectangular
plan.
109
SSi. It has been long experienced and universally acknowledged, that rectangular-groined
vaults are necessarily of a
construction,
It is
piers
is
in-
commodious
who
will take
the
trouble to examine them, that a very great part of the substance of the bricks which constitute the
ground angle
is
upon each
side
of the line in which the two cylindrical surfaces meet each other, so that the lengths of the
bricks thus forming the angle
may be
and so placed
be preserved in
is
The
which
it
necessary to
cut the bricks at the groin-angles render them extremely liable to be thrust out of their situations
by any sudden impulse operating upon the crown of the arch, and thus instead of preit
senting the greatest resistance, are the most feeble that can be conceived, and were
not
for
construction has been loaded with stones, the superincumbent weight has been found to act
chiefly in the direction of the groins, although they are least capable of resisting
it
it.
Therefore,
follows, that the stronger these parts are made, the better the whole arch will counteract the
tendency to fracture.
much more
and
more room
for goods,
and
The improvements
in the construction
of vaults, consists in carrying a cylindrical arch, in breadth equal to the length of a brick, a
brick-and-half, or two bricks, instead of the angle or groin from pier to pier, depending
on the
As
ribs
is
its
elliptic cross-
girt
on
this
struction,
same
ribs.
and
will
be found by making
all
arches,
By
setting
back the
filling-in
mode
pendent
sections,
parts, resting
upon the
piers, are
solids of revolution,
and convex
in their horizontal
sections,
This form
may be
The
principle
is
the
Henry
VII., Westminster,
and
show a
2f
110
very considerable variation in the
the angles of a square, and
if
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
mode
of execution.
If the axes of the piers are raised from
given semi-circle, the vertical sections of the side arches will be of the Gothic form
and
if
the vertical sections of the side arches be given semi-circles, a quadrilateral space will be formed
in the centre
will
have
its
be a tangent
a surface of revolution.
When
may be made
to touch a plane
;
which
will
be a
by the
sides of
completed,
it
is
included
will
in the surfaces
this
defect
may be
rectified
by making the
but
will
form an aperture
of less dimensions at the bottom than at the top, and consequently will allow a sufficient spread
for the radiations of the joints.
It is
conical surfaces, and partly in vertical planes, and that the conical surfaces intersect the intrados
in the arcs of circles
in
that
is,
in the axis
of each surface of revolution forming the intrados of each pendent over each of the piers.
286. Another
mode
of vaulting with brick, which has been found to answer the purpose
extremely well,
will easily
of an ellipse comprised between two semi-axes and the portion of the curve between them to
revolve round the semi-axis minor,
The
spheroidal surface
by a
circular
upon a
circular plan
we have such
its
great circle
Upon
by
Let
this
hemispheroid be cut by four planes, each passing along one of the sides of
the square perpendicularly to the plane of the circle, the portion of the hemispheroidal surface
will
*
the proper
name
in
compartmeDt of vaulting.
pages of our ancient records, where the description of the ceilings of old buildings are registered.
It is nol,
however, to be
J.
numerous
insertions of the
Rev, H.
Todd.
Great Britain.
Ill
the centre, will be the surface forming the intrados of the vault adapted to the square plan of the dimensions here assigned.
If
it
were required
to
let
the hemi-
great circle
may be
of the oblong plan, and the semi-axis of rotation equal to the intended height of the vault.
this case, let
circle,
and
this diagonal
From one
with a radius equal to the one of the sides of the oblong plan, cut the one semi-circumference,
other semi-circumference.
same dimensions
oflF,
let
each side of the inscribed rectangle perpendicularly to the plane of the great
remaining portion of the hemispheroid
the figure here required.
centre,
It will
and the
will
be of use
to
who has
to construct the
all
parallel
ellipses
that
is
diagonals
to
its
which
is
section terminating
all
upon that
side, is to the
The
bricklayer has
now
With
respect to the
manner of
may be
very conveniently
;
disposed in concentric circles receding from the crown of the vault as their centre
this
hence, by
means,
all
many cones
This
is
mode of
New
workmen
the manner
is
would
it
be easy to give such ideas to the bricklayer that he may dispose of his courses
:
same manner
it will,
to the diagonals,
The Principles of
287. Plate
JBi'ick-
XXIX. h, fig.
1,
common
of the groins
fig. 2, exhibits an elevation or right section through the principal arch of the
groined severy;
Fig.
4, exhibits
and
fig. 3,
and fig.
5,
exhibits the intrados of the two opposite parts of one of the principal arches.
112
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
common
AB,
fig.
1,
let
A6c...B be
AB
is
which
is
number of
points, a, b, c, &c.,
a, b, c,
From
k
k',
line,
AB, of
draw
&c., parallel to the axis of the cylindrical surfaces of the transcept arches that
perpen-
dicular to
the points
//,
i',
k',
CD,
of the diagonal
rib,
draw the
CD,
as ordinates.
Make
d' , &c., successively equal to the ordinates hb, ic, kd, &c., of the semi-circular arc of the
right section,
b',
c, d',
&c.,
C b' c
of the
d'
..
.g, and
C.d'
.g'
is
CD.
Let
G n"
be half the
then, in order to
draw the
straight lines, h' h", i'i", k' k", &c., parallel to the axis of the
/*", i",
principal vault,
h"
Make
h"
b", i"c",
k'd",
&c..,
The
288. Plate
XXIX,
Fig.
London-Docks.
1,
No.
1,
sections of the pillars which support the vaulting, and the plans of the intersections of the
surfaces,
is
surfaces
to say,
by cylindrical surfaces
The
axes of two of the cylindrical surfaces are parallel to the sides of the square which forms
in the
the four
1,
axes being
in a horizontal position,
Fig.
No.
2,
and
arches,
This section
is
pillars stand.
The
arches parallel to the sides are equal to each other, and the arches in the eight diagonals
;
differ
The
have
their plans
BRICK-VAULTING.
piers than at the crown, in
113
of tracing these groins
will
The method
all in
radius of curvature for drawing the sections of the arches, as also the extent of the portion of
each curve, and the heights of the courses which form the
plinth, the pillar,
offsets.
plinth.
Fig.
4,
As
loss to
any
re-
Example
1.
Plate
XXIX. ,
Fig.
1,
to St. Catherine's
Docks.
No.
1,
No. 2, shows the elevations of the arches parallel to the sides of the narrow openings; and
fig. 3,
the elevation of the arches parallel to the sides of the wide openings.
tlie
We
shall
here
suppose
upon the
sides,
CDEF
No.
1,
CHI
piers;
KLMN
OPQR
Let the
The
plan of the whole pier, and the plans of the parts of the
riglit line,
ab extend
piers,
and
let Icp,
in the line
;
b,
formed by a
and because
straight
lines in a plane
lines,
the
plan
1:2}
is
a right
is
of
Icp,
is
kp,
y z.
d; then the straight lines joining these points, to form the rectangular plan of the
b,
are ac, c
bd, and da; and these four straight lines, which form a rectangle,
may be
considered
vertical planes
and the
t,
in-
Bisect
ad m
and from
a,
as radius,
x.
From
c,
Ux, from
b describe the
UV, and
Mx,
as also
all
HV
and
OV.
In the
and the
HI,
OR,
The
arcs
CD
and
EF
The same
is
to be under-
The
2a
114
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYINO.
t'
and a
x, is revolved
therefore,
the joints between the courses of bricks in the intrados are situated in the arcs of circles.
Hence
all
all
the vertical sections of the intrados, passing through the point or centre a, will be
t'
and a x
upon a
from the pohit a; hence, without tracery, each half of the curve standing upon
tlie
and
all
x and a t',
will
be the same
as the curve
klmn
a
c, will
o,
The
narrow
side,
differ
t"
less
than k
less
Let
q, r, s
t,
kp
ax'm
the points
u, v,
w, the
Draw
NG
t"
will bisect
breadth, and
therefore,
draw the
straight lines
u q'\ V
r",
w s",
&c. parallel to x
t",
to
lines
Make
q"
I",
r"
m"
in
m" n"
o",
which
will
As
all
as one-half
is
We
to
remark, than that the sections of the side-arches are both pointed,
is
The method
of constructing the centres will be shown in the description of the next plate,
when
the plan
is
square.
The
figure here is
a groined-vault, consisting of two different surfaces, one revolved and the other cylindric.
290.-
Example
2.
Plate
XXIX.
w,
Docks, with a plan of the centering for one-quarter of the severy, and the detail of the
This construction
is
in the
pillar.
may be concave
at
will
be
necessary to have the vertical section through the diagonal of the severy given, as in Plate
XXIX. m;
all
the summit, will be parts of the diagonal section, and the intersections of the intrados upon
the sides of the vaults
will,
The
nariow sides
will
be more pointed than each of the two curves upon the wider
but as
BRICK-VAULTING.
these are portions of the diagonal curve,
since a mould,
it
115
will
how
formed
may be
upon
In order to regulate the ribs which form the centering, so that the under edges
may be
in the
in
their places,
it
will
to the line in
which the opposite surfaces of the intrados meet each other, and
them
in the
Now,
be
equal to one another, and of the same curve as the diagonal sections,
trace the curves of the intrados in
all
will
be necessary to
diagonal.
will
be easy
to
For
this
purpose,
let
No.
1.
In the curve
oic
take
any number of
points,
c,
&c.,
ordinates,
\d, 2e,
in the points d,
f, g, h, &c.
From
the
gg,
d',
</' 1',
hli, &c.,
li
,
meeting the plan of the ridge of the summit of the wide opening
the points
e, /', g' ,
e' 2',
3',
g'
4',
K 5',
&c.,
IMake
the distances
/'
5',
&c.,
respectively equal
1'
to
1', 2',
3\
A', 5',
&c.,
draw a curve
i
The
and
if
m n,
the curve-line
will
be the ridge-line
at the
5" B". In the same manner will be found the ridge-curve, p" 1" 3"
as
B"
is
much
v.
w x,
t
of the longer
that
is
curve,
w x,
the half-curve, sr' or tr", of the shorter side, will coincide with the portion of the diagonal
curve.
No.
2,
is
radial ribs,
ab,ac,a
d,
e,
&c., are
all
1,
ah
No.
is
W p" No.
1',
2, is
is
No.
plan
fg. No.
w x,
and the curve of the side of the centre, of which the plan
curve of half the shorter tr" ox sr", No.
1.
h.
No.
2,
will coincide
with the
The
parts put
in
between
116
ribs, will
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
not require to have their edges curved
;
but
if
must be
No.
3, exhibits
one of the
pillars
to
the plan
and
section
No.
4.
The
capital
laid
down
to a larger scale at
No.
5.
the
Hall of
Christ's Hospital.
XXIX.
o,
is
This
differs entirely
evei-y severy
moreover,
the radial sections of each of the four surfaces of revolution concave to the
sections
we
are
now about
every where concave from the hollow below, but the curvature
greater
and greater
as
it
The
upon
the semi-
axis minor,
which
is,
by the semi-axis
Since
all
majoi", will
be a
circle.
the parallel sections of a conoid are similar figures, whether the solid be described
ellipse,
by the revolution of an
therefore
all
a parabola, or an hyperbola,
is
a conoid,
are ellipses,
and because
all
sections whatever, perpendicular to the plane of a great circle, will have its axis major in that
plane,
and
its
is
parallel to
plan,
on the
interior side,
be the square
ab
c d, Jig.
No.
1,
the square
ABC
D, of which the
abed,
which forms the plan of the severy, the two squares together comprising the thickness of the
walls surrounding the vault.
The
intersection of the
two diagonals
;
is
abed, which
and
square
will
be inscribed
BRICK-VAULTIXG.
Let the spheroid be cut by planes along the four right
the plane of the great circle
all
117
ab, be, cJ, da, perpendicular to
will
lines
abed;
be
equal and similar, consequently equal and similar to any vertical section passing along the
axis,
to the plane
of projection,
is
is
o,
its
and as the
vertical section
a semi-ellipse
upon the
axis major,
The
it
is
e,
c d,
d a.
Let a d
b.
No.
2,
In a 6
make
e e equal to ef, so
d,
that
ef may be
equal to any one of the four right lines ab, be, ed, da.
d,
Join b
and, through
d, in
the point g.
Then
with
will
the axis major, ef, and the semi-axis minor, eg, describe the semi-ellipse, egf, and
egf
be a plane curve, which may be brought to coincide with any one of the four
of the faces of the four walls, and the spheroidal surface of the vault.
vertical sections
The
semi-ellipse
egf
and
may thus
No. 5
No.
3, is
ab ; No. 4 that
over 6
2.
c,-
and
efg. No.
Therefore,
these four semi-ellipses be each placed perpendicular to the plane of the circle
3,
abed,
No.
5,
so that
upon a
b.
No.
fe. No.
4,
upon be
and/c.
upon
In order to plan out the circular courses of brick-work for this species of rotative vaulting
From
the centre,
o.
No.
1,
or point in which the two diagonals meet each other, draw the
to e d.
No. 2
major o
d,
e,
this
curve
will
be the
same
segments which have chords each equal to the breadth of a brick, and from these points draw
straight lines, perpendicular to the semi-axis, o d.
From
the centre,
o,
line o d,
No.
will
No.
6,
Fig.
2, is a vault
is
upon an oblong
the axis
in the intersection
and
is,
therefore, of the
same species
No.
2, is identical with
the sections
standing upon
ad
3,
abanddc.
2.
The method
of
joints of the
courses of bricks,
is
No.
1,
and No.
No.
4, is
at the
no
2h
lis
PKACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
;
other one of the eight parts can be equal and similarly situated
therefore,
;
will also
be symmetrical
is
The
No.
No.
figure a b c
No.
4, is the
position
5,
is
may
either be
or upon
o a.
The
i,
the quadrant o h
o dc,
of the
7,
No.
G, is
is
upon d
No.
No.
of the ellipse,
upon
its
c,
No.
4.
The method
shown
at
of proportioning the quadrants of the ellipse upon their plan, ab, be, No. 4
6,
is
Nos. 5 and
and
is
as follows
In
No.
5,
straight lines, o e
and o
d,
d,
and make
d equal
moreover, make o
the right line ed.
e,
No.
5,
equal to the height of the axis of rotation of the spheroid, and draw
o/ equal
io
ya
or yd,
No.
1,
that
is,
equal to
xb
ov
c,
No.
1,
and, in No.
draw/^
parallel to de,
meeting oe in ^, then
o/and og
oy being
og
ad
ov be.
No.
6.
The
principle
upon which
this practice is
will
in
may
in
The most
be that
will
concentric circles in
each board.
will
To
do
this,
not
oedhe
the quadrant of
a section of the spheroid in the vertical plane passing along the axis,
the semi-axis o e of the ellipse being supposed to correspond with the axis of rotation of the
spheroid.
Let e
let o
o'
u d, No.
5,
axis,
and
u be equal to the distance contained between the two concentric circles which terminate
for waste.
o'
and o e
to
in z,
and z
ii,
describe
the arcs o
j)
and
To
of the
board corresponding
surface must be
found; for
t,
this
let
purpose,
the semi-
draw
o''i
meeting o d
;
and
5,
axis major, o
No.
4,
be
parallel to
b,
No. 5
also, let
No.
BRICK-VAULTING.
a,
119
4,
nm
and
ts, to
From
the point a,
No.
4, as
am,
mk
intersecting
be
a.tl
and
r,
and
acmk
and
y.
Then kqrl
o u vp,
6,
No.
5, is the
1,
will
In No.
^g.
the edges of the boards are described for the entire hemispheroid.
circles,
radii are
half side, are portions contained between the lines forming each of the right angles.
No.
G,Jig.
1,
the
new
hall
of Christ's
London
same as the
this treatise
here described have their joints in conical surfaces, and, consequently, the joint-lines in the
surfaces of revolution are circles, with their
common
the spheroid
whereas, those under the hall of Christ's Hospital are laid diagonally, and meet
Principles of Brick
292. Plate
Mr. Tappen.
with
XXJX. p, fg.
1,
No.
1,
the diagonal
plane.
other at right-angles
Whatever be the
four addi-
1,
let
aki
4;
bghf the
is
We
shall
by the right
fb
upon the
plan,
and
consequently to find also the equal and parallel groin in the plane of the diagonal upon the
right line
hg
in the plan.
is
in the
cl,e,
At any
rib,
b,
meeting
it
Draw
oq,p r,
Sec, perpendicular to a
ah
or 4/,
&c.
Draw
&c., perpen&c.,
dicular to
o d,
p e,
and
120
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
elliptic
curve
uts
b,
which
will
mg.
fn x,
line
upon which a
vertical section
to stand.
Draw
w z,
&c., perpendicular to
g h,
kg
x\, y2,
%2>,
&c., per-
make
\,y%z 3,
od,pe,
&c.,
3..../T,
which
will
No.
2, is
CHAPTER
V.
NICHES.
Niche
is
The
The most
1'y cylindrical
and spherical
surfaces, the
and the
is
The
either
less portion
of the
surface terminated by a plane parallel to the axis, the terminating plane being the face of the
wall.
The
back
is vertical,
is
in the
upper
in a great circle of the sphere contained in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
The bottom
commonly
of the niche
is
more
The
XXIX. ^,
is
sington-Gardens,
which
is
this
country.
;
Numbers 2 and 3
exhibit the
Flemish manner
No. 4
to
surface,
and perpendicular
The
is
profession,
be reduced down
in the
all
arch sur-
it
much
make
the courses
121
to
way
to
is
draw the
and
make a templet of
paste-board.
After the arch has been divided into the number of bricks,
will
answer the
front,
its
and one
spring,
At
the top of the straight part, from which the niche takes
this,
make a
it
and divide
into the
this will
same number
From
The
as they
thin ends
at their conjunction,
to ter-
minate
in straight
hnes in the centre of the niche, and therefore the bricks would be formed into
liable to
break off
in
working them
it
being impos-
make
the bricks
must be
laid so
may be
horizontal and parallel to the plane of the front from which the niche recedes.
be neces-
made convex,
shaped.
in
them
The The
must be cut
to face
at
will
be impossible
them
as they
ought to be.
level
of the
flat sides
of the bricks
will
be obtained by
number of equal
must be
all
From
the circle of the front and the face of the niche set
a bevel, which
their full
answer to the sides of the whole, always taking care that the bricks hold
gauge
at the
back
is
neglected,
much
execution.
Works
and
The
is
called
by the name of
all
it
Trompilion
this
is
made up
curved, so that,
in
which
CHAPTER
Vr.
Tunnel
is
in
the
things.
2i
122
Such a communfcation would
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
either be found convenient or necessary,
some
cases,
By means
hill
a given entrance
on one side of a
navigation,
may be
it
effected.
by means of water,
and
line.
if it
is
bed of the
fluid
must be nearly
in a horizontal plane, to
be required
ought
be
in
a right
also
be found necessary
in
found insurmountable.
The
it is
soil
through which
cut
but whatever be the form of the right section through any particular point, the same
is
figure
must invariably continue, unless the quality of the substance must be such as
will
found
to vary.
In this
The
sides of the
aperture ought always to be lined with brick or stone, and the top ought to be arched.
soil
If the
;
to
and
at-
tempted.
If the soil
all
be clay or solid earth, the figure of the right section of the tunnel must round that the mutual pressure upon the parts may balance one another
for the convenience of practical operations, the figure
;
be of such a form
or
by making allowance
ought
to
be as
If the
near as possible to the curve of equilibrium for the support of such a surrounding mass.
substance be rock through which a tunnel
all
is
to
be
cut,
it
will not
be necessary
to
form an arch
may be paved
in
may
solid rock.
it is
In executing a tunnel,
is
absolutely necessary to effect a part of sufficient length for the operation of walling and arching,
The
is
built
may be from 3
or 4, to 7 or
8,
feet, in
observing the quality of the ground with the utmost circumspection, so as not to endanger
falling
at a time.
all
in
the bottoms are most frequently constructed in the figure of an inverted arch, being a
less
segment considerably
than a semi-circle.
The
sides
and
top, however,
ought to be carried
such a
be most suitable
to the
commodious aperture
for passage.
it
With regard
crown
in
will
123
to
This
will
in
may be done by
more
in the
solid earth,
last constructed,
or
by means of
there-
common
very great radius of curvature, and only a few courses (their number depending upon that curvature) built at a time between two courses of wedged-bricks
made
for the
purpose
these
for
to
have their
sides,
common
The
a great
number of
The skew-backs
hard stone, so as
to
answer
XXlX.g, figures
received a
4 and
5,
who
the work.
By
inspecting/^. 4,
\ bricks in length,
and
all
The
common
sort,
course in eight in the bottom and sides, and one course in six in the arch at the top.
bricks which separate the
intervals
These
common
each interval
may
:
contain the
these radi-
number of common
ating bricks were
parallel planes,
all
made
it
As common
and as
is
forming the ceilthin as possible, particularly on the lower part adjacent to the convex surface,
ing or
soffit
of the arch, which has to sustain the greatest pressure, these radiating bricks are
much from
In executing a tunnel,
it is
essential that
124
pared similar
to those
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
sliown
m Jig.
obtained the level of the bottom of the tunnel, and the central range or line of direction which
is
intended to pass from one extremity of the tunnel to the other, lay the
at the
it
first
course of brickit,
work
bottom by means of
this line,
I,
in
order
to give
a firm support as at
Jig. 5.
Upon
at each
tlie
end, the centre of the under-curve of which must coincide with the line of direction on of the middle course of bricks.
top
in their
proper positions,
on each side of the central or directing courses, making the joints between the bricks with as
tliin
wedged or
at
ra-
diating bricks
E, E,
^g.
4,
lay
the
skew-backs, which
may be made
skew-backs carry up the curved sides or walls as high as the tops of the leading frames, observing, as before,
to insert the
in their
if
any
space should remain between the natural ground and the brick-work,
solid earth, well solid brick-work.
condensed by ramming
it,
is
to
arch
must consist of two single ribs without any attached covering, and may be of
to
sufficiently strong.
it,
As
the brick-
order to turn
it,
the covering of
the centre must consist of single straight pieces of wood, about three inches square, and must be
laid loose
on the circular
ribs
by one
at
till
the
work
arrives as
high as the supporting bars F, F, &c., which must be taken out one at a time, as the brick-
all
the
way
to
stop
up
may be
arch
is
soil
immediately above
tight.
it.
The
keyed
the
in with wedged-bricks,
first
When
length
is
completed, the leading frames and centre are moved out of the way,
may proceed
to
bricklayers proceed again as before, with this difference, that only one leading frame
for the next
required
all
and Jig.
5, exhibits
excavated for one of the single lengths, at one interval of time, before the brick-work
the length thus excavated at once must depend
built
from three
to eight feet,
The
The
leading frames,
125
is
exhibited at A, B, C, D, fig. 5.
in the process
to
of building
at
I,
exhibited at
GH;
and
is
shown
the courses of brick, in order to support the middle of the leading frames,
on which the
line
is
drawn
to
These are
so far
The
serting one
supported by the
arch
last turned,
&c. In fi^. 4, which shows the arch as complete, the radiating bricks are shown at a, b, c, sides and at k, I, m, &c. and , o,j), for the inverted arch; at d, e,f, &c. and g, h, i, &c., for the
;
&c.
The
is
shown
at
the
n o, are shown at m,
obvious
and
lastly,
is
shown
at p.
It is
must be
in the intersection of
the two right-lines, mn, mn, in order that the two curves
angles at the points
, n,
which would not only destroy but weaken the figure of the tunnel.
The
beauty and regular gradation of the curve tends greatly to promote the strength and durability
of the work.
In the construction of tunnels, the whole of the mortar employed should be
best water-cement, otherwise
to
it
made of
the
will
be often repaired; and therefore eventually would become very expensive, a disagreeable
it
in the outset,
to
Wapjring.
S97. This bold design, to effect a communication of the opposite shores of this very deep
and navigable
river,
by the
failure of
This enterprising design, from the rational hope of remuneration, did not continue long without
patronage.
bill
to incorporate
Brunei's superintendance received the royal assent, on the 24th June, 1824.
of the bed of the river, the selection of the most eligible position, the purchase of property,
the preparation of the novel machinery, &c. &c. occupied the rest of the year.
The soundings
tides,
taken along the proposed line across the river, gave 12 feet water at the lowest
and 36
to
be a stratum of sand,
;
about 3 feet 8 inches thick, laying upon a stratum composed of sand and clay
of the excavation was a bed of tenacious clay.
The
2k
126
lower part of
this
PRACTICAI> BRICKLAYING.
bed
in
is
bed of
;
stiff
blue clay,
a bed of
feet.
silt,
7 feet
silt
mixed with
shells,
7 feet
indurated clay,
silt
and gravel-stones, 3
The
tunnel was begun early in the year 1825; and the design consists of a square mass of
brick-work,
inches.
37
feet
feet
Each
carriage-road
13 feet G inches wide, and the height of each aperture above the
sides are
road-way 15
feet
6 inches.
The extreme
feet in
thickness,
;
feet
3 inches.
is
The arched
and
intervals, are
may
The
central
wall was built solid for the greater security of the work, and afterwards perforated.
Under
each passage
is
Over the
invert
all
Macadamized
roads,
the
joints
The
all laid
to
purpose extremely
It
was intended that the foot-passengers should enter the tunnel from either side of the
in
a circular shaft.
The
feet,
wharf; and that the descents for the carriages should be circular.
begun,
it
was necessary
to
get
down
this
to the
For
purpose a cylindrical
that,
40
feet in height,
feet in thick-
and 50
feet in diameter,
was constructed, so
when
sunk, to
become the
lining of the
This circular wall rested upon a wooden curb shod with cast-iron base, of which the
lower edges was formed into an acute angle in the manner of a chisel, and the top was secured
to the
The
brick-work was built with the utmost care on the surface of the ground immediately over the
place which was intended for the shaft.
In the upper part of the shaft, a steam-engine of 36-horse power was constructed, with a
boiler, fire-place, &c., for the
lifting
the exca-
vated
soil.
The
for
first
Wm.
Smith, Esq.,
its
M.
P.
enclosure.
As they proceeded,
immense
without accident, for twenty days, through successive strata of gravel, &c., and
when
it
had
descended 37
to
feet
it
rested
upon a
solid
bed of
clay.
It
remain
but the excavation was continued, and the cylindric-wall under-built to the depth of
127
and another cylindric-wall inserted,
At
feet
feet,
sunK 20
more.
for the drainage-water, into
it off.
which were
The
-f-
24
+ 20 = 84
bricks,
feet,
64 of
which are of 50
feet diameter,
and 20 of 25
feet.
It
and 1200
barrels of cement.
The
weight of
this construction is
The
cylindrical cavity is
foot.
Near
it,
little
be
built
the cylindrical shaft of 160 feet diameter, by which carriages are to ascend and descend,
so as not to exceed in any part a greater declivity than that of Waterloo-Place, Pali-Mall.
Though
the principle of sinking this shaft was familiar to every well-digger, and to every
its
vast diameter
it is
yet attempted, as
and
intrepidity on the part of the engineer, in order to secure the success of the work.
At
made
for
and
it,
soil,
was effected by means of a strong iron frame, consisting of several moveable vertical parts, the
whole of which was called by Mr. Brunei by the name of a
shield,
37
feet in width,
22
in
height,
and 8
feet in depth,
and containing
workmen.
It
which the
and
bricklayers.
The
is
soil to
be excavated
and, by means of
the workman can, by taking away the board, remove any part of
when
new
vertical
is
now
exposed, and the board by this means becomes in advance of the box, and
kept
place by props, which have their supports by the face of the brick-work in the rear.
When
boards
all
the boards,
it will
will
have
and of a
certain depth,
be
advance equal
to this depth.
The
forced
forward to the boards, and the operation of excavation recommences, and so on, observing that
at every time the excavation
is
is
immediately executed
all
round close
to the shield,
preserved.
in twenty-four hours,
90
to
by the engine.
it
On
the 2d of Rlarch
had ad-
vanced 4T0
feet,
w])ich
is
About 11,000
bricks, laid in
cement, were used every day, and the labour of one hundred
men was
128
PRACTICAL BHICKLAYING.
main from the gas-works
is
laid
along the
;
floor,
in
the
illumi-
nated, which produce in the eyes of the spectator, at his entrance, a most extraordinary and
beautiful gradation in the perspective succession.
The
total
is
preserved
by drains underneath, which empty themselves into the tank under the engine at the bottom
of the shaft.
^98.
this
ability,
by numerous expe-
On
the 18th of
May, 1827,
at a distance of
544
feet
in the
filled
were
lost.
In this eruption
mined by means of a
in bags, so as to
fill
diving-bell,
up the
cavity complete.
The
pumped
out,
slightly injured.
recommenced
gerous part passed, on the 12th of January, 1828, the water of the
broke
in
and passed
filled in less
all
the lights
six
The
happened occurred
at the distance of
;
GOO
feet
from the
shaft.
and, though the tunnel descends 3 feet in 100, into the excavation, in
river,
feet of the
water above
it.
These
events,
though much as
it
to
work, yet prove in a manner highly satisfactory, that no event of this nature can offer any
progress in future will be a national concern, and that the subscribers will be relieved
farther outlay
from
The whole
to
be ^^160,000
but the
many
laid out in
and .^118,500.
to
in
the works.
The
directors
state that
about j75,000.
will
be necessary
,em))ankment.
129
Thames, passing
longitudinally
XXX.
fig.
1,
along the tunnel, and through the substance between the bed of the river and the excavation,
with the sections of the shafts for the descending and ascending of carriages and foot-passengers.
The
Fig.
in
in
one
of the compartments
and
fig.
is
in the longitudinal
The whole
Fig.
5, a transverse section
through the two apertures of the tunnel, and through the summit
of one of the arches of the division-wall, showing the representations of a loaded carriage and
foot-passengers to and fro.
Plate
XXXI.
fig.
in
1,
order to show
how
work
are connected to
wood
alternately, placed
This, as has been explained, was sunk by conat intervals, so that the axis of the
when
a certain portion of the ground was taken away from under the wall, this portion was
in the
supported
middle by blocks and wedged tight to the under side of the curb
soil
after this
was dug away, and the under side was again supported
all
by %vedges
then,
in the
round,
till
and
when
one
step,
2,
and
was done
in
Fig.
shows a portion of a section of the bed of the river containing a transverse section
of the excavation of the tunnel, and elevation of the six compartments of the shield.
tion
This secin
shows also a
it
which
was
filled
by the clay-bags, and how the tarpauling above the clay-bags was kept
all,
filled
show the
state
of the bed of the river after the irruption more clearly than fig. 2.
Various other Designs for the Sections of Tunnels, S~ ucrs. Culverts, and Drains.
299. Fig.
7,
plate
XXXII,
is
sufficiently
broad as
to
admit of carriages
is
The
breadth
of the road-way
2S
feet,
42
is
feet.
The
entire height
between the middle of the head-arch and that of the inverted arch
in the carriage-way
21
feet,
and the
2l
130
summit
oi
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
me
arcii is
18
feet.
Fig. 8,
is
Fig.
7, is
adapted to those
of the tunnel
and
jig. 8,
is
adapted
to
very great.
Fig. 2,
Fig.
tions
1
,
is
like.
common
4,
or main sewer.
Fig.
and
Jig. 6,
^^.
8,
may
either
be constructed of brick or
In
all
stone, according as
is
most
easily procured.
perpendicular to the visible surface of the tunnel, whether the material used be brick or stone
by
this
will
it
will
require
the joints are placed obliquely to the visible surface of the brick-work adjacent to the aptn-ture or void of the tunnel.
Though a uniform
is
compounded of the
arcs of circles
very sudden in any place, to execute the whole of an arch of variable curvature, in several or
in
many
portions of circular arcs, having their radii varying gradually from each other, will be
will
It
must,
however, be observed, that the arcs on each side of every point of junction must have their
centres in the
tion
;
same
straight line,
and that
that
is
If this circumstance
is
not attended
to,
the
the arch will be deficient in point of continuity, and this will produce a very unsightly effect on the eye in the general appearance of the work, by crippling
it
in
sudden gradations.
This
unpleasant effect
must therefore be carefully guarded against, so that nothing but beauty and
from the execution of the design; and
this
\\\\\
harmony may
the
result
workman who
who
are ultimately to
131
CHAPTER
VII.
FIRE-PLACES,
AND OF THE
was
SETTING OF COPPERS.
The
section of the roof of the oven, on the old principle,
for the use of bakers,
;
usually of an oval figure, being arched over at top in the figure of an ellipsoid
bottom
of brick, tiles,
gratinif,
and
lime, with a
door in front
and
at the
upper
part,
an inclosed
with an iron
Proving Oven.
To
and burnt
to ashes,
time, during
A
is
still
further
much more
becomes
fuel
expended than
an oven upon
this principle,
it
are
and they
are, therefore,
by
this
means, very
latterly
much
been
injured.
To remedy
upon
it rises,
this inconvenience,
built
fossil coal.
On
one side
is
hole,
and iron-door,
from
Over
it is
this is a middling-sized
;
and
plaster.
this
When
renders
oven
is
is
filled
fire
being
and
dirt or
ill
smoke
is
may
When
the coal
burnt
to
a cinder, there
is
is
as
it
the bread
setting in,
till
the door
closed.
The advantages
new
of
comment.
construction.
it
has been communicated by Mr. Elsam, the Architect, inider whose directions
has been
Figure
is
The
fire is
is
supported upon
wrought-iron bars, which are fixed an inch and a half below the level of the oven, to prevent
the cinders from entering
it.
The
is
CI, 2,
plan).
The
ashes
fall
door of which
is
marked
3,
132
While
tlie
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
coals are
burning, the
in
is
door, or blower, B,
shown
the section of the oven, {fig. 4,) and elevation, {fig- 10,) and
which
is
so shaped in order to
is
for the
smoke
to the flue, C.
This door,
or blowei',
is
may be
required.
5,)
When
the oven
sufficiently hot, a
man, placed
6,)
at its
D, {fig-
and
to the angle, F,
where
it
stops, as
shown by the
dotted lines
then going to the mouth of the furnace, he hooks the crooked part, G, of the same
mto the
H, {fig.
7,)
and
pulls the
is
fillet, I
III I,
upon which
it fits.
This stopper
being shut.
made
to slide,
but
its
Figure
8,
mouth of
tlie
The opening
made
of the mouth should be one foot two inches wide, and one foot high, and to be
fillets
to receive the
The
is
bread
is
putting
is
in,
the
To
the handle
of the lever
hung an
it is
by
this
mean,
When
At
bread
is
is
taken away
and the
two doors of the oven, with the two doors of the furnace, are shut up.
the top of the furnace,
M,
{fig. 4,)
is
commu-
The
sulphur that
may remain
in the ashes,
is
and might
The
N,
connnu-
{fig. 10.)
is
a niche, {fig.
3,)
has been observed that, in ovens on this construction, whatever be the dimensions of the
it is
fire-place,
always proper to set the bars eight or ten inches in from the door, by this means
fire.
a supply of coals will be kept warming before they are pushed forward into the
The
im-
is
known
to those
who have
it
attended
to.
It also prevents, in
between the
fire-place,
of fitting iron
will hold,
according to their
size, as follows
Eight
and seven
Nine
Ten
feet wide,
BOILER FIRE-PLACES.
If required to hold less than eight bushels, or
133
twelve, the proportions, of course,
more than
The oven
above,
it is
is
The
fire-hole,
iorm
being supposed better calculated to retain the heat than any other
the entrance, as shown in figures
nace.
1
the flue
is
immediately over
fiir-
and
4.
Welsh lumps,
it is
more
This pre-
caution
advisable on
required.
brick-work upon,
formed by
filling
sand, clay, or rubbish, which must be well trodden down, and formed to the shape or figure of
the crown.
centering,
When
the upper
work
is
Other particulars
Plasterers.
Of
301. Plate
Boiler Fire-Places.
series of kitchen fire-places, for
XXXIV.
Fig.
section
1
is
double-boiler fire-place
line,
the vertical
a, a.
is
placed
the space b
made
sufficiently capacious to
is
air,
shewn by
darts, the
being so con-
two
boilers.
made
grate,
all
it
the
is
way along
around the
became
rarified
fuel, it
would
move
an equal velocity, and the greatest portion of the heat would escape,
its
In order to
air is
is
contracted at
detained
much
longer under the bottom of the boiler, and impinging upon the surface of the vessel,
it
tends to heat
in the
it
being a well-known
fact,
that heat
is
best
communicated by ascent
therefore
it it
will,
is
at all times,
be advantageous
These
2m
134;
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
most
reasons, if duly attended to, will, in every case, suggest to the practical bricklayer the
advantageous situation to construct the check or diminished area of the passage for the heated
current.
is is
requisite, as in
so well understood
by which
avail
themselves of the lateral heat of the current, but also of that most
The
sides
d, d, d, d, d,
should
rise in
it
a sloping direction, so as to
is
fire-bricks,
and
set in
will
bind
cases,
where
it
to slope gradually
by changing the
medium.
it is
be made
it
to strike or
in
contents,
will
with the
sure,
flues,
admit cold
To
the practical
man who
is
we cannot
much
this class
of fire-place,
false
we
wish most strenuously to impress upon our practical readers the mistaken and
economy of
in
making
very
little
show
it
is
cause
the
gaseous parts
will
be
distilled
instead of imparting heat by entering into combustion, a precisely contrary effect will be pro-
duced.
And
if,
supplied, the
permit so
much
and
its
of time that
will
be required
to
BOILER FIRE-PLACES.
There
is
135
which must be admitted
into the fuel
made
sufficiently large,
of
a much coarser description can be used, and a very equable and economical heat may be pro-
duced;
for,
in
common
fire-grates,
be not only
not require half the attendance that pure coals with a pinched fire-place will do.
that
is
sustained by
is
many
families
copper, which
The
length of
the bars, in most cases, should be about three-fourths of the diameter of the bottom of the
boiler,
and
if
will
all
the bars
entire, the
And
it
should be rememsoot,
likely as others to
be clogged with
in
and therefore
tions, as
it
will
be very requisite
Jig. 2,
fire in
to
proper situa-
shewn
at
c,
which
will
may be
erected.
to
may be
necessary to
state,
be observed
in figures
3,. 4,
and
5, as in
is
figures 1 and 2.
of a hot-plate, which
most generally of
cast-iron, resting
round, and a rim of wrought-iron should be fixed round the external brick-work, to protect
The
three-quarters of an inch of the plate, leaving that distance between the bridge and the under-
part of the plate, for the smoke and heat to pass on the
way
to the
chimney.
;
The
dotted
lines, in fig. 3,
flue
fig. 5
is
the plan
rises
of the copper-boiler, with the bottom part contracted round the grate.
The smoke
at
the opening in the back, passes round the bottom, and then enters the chimney.
Fig.
6,
it
is
is
except
should so happen that a very large one should be wanted, then the wall
filled
may be
built
hollow and
up with
rubble.
The
inches deep, with a vacuity under to the floor for the ashes to drop, and thence they
may be
rim of wrought-iron
should also be fixed round the brick-work at the top, about 3f inches deep.. of diflerent
sizes,
The
grates are
186
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
On
302. Fig.
1,
the
plate
XXXV.
the copper
This method
it
offers the
site side of the prop at A, and thence rises in a sloping direction towards the back, which
shown by another
fig. 2.
shown on the
plan,
Above
the partition. A, the whole of the smoke rushes into a chimney or tube, ascending
up
and
is
This
chimney
shown
which
2,
as exhibited
by
Fig.
cock,
tition
5,
is
a vertical section taken through the axis of the boiler, and through the discharging
A, which
The
is
2, is that
;
of fig.
1,
section, fig. 4,
its
fig. 4, being
position,
which
is
Fig.
6,
is
an elevation of the
pullics,
front,
is
showing the
fire-place,
door by means of
which
The
entirely closed
is
There
is
also
shown on these
&c.
his
This construction
is
that
well
known by
numerous
publications,
and
We
tific
upon our
scienfuel,
air pass
and
so close
and sound
as to prevent a
;
circulation of that
which
is
life
is
and flame
for
one fact
should never be
lost sight
decomposed
or used
up by the
to impart its
own temperature
to the
surrounding objects, and, consequently, rather retard than accelerate the object in view.
are well aware, that however well fire-places of this kind
We
may be
constructed,
much
evil is fre-
flue,
or carry
it
into
In such case,
will generally
flue
some degree,
to
is
time, that portion of the flue that leads from the one not in use, should
be stopped, to prevent
it
at
such part.
SETTING RETORTS.
137
CHAPTER
VIII.
As Gas,
for the
purpose of aiFording
light,
article
of general
utility,
may be
it,
necessary to give some account of the brick-work, particularly of that very essential
part of
retorts.-
to the best
shape, and the most economical method of setting retorts, for the purpose of carbonizing coal,
yet very
little
in either of these
most important
Retorts
made of
cast-iron
lumps or
tiles,
made of
fire-clay,
and ovens
these mate-
Of
we may merely
it
an absorbent of heat, and clay a nonformer would appear to be decidedly gas-works sanctions this
absorbent,
hence
The
now almost
:
universally used.
cylindrical,
oval,
is
semi-circular (or
shaped),
generally adopted
that
cylindrical, 7 feet
6 inches long,
and
But whether
being so various, as regards gas matters, in different hands, no certain conclusion can with
safety be
The
is
from making
a fair
trial.
The modes
what
is
They were
first
set
on
set to
one
fire,
back of the
fires
retorts,
as
room permitted,
or as the
Sometimes two
were used
to heat a
bench of three or
;
These
flues
retorts repeatedly
Mr.
Peckston
fuel only.
states, that
two
fire,
He
from
a chaldron of coals
retorts, in
different kinds of
to
138
Retorts, for
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
the destructive distillation of coal, were
is
designated the
oven-plan.
His
first
was reported
to heat
expence.
He
one
and,
lastly,
seven.
It is
benches of
on the oven-plan,
by
far,
mode adopted
at the best
and answers
There
It
it
own
immediate inspection.
has
is
not at present
it
At
Ratclifie
it
having examined
so.
we
this
should be
;
The coke
from
made by
oven
is
and
sells for
One oven
inches long, (they purpose making them a foot longer, which will be a decided improvement,)
by two
hours
;
feet broad,
and one
The oven
is
and the
The grand
is
object in view, in setting retorts, and in choosing the best configuration of them,
to
be enabled thereby to make the greatest quantity of the best carburetted hydrogen-gas,
and
demand
to a
parti-
To
use as
it
little
fuel as possible,
proper
up
2d,
To
distribute
3dly,
To
To
to
may, perhaps, be
a descrip-
tion of the
retorts,
in
cylindrical metal
one
fire,
on the oven-plan
now
in
in action
gas-works
fire retorts,
one oven,
to one fire.
By
may be
set
on the
same
principles.
this,
it
Before entermg on
preferred to seven.
retorts.
It is
may be
is,
why
five retorts in
a bench are
than seven
The
fact
the heat
much more
easily distributed
amongst
five
fire.
The
con-
SETTING RETORTS.
139
nection-pipes of the two undermost retorts, namely, those placed at each side of the furnace, are,
from
choked up
is
is
exposed
to
an
comparatively cool
the consequence
is,
gives way, in a very short space of time, rendering these retorts totally useless, while the same
extent of fuel must necessarily be continued to the remaining the seven, instead of that limited quantity of
retorts are adapted.
fuel,
five,
to heat
five
for
Indeed, there are some intelligent practical men, who, from motives of
recommend,
in
plate
XXXVI,
is
a front view of a
Bench of
five cylindrical
metal Retorts,
is
One of
shown with
its lid
The
eyes of the
5.
on the
6,
straps, S, Jig. 6,
(Figures
4, 5,
are
drawn a larger
show
more
distinctly.)
The
centre
retort has
their lids.
its lid
The
others are
shown without
For larger works, the beds of the retort-benches are generally supported by an arch of
brick-work,
marked ^,
Jig.
1.
It is
it,
for a wheel-
a floor of iron-plates,
and
3, for
when drawn
called,
from the
is
The
it is
sometimes
of the ash-pit.
The
six-eighths of an inch broad, for allowing a current of air to pass to the fires.
The
dimensions
of these
piece
is
slits
made
may be
necessary,
gas,
as
it
is
d, d,
d d d
are front views of what are termed the the dip-pipes. F, Jig.
i,
H pipes.
P, Jig. 3,
e, e, e, e, e,
Jig.
1,
is
G, G, G,
a transverse section of the same bench of retorts, which supposes them to be cut
In this section the dip and conducting-
140
pipes are not shown.
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
A, A, A, A, A, the
retorts
;
a, a, a, a, a, a,
good grey-
immediately contiguous to
in
Windsor
fire-clay.
The
a segment.
is
flattened,
bridge
fire-tiles,
as
shown
at b.
At
the extreme end of the oven are two openings, which lead
flues pass
into the
retorts,
two small
flues, c, c.
These
and from
it
into the
main
flue,
H. f,fig-
2, is
g the
ash-pit.
h, h,
retorts
middle by wrought-iron
belts,
which were brought through the upper part of the oven, and
it,
in the
From
&c., fire-bricks
and
fire-tiles,
in fig. 2,)
When
bedded
introduced,
in the
They
are
now
scientific principles,
in the plate.
Figure
S, is
A, A, are the
retorts, the
5.
mouth-
fig. 4,
The upper
These
is
one
ai"e
is
lid
_/,
is
made deep
;
in the centre,
and chamfered
so as to
admit the
the
air
freely,
g,
the
ash-pit
o, o, o, o,
are the
openings,
S,
to
pigeon-holes,
from the
furnace to
long,
the fire-lumps:
these
;
are
made
generally 16 or 18 inches
and
broad
cover
the
fire-place
they are
;
of the best
Stourbridge
fire-clay.
W, W,
the fire-guards
/i
to the
H pipe,
is
and that
carries
them
which enters
E.
sunk
X.
In fig.
1,
To
these binders
flat
straps of wrought-iron
it.
not considered necessary for the binders to extend to the sunk floor, as here represented
sufficient, generally,
is
that they
commence
SETTING RETORTS.
to within four inches of the top
141
of the benches.
flat
Two
is
the walls of the retort-benches from protruding, by means of the excessive heat.
excellent plan, though
an
somewhat expensive
at starting.
These
on both
sides
of the benches, where the mouths of the retorts are at one side of the benches, and the furnacedoors at the other
:
but,
by
which, the health and comfort of the stokers are considerably benefited.
^'c.
made of
fire-clay, or,
what
is
termed by
brick-makers, from
basis of
in
all clays,)
property of
silica, in
infusibility,
It consists
of alumine, (the
and
variable proportions
infusible,
or of alumine and
lime.
Either of these,
in
our
furnaces
&c
very
But
it
and
silica,
is is
fusible
is
silica
one of lime
em-
ployed.
Oxide of
its
proportion be
much
greater
than
is
ever likely to occur in any clay used for the manufacture of bricks.
Those
clays that
contain
much
feldspar, as
is
making common
class
of
called
much blackened
by coaly matter,
best
is
is,
in
which case
to
be considered as rather of an
is
inferior quality.
The
This
to
be found at Stourbridge.
is
mixed up
with powdered crucibles, or old fire-bricks, or glass-house pots, in place of the sand generally
used
of
common
bricks.
is
It
when
communicated by
The
it,
clay
is
first
may be
still
remaining in
must be sepa-
by
sifting
it.
XXXVI,
is
O
to
is
the oven, 11 feet long, 2| feet deep, and in breadth, according to the length of the retorts
be heated.
At
present,
it is
2o
142
retorts; four in the
PRACTICAL, BRICKLAYING.
umlermost row, and three
arcli,
in the
rest
is
on two of
of the
an
of a very
flat
made
It is
brought to a
may
all
lie in
flues
There are
six of
a, a,
is
fire-bricks,
torts
and b
is
to
retorts as possible.
The
each of them
smoke passes
and
into the
main
flue,
H.
s, s, s, s, s,
oven, &c.
Figure 8
letters
is
The same
P, P, P,
is
is
the ground
line,
is
the side where the mouth, D, of the oven the opposite side
;
placed.
The
by the excess of
heat.
is
the coke-oven;
,
the
fireJt,
six
the roof of
;
A, A, the retorts
c, d, e,
H, the
is
the connection-pipe,
leading
The
and
3.
Improved Method of
307. Figure 9, plate
coal-gas retorts,
fire
is
iti
an Oven.
five
XXXVI,
is
A, A, A, A, A, in an oven, to one
The
retort immediately
over the
retorts,
set
precisely in the
in fig. 2:
These
upper
from a to
b,
14 inches
b to
(/
fire-clay.
From
c,
is is
4 1 inches
4j inches.
ends,
(I,
from c
to d,
5 inches.
The
is
2 inches.
From
to e
They
and
b,
k, e.
From h
to fi
is
11 inches.
The
meant
to
and
interstices
below them.
fig. 9,
the piers that divide the side-flues, or, as they are generally termed, the pigeon-holes
(those
openings that run from each side of the furnace to the outer sides of the lateral retorts.) admits of a
full
This
and
free
which
is
SETTING UETORTS.
throughout the whole of the plan.
fered off at the edges, so as to
fit
143
The
Above the
saddles, the
on
b, c,
of the saddles, or on
c, c,
d, e.
highly
there
and,
in
place of
uniting in one flue, d, as in fig. 2, and going to the back part of the oven above the flues
c, c,
the flame
from
c,c,
descends in
it
d,
until
it
arrives at e,e,
(half-way nearly
down
the
sides of
H, H, and thence
into the
main
flue
all
and counteracting,
than to another.
same
time, any
this
to
oven more
The
heat,
by
it.
means,
kept nearly as
much towards
Indeed, so
much
not anticipating a result so very successful, found that, notwithstanding the great precautions
&c.,
very great expansion of the brick-work, in front, caused of course by the quantity
so
of heat
now brought
much towards
When
fuel
is
in
fuel
centre bench
at the
has consumed the whole of the smoke of the other two benches, while they,
time,
same
were kept up
to
Suppose figure
11.
9,
(If
so as to
open
main
flue,
means of
dampers) through a
Passing
in
11, the
smoke
is
is
essen-
be attended to
it
much
renders
again combustible.
is
In this state
fire
it
consumed by the
Fuel
is
fact,
of
much
fresh coal.
thus not only saved, but a great nuisance to the neighbourhood very
much
diminished.
The method
of shutting
it
off"
is
an
of the
to
is
sunk a
little
floor,
is
R.
and
whatever
to the free
draught of
Of
the saddles, Jig. 10, five are required for each circular retort
44
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
saddles
;
The
inches
parts,
for the
under
retorts
: From
5 inches.
a to
h,
\1i
segment
c,
d,
The
other
in all respects,
is
arc similar to those for the upper row of retorts, as already described.
Fifrurc 12
Five pairs,
are rebated
or 10 pieces, are required for each circular retort of the above dimensions.
in
They
it
At
a,
fg.
VZ, the
tile
is
edge
is
1 i
inch thick: at b
:
is
From a
to c the
9| inches broad
from d to 6
it is
from c
filled
to
/is 14
inches.
The
space from c io
tile
d may be made
to
to suit
up with
fire-clay.
Flere the
left for
tapers
down
At
least half
an
On
to a
much
These, fig. 12
and
13,
and saddles,
it
will
be seen, drawn
much
Safety Plugs,
oOS.
S^c.
There
it
is
we may here
notice, as
directions,
and contract
in cooling.
Those
the
expand towards the front of the bench, where the mouth-pieces and con-
much
as five-eighths of an inch
the bench.
Now, according
to
th.c
present
mode of
nect the retorts with the hydraulic main, these connection-pipes must be fractured and injured
by
do not yield
it,
to
it
and
it is
well
known
joints
commonly made on
with rust cement and bolts, can yield by any means, with safety, to
the retorts joined to the hydraulic main were in action, at the
this extent.
same
time,
affecting
them
in
such a case, have the effect perhaps of turning the hydraidtc main outwards, were
at all
moveable on
joints,
its
supports
in the
connection-pipes or their
by
But when
it is
at all times
in
six out
will
be
we have alluded
In the generality
provided
for,
: On
the vertical connection-pipe, not very far distant from the retort, an
is
hydrauhc joint
is
formed, which
filled
This metal
is
and
five
This composition
RETORT FURNACES.
(which
is
145
well
known by
the
name of
197 of Fahrenheit, without any sensible evaporation, effectually sealing the hydraulic
the heat arrives towards the point just mentioned the retort either to expand or to contract.
;
and allowing a
used,
it
also acts as
They
not only serve the purpose of affording safety to the works, but they enable the
coal,
in great
abundance on
its first
it
charge, (should
not be convenient to draw the retorts at the proper time,) they likewise
enable the stoker to discharge the sulphurated hydrogen, azotic gas, hydrogen gas, &c., evolved
by the
rities,
coal, if
allowed to remain, beyond the proper period, in the retorts; and which impu-
but for these plugs, or other contrivances of a similar description, find their way (under
the circumstances just stated), to a certain extent, into the gasometer, and deteriorate the gas
accordingly.
They
and
dering
it
By
lifting
drawing the
obtained
much
retorts,
and
to
now very
considerably diminished,
by
their
smoke
in
to
ascend
instead of issuing
as heretofore,
suffocating
In the case,
too,
lift
the
by introducing a rod of
that delay whatever which must have taken place to unscrew and remove the glans, that were
of unscrewing and taking off those caps and glans, frequent burstings and explosions have
taken place in gas works, as might have been expected, from the excessive concentration or
up, allowing the compressed gas to escape the compressed gas has the
eflfect
and
this
escape
will,
consequently, be
more or
less as
It is
on precisely the
safety-valve of a steam-boiler.
Retort Furnaces.
309.
it is
We
the heat
kept by the
much more,
of course,
than formerly.
to
be guarded against,
by
fixing fire-tiles,
wedged
2p
146
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
;
with chips and fire-clay on the inside of the doors doors at hand to substitute for any that
ing the precaution of lining them with
may be
fire-tiles.
facility,
and on.
will
A
be
each furnace
first
is
by no means necessary
The
be put on again
brick-work from being injured by the action of the rake, or shovel, &c.
thick of metal,
cast-iron,
and from 10
to 12 inches broad.
The
at each
way.
These cross-bars
have a rabbet
sides to
them, to receive the ends of the grate-bars, so as to allow both of their upper
The
grate-bars should be
much deeper
at the
off,
centre
than at the ends, (say 4^ inches at the centre, and 2\ at the ends,) and chamfered
so as to
admit the
air freely.
Their distance from each other should not be less than six or seven-tenths
heat, this opening will diminish
is
of an inch.
As they
by
their expansion.
about 42 inches.
Three
back
side.
;
They
it
one
laid transversely,
at
longitudinally,
one at each
This
to
:
fire at that
Their
;
dimensions are
for the two side lumps, 2 feet long by 9 inches deep, and 6 inches thick
and
for that at the back, 18 inches long by 9 inches deep, and 6 inches thick.
They
the upper sides, to a certain extent, so as to communicate readily and correspond with the sideflues,
by the workmen.
The lumps
is
and joined by
manner.
The
and
by 14 inches deep,
oven-plan.
is
a very general size for a gas-work furnace, to heat five retorts set on the
If the retorts
will
be 7
feet
6 inches
nace or door
be 66 inches.
the the
this,
rise in
retorts.
set,
and,
From
the grate-bars, to
its
fire-tiles,
10, plate
XXXVI,
furnace are
The
an experienced bricklayer
will
be at no
loss to appreciate.
147
Chim7iey.
310. In erecting the chimney, or stack, to the furnaces, the the foundation. point to be attended to
first
is
it
so
will
be required to
for gas
This
will afford
Chimnies
wOrks
made
is
generally
That
commonly done
;
neighbourhood
for the
40
to
50
feet high,
is
all
that
feet,
would be required
for
For an
air-furnace, a
chimney of 40
example, in an
open
in
situation,
The
nected with
in action at
that
is
bring
it
to a
proper
level.
Two
If of
commence
the chimney.
to found on,
clay, the
to
two of the
wall.
If of
breadth of the foundation, in proportion to the upper walls, should be about double,
at least
and sunk
feet.
This depth
is
for in clayey
surface.
ground the
effect of shrinkage,
by
heat,
is
may be
necessary.
No
piles,
as
it
rots the
wood.
On
this
account, to cramp the under courses with cast-iron, and only compact clay used instead of lime,
it
will require to
will
be required, being a
in this country to
which
all
be
carried, will
which
it
may be thought
The
on each side gradually from the bottom towards the surface of the ground.
are termed scarcements.
dations.
If large flat stones can
These diminutions
far the best foun-
proper beds, by means of a triangle, or other means, and they ought not to be aftenvards
shifted
:
or, if shifting
and
148
PKACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
we
shall
After the foundation has been brought to the surface of the ground,
suppose that a
chimney of 120
;i
flue of
The
last
base-
8 inches square.
The
above enumerated.
feet thick,
commence 3
will
and contracting
20
feet, as
terminate with
a flue of 4
feet,
at top; viz.
]49
the interior course of the chimney, at the proper distances, for the
men
to
mount up by,
projecting
common
it,
ladder.
The
beam and
work
is
to the top,
work
and
when
the
The
By
fixed,
is
this simple
method, a saving
effected of from
method of outside
chimney of only
50 or 60
It
feet high.
It is quite safe
and practicable
any height.
should be used by
the bricklayers,
in case of
means one
up
in
a different angle.
They have
standing the
great rocking to
in
high
winds
the sines of their angles of inclination falling sufficiently within their bases, to preserve
their equilibrium.
They
are
still,
vertical
Tower
of Pisa.
CHAPTER
311.
IX.
&c.
commonly applied
by
their form,
and
They
They
will
be considered in
this
The
air
or
entirely for
air
supply of atmospheric
air
column of
but in the
entirely
mechanical contrivances, which are used to force into the ignited fuel any requisite quantity of
air that
It is
may demand.
in
much
be lamented, that
parts of furnaces given that should enable us to determine the exact size that will be necessary
for
but this
will
when
it
is
considered
art,
2q
l/iO
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
it
render
may be
appli-
intended.
we conceive
is to
may
lead a practical
man
to inquire,
produced
and, secondly, to
make
There
is
call the
attention of the
when
of fuel
is
consumed
its
and
also that,
where
fuel
is
supplied in sufficient
quantity,
and
quality good, the heat generated will likewise be in proportion to the oxygen
in
consumed
in its
a given time.
is
It should,
at all times,
its
intended to be used in a
furnace previously to
in the process
some
and
mechanical means to effect combustion in such a manner as to obtain a due degree of heat.
All sorts of pit-coal contain a large proportion of gaseous matter, which
is it
its levity,
and
draught, in which case atmospheric air will enter the grate, and
by
its
hence
it
however, found
;
for,
as
when heat
is
make
a large portion of the atmospheric air pass through the furnace without coming in
fire,
absolute contact with the coal, and hence, instead of heating the objects placed in the
they
air.
These
To
avoid these inconveniences, and to obtain the most intense and lasting degrees of heat,
fuel used,
this
On
between
the two.
When
coals are laid together in a furnace, or fire of any kind, a large quantity of tar
is
or pitchy matter
effect of closing
liberated, which,
up a
pass
and
if,
stirred, as
ignition of the
whole
will
is
manner
all
visible
a gradual
151
fall-
There
is,
however, a property
of,
and that
is,
the want of levity in any of the gaseous products that are de-
an ignited
state.
The
principal gaseous matters that escape during the combustion of coke are sulphurous
specifically heavier
it is
than atmospheric
air,
and
in
make them
should be
will
made
to pass completely
through the
ing with
its
oxygen,
it
to
As
too
we cannot
much
impress them upon the attention of our readers, because upon these principles de-
pends the necessity of peculiar forms and constructions of various furnaces for particular purposes
;
for,
upon the
slightest reflection,
it
will easily
be conceived, that
is
if
to
be the
would be
when heated
in the
is
used,
a much greater depth may be dispensed with, the fuel being of such a nature as to retain the
interstices
air
may
beneficial effects
It is entirely
burning pit-coal
have of
rejected,
late
now completely
is
air.
The
principles
may be
If they
produced, but
if
creased, or the other diminished, the heavy one will descend, and the light one ascend, with a velocity proportionate to their difference.
312.
A very
is
siderable experience,
we
are enabled to say, should never be less than eighteen feet above the
but
if thirty feet
can be obtained,
it
it
will
be much
better,
In general,
will
The
height of the fire-place must be governed by the nature of the operations to be perIf,
formed therein.
for instance,
it
is
to
be used
J50
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
half the width of the furnace above the height must be such as to allow the fuel to lay about
the melting-pot, which should always be elevated
least one-fourth the
upon
or a suitable stand, at
it
may be
will
be
sufficient to
is
without covering
it
to such a
depth as
The deeper
sorts of
it
wind or
air furnaces
for
when
it
will
be the
effect
produced.
air
It is for this
from a vault or
air,
is
from which
indeed,
always attainable.
It is,
owing
to this circumstance,
found to answer so well when compared with those which are placed
more elevated
313.
tire
places.
A
;
false
piece, forming a fixed and immoveable grate, but experience has proved that
for
a bad
method
lifted
when
is is
much
difficulty
or, if this
fuel,
be not
done,
must be suffered
loss.
to
burn
out,
and also a
in
very considerable
Another
time
covered with adhering clinkers or coal-slag, which can only be removed at the risk of breaking
the bars in pieces, and, consequently, destroying the whole grate
;
but
if
wrought-iron bars of a
in
The
precise form
we
to
be observed
in
the
we
shall
now examine
The
is
constructed
may be of
directed to the quality of those that are to form the internal part or lining, where the greatest
heat prevails, and also to the quality of the materials that are used, as cement, to unite the
linings, linings.
in
The
best materials for lining the internal parts of furnaces are bricks or lumps formed of
up and
same mate-
153
to
partially vitrified
will
or,
in lieu of this,
answer equally
it
well.
water as possible,
in
which
state
should be forced by great pressure into strong moulds that are capable of resisting the
necessary compression of the materials, and in this state they should remain until, in drying,
laid
out to
will
When
any convenient
kiln,
when they
will
Lumps made
in
this
way
will
size
and
durability.
Where
factured in the
way above described, the common Welch lumps must then be used, but they
in
The
The
slush
composed of
particles of flint-glass,
which
is
commonly
called
glass-cutting.
These
form an
is
sufficiently tenacious to
body of the
fuel
very
firmly.
Where
slush cannot be obtained, fine sharp sand, free from any metallic oxyde,
is
may
fluits
be substituted, or what
heated to whiteness, and then quenched in water, which process renders them so
they
that so
may be pounded
in a
and
when
prepared, they be mixed with Stourbridge clay, a cement will be formed that will resist ahnost
Although
this process
its
may appear
and
it
will
amply repay by
durability;
it
only the lumps that fonn the lining near the body of the fire
this
may be
all
works of
;
which
at all times
will
be neces-
sary to place in immediate contact with the internal lining, materials that are
known
to be non-
conductors of heat; few substances will answer this purpose better than
common
place-bricks
that are tolerably well burnt; in this state they answer the purpose exceedingly
particularly,
if
well,
and more
made be mixed
and when
it
will retain
its
be effected,
if
these pre-
2a
154
cautions be carefully attended
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
to,
will
Where
is
required to be kept
up
some persons
have adopted the method of forming the parts or lumps used for the lining so perfect, that they
may be
this
by
re-
fire,
and
partially
exposed
pulling
down
These
by some
persons, be considered advantages, but they are unfortunately attended by corresponding dis-
advantages, which will be found to arise purely from the joints being open, each of which will
become
a small flue, through which air will be passing instead of going through the fuel,
evil,
and
may be
anticipated.
There
is
no part of a furnace that requires more attention than the bars which form the
fire-grate, for
upon the proper shape and construction of these much of the success
from decay
shall
is
will
depend,
and
as their preservation
we
now
how
they
may be
constructed,
so as
not more
effective.
The
shown
in section at
^g.
1,
plate
XXXYII
to
a side-view or elevation
shewn
at Jig. 2.
formed
These blocks
serve,
when placed
them
The
principal defects of these furnace-bars are, that they choke up, on account of the clinkers
that form
as to
in the middle,
and bent
so
be
some
and separate
in the centre
An
ingenious manufacturing chemist in Dublin, some time since, constructed some furnace-
we have ever
seen, that
we are tempted
to
give a perfect description of them for the benefit of our readers, more particularly as they have
been used for a considerable time by Mr. George Manwaring, engineer, of Marsh-place, Lambeth,
value
we therefore
feel
in
laying
practical readers,
who
fact
at best problematical.
;
Figure
3,
fig. 4,
a side-view
and ^g.
5,
and ^g.
6,
is
a representation of
several of
in the fire-place, as
SiC.
155
is
made
all
along the middle of the top of each bar, and that each side
web
it is
or fin which forms the central and supporting part of each bar in
And
the lodgment of ashes from the fuel in the hollow top of each bar, and which, acting as an imperfect conductor of heat, prevents the immediate action of the fire
upon
it,
it
be owing
to the
rush of
is
air
its
passage to the
fire, or,
is,
which
most
of both these
fire
however
this
may
for a
great length of time without receiving any injury, or being, in the least degree, altered in shape
or form.
Bars of
this
common
ones,
which
is
another recom-
or coppers,
are to be erected.
We
would
also
recommend
in Jig.
this will
cool,
and
also save a
con-
all
sorts of fire-places,
it
will
this
made
will
air
draught
to
will
be increased
be carefully attended to
fire,
the construction of
its
air,
which
is
heated
in
should retain
heat, if
Although
this
may be
admit.
Common
The
close
and many
fire-bricks of
first
to
with a second chimney, leaving a cavity between the two about the breadth of a brick.
cavity should be
filled
is
much
better,
powdered charcoal.
The
heated
also
air
would retain
its
original temperature
much
longer in
admit of
Being
be duly attended
to
tions, success
must be certain
may be wanted
treating,
we
will
the proportions of which have been approved by persons long used to operations of
.nnd
kind,
156
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
On
the Proportions
of Air-Fnrnaces.
all
lire
by
bellows, and'those,
where the
air enters
by means of what
is
called the
Generally speaking, the furnaces used in chemical operations, and for melt-
ing and refining metals are of the latter kind, or air-furnace, of which
we
shall
now proceed
to
vertical section of
an
air-furiiace, calculated to
adapted
for a melting-furnace
in Jig. 8,
is
represented
place, brick,
left
plate
XXXVII.
cover
is
A,
is
the grate,
the fire-
the cover.
is
The
which
to
The
hand,
open the mouth of the furnace, some of these cover-frames have an opening
is
centre, into
to
closely fitted,
fire
G, F,
is
in
place of the
common
flue,
The
part E, F, G, might
EF,
is
may be used
crucibles
for
for
it
many
upon
be placed
may be
placed there
air.
supply of
This
in
and
will
at the
same time
The
high ash-pit
made
with
will assist in
Figure
M.
Chevenix.
The
sides, instead
is
is
This peculiar
is
exposed
to the air
by the
2d,
The
some degree
upper
is
part,
it
pecul.arly
as
it
decreases, by wh-ch
means
it
PROPORTIONS OF AIR-FURNACES.
crucible without the assistance of the operator.
prevails at about three inches
pot, should never
157
being
when a
crucible
is
in
it,
and
this
all
descend
freely,
c, c,
may be
let in at
pleasure
to
b,
is
d, d,
upon
to diminish the
upper
same furnace.
The
to
and
fit
in with accuracy.
They
are then
Such a structure
size
may be
when
the largest
means are used. Another air-furnace of great power, and very convenient
for
many
Fig. 10,
is
a ver-
for fusing
in very
pit-coal.
A,
the assay-furnace,
T'he assay-furnace
is
Upon this
furnace
is
good
fire-bricks
on
The
9,1
The
interval
is
height above
is
may
be seen at
b,
fig. 12.
feet,
If the
chimney be under 25
requisite
and
It
if
beyond 35
more
in
one too
large, a small flue having the effect of wire-drawing the current of air in such a manner as
to
c, c,
is
the edge of a gi'ate that covers the ash-pit, which will be better seen in the plan, fig, 12, at
This grate
is
nine inches from the fire-bars, and covers a small vault beneath, giving ample room
and advance
to the fire,
is
in figures 10
and
11,
the ash-pit.
2s
158
and furnaces, C,
is
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
the annealing or cementing furnace in which crucibles are baked to a bright
red heat, before they be introduced along with the matter to be operated upon into the assayfurnace.
It also serves instead
100 of
Wedgewood.
It
may
be made of any
size,
from 9
to
The chimney
to
each furnace
is
carried
up
inchne to the centre openings, which they enter about 12 feet above the flues
d, d, d,
are
dampers
is
33
feet.
lumps
in forty minutes.
If the materials to
an hour, and
less
much
less time.
When
approaching
to
its
Wedgewood)
minutes brings
will
it
disappear in fifteen
to 140 of
boils at
its
being put
in.
The
first five
it
Wedge170 to
wood,
at
which cast-iron
boils.
Steel boils in
at 16~,
172 of
Wedgewood.
It is,
its
openings;
more
likely
that
it
fuel,
is
it.
On
315. In
the
many
is
metal of certain substances, which become volatile under a considerable degree of heat, continued for a greater or less period of time, according to circumstances.
nically called roasting,
This process
is
tech-
and
it is
in
a reverberatory furnace.
This kind of
furnace differs from the air-furnaces, previously described, in the following particular; namely,
that, instead
it
is
made
to
strike or
in the
lays
materials contained
One
of these furnaces
b,
is
represented in plate
c,
is
XXXVIII,
figures
and
2.
a, fig. 1,
is
the fire-grate;
a bridge over
directed
d,
by the dome or
is
f,
is
and
also
structed of the best materials for resisting the effects of heat, particularly the bridge, as the
upper part
coal
is
will
be exposed
to
the greatest effort of the flame, for in this kind of furnace pit-
ENAMELLERS' FURNACES.
in furnaces of this description,
it is
it
150
is
w-ih
view to
should pass over the surface, in order that the oxygen of the atmosphere
the metal as rapidly as possible.
may combine
with
air
in the fire-place,
its
oxygen,
it is
This
h,
difficulty
which has a
is
communication with the atmosphere at one end, the other part within the furnace,
throu<rh the bridge the whole of
its
open
length, by which
air is
introduced
The
is
red oxyde of lead, commonly called red lead, and also putty, the white oxyde of
The
same
letters
on the cor-
responding parts.
On
the
316.
The
persons
taste
for the
It will likewise
be exceedingly useful
may be
necessary to watch the progress during the time that any oubstances
f
may be submitted
This furnace
is
which
it
is
may be
obtained in a very short space of time, and with a comparatively small quantity of
objects placed in
it
in addition to which,
may be brought
rather coke, without receiving the smallest injury from their dirt or ashes.
P/a/e
arch b
d, d,
XXXVIII,
is
/?^.
;J,
a, a,
c,
upon which
th.e
carried
over this
e,
is
an
iron bar, or
is
a simple arch of clay, called a muffle, having no bottom nor ends, but being completely open.
front, the muffle rests
is
In
upon a piece of
iron,
shewn
at fig. 5, the
is
shewn
at h,
rests,
when
it
is
placed in
exactly
is
it,
with the end of the muffle, and through which the fuel
The
fuel
built
at
in the elevation,
a large
and
solid piece of
The coke
is
ignited
in
a Httle time, will burn partly away, and, being pressed or beaten
IGO
down,
will
PRACTICAL BUICKLAYING.
t'orm a clear
bed on which
is
knovru
whom
is
and
for
it
more generally
which
is,
known.
peculiar construction,
that
a very moderate height of chimney will be sufficient, for in most cases, these furnaces are built
in the attic story of the
We
have known
:
an addition made
useful,
The
was placed
a set of bars, the part under the bars being open, so as to permit a supply of
tion, the
it
as usual,
as
a wind or air-furnace
bars or
to
lintels
were adopted instead of the arch, by which means a greater depth was obtained
hold
the fuel
when
it
was used
as
an air-furnace.
principles,
varieties of air or
air
draught furnaces, we shall now describe one of those furnaces which are supplied with
mechanical means, and which are called blast-furnaces.
by
On
317.
the
blast
The term
used
at
furnace for the combustion of the fuel, and consequent reduction of the metal from the ore.
Its velocity is
occasioned solely by the power of the blowing machine forcing the whole contents
of the air-pump through apertures which enter near the bottom of the furnace, called nosepipes
;
and, according to the absolute power of the engine, air of various degrees of density
;
may
be produced
is all,
whereas, in air or wind furnaces, a power equal to the density of the atmosphere
be produced.
in the rapid
and
its
accompanying portion of
that blast which can, in a given time, reduce the greatest quantity of fuel,
alike,
will
Some
idea
may be formed
of the
which
is
when we
will
per minute.
This circumstance
will
and
blast furnace.
Some
and sand-stone
is
the
material most
cal,
commonly used
BLAST FURNACES.
refractory materials that can be obtained.
161
them.
Iron binders of
mode of
been practised
but in almost every case, such has been the effect of heat, that rents and cracks
have been made, defying the ingenuity of the most experienced workmen to remedy or prevent.
In some instances, excavations have been made of the materials would
furnace was raised to
as the labours of the
to
its
in the
soliditv
for
when
necessary height, the solid rocks were rent asunder in the same manner
Some
iron-masters, seeing
how
hopeless
it
was
make
a solid and lasting structure, formed an external shell, and also an internal one like-
filled
sizes,
hoping
that,
when
the internal shell or lining expanded, the stones between the two would yield
shell or lining
was
split,
yet the
in
some
cases,
when
the
opened a passage
and broken
stone,
There
is
is
productive of
much
mischief,
and which
ou<iht to
possible care
it
that sand-stone
pores,
more
especially if
We
may
also
add the quantity of water used with the mortar, which, with that
constitute a weight of
many
tons.
To
evaporate
this
is
much
time, far
is
more we are
therefore,
when
the blast
applied, and the heat raised, the expansion, both by heat and also the effect of
is
we
ever withstand
it.
The
only
from time
manner
possible.
much
as possible
by
artificial
at as
many
places as
may be
five
may be made
escape from the more solid part of the structure, in a manner that would reduce in a consi;
derable degree the time that must otherwise be employed for the same purpose
furnaces are more or less subject to similar circumstances, the same
and
as all
precautions should be
As
many of which
we
2t
162
leaving the practical
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
workman
at liberty to
may be
Fig.
plate
XXXVIII,
common
blast-furnace,
a, a,
shews
b,
ches square
a, b,
c,
(/,
the
upper part of a frustum of a hollow cone, technically called the boshes, and which
will
be
seen unite with, and terminate of the same size as the top of the hearth, the boshes being
cular, while the hearth remains square.
cir-
The
is
12
feet,
j)ut in
and
at,
e,
is
is
called charging.
This part
e, d,
repre-
sent the internal cavity of the furnace, being the frustum of a hollow cone, 30 feet high.
total height,
The
from a
lining,
to e, will
be about
'It feet,
which
is
called the
f,f,
shew the
fire-bricks,
;
thick,
g, g,
shew a space or
cavity surrounding
coke or charcoal-
preferred, as being
more
likely to
fall
close together,
and
in a
or rent, and also yielding readily to the great expansion of the lining
is
may
find
its
way
through
is
not calcu-
i, i,
are cast-iron
lintels,
the tuyere arches: these arches are about 14 feet high on the outside, and 18 feet wide; k,
represents the tapei-ing nose-pipe which enters the tuyere, and through which the air
is
conveyed
method of constructing
;
I,
I,
lieaitli
o, o,
n, n,
are
passages of escape for the damps that arise placed below have similar
letters
The
section,
right-angles
to
the one
shewn
in Jig.
5 of the part
be plainly
will
seen
a, is the
;
tymp-stone
b,
is
hearth
inches,
c,
the dam-stone, which extends the whole breadth of the hearth, except about six
is filled,
which
when
the furnace
is
at work,
This
stcne
is
surmounted by an iron
shewn
at d.
is
The
rammed every
cast full of
Thb
is
stoppmg.
FIRE-PLACES IN DWELLING-HOUSES.
163
On
and
the
Constructioti
in
DwelUng-Houses.
318. Having concluded our observations on the methods of constructing a variety of furnaces,
fire-places for heating vessels,
shall
served in fixing stoves for the purpose of warming rooms or apartments in houses.
It
should be remembered, that, in the foregoing subjects, each and every one of them are
either used to
to vessels containing
some
liquid or material to
now
fuel
is
always open,
and fully exposed to view, the effect of heating being produced entirely by radiation.
more
skill,
if
many persons
is
are desirous
certainly something
it
is
room
fur-
fall
from the
is
almost unbearable.
has been
attempted to avoid
back
carried
in
create and increase draught, without augmenting the temperature in proportion to the
tion of fuel.
consump-
fire-places,
mical use of fuel in general, observes, that our fire-places are mostly too large, or rather
the throat of the chimney, or the lower part of
its
is
over the
fire,
that
is
too capacious.
We must,
as at present,
this
may, however,
;
still
which
will
be presently explained
but, as the
it
immoderate
nies
in
is
is
this fault
be attended to
made
to
improve them.
fuel, rise in
As
rarified
by
heat,
and made
is
clear the
more rapid
will
be
its
drauf^ht, and,
is.
consumed.
164.
It is
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
very clear that the greatest part of the heat of fuel consumed in open fire-places,
i
warmed by
radiation; but,
be obtained by
reflection,
for
that purpose.
The
chamber of a
fire-place,
the covings,
which
various intersections will take place, and, consequently, a general dispersion of the rays will
ensue.
But, where the covings are placed so as to stand at right-angles with the plane of the
tlie
back, the reflected rays will never enter the space of the apartment,
ficial
It
a well-established
fact,
that
all
It is therefore
we should be
well acquainted
with the nature and properties of the materials used, in order to prevent a failure from an im-
The method
when
those
that are last heated in a given time will evidently have absorbed the least caloric,
fore to
reflectors.
Fire-stone, fire-bricks,
reflectors,
any description
ness,
it
but from
likely to
its
its
cheapthis
is
most
exclude from general use those materials whose properties are for
When
is
fire-places,
tiles.
much
better,
Dutch
The
whole interior of the throat, or covings, should be kept white, instead of the dingy black and
sombre
tint
now
universally adopted
for
it
is
a well
known
it.
fact,
and
retains
Where
chamber of a
fire-place,
is
that
known by
the
name
of register stove; for by the peculiar construction of this kind of stove, the throat
will, in effect,
be narrowed, while
suflTicient
room
will
We
have no doubt that many chimnies where register-stoves arc used are
return of
to receive
smoke
it,
in
some
open
chamber
it
and
no
evil.
simple
method of producing
the same
and
at a very small
Edmund
Turrell, Engraver,
and
as
it
more
particularly, as
it
calculated to benefit
many of
those
who
FIRE-PLACES IN DWELLING-HOUSES.
There
arise
are,
165
perhaps,
no
evils
from the want of attention to proper ventilation of the apartments where persons so
their daily avocations.
to find
It is
engaged follow
attic
workshop of a watch-maker,
perature of which will
him enveloped
This
is,
in
most
cases,
produced
by a German
is
stove,
which
supplied with air from the lower part of the apartment, and which
is
con-
tinually heated,
is
under the necessity of breathing the same atmosphere over and over again repeatedly,
is
at last, there
this,
scarcely any
oxygen remaining
in
it
to
hot climates.
evils arise
There
but
is
much
endured from
real necessity, for in almost all cases, persons of this class feel
absolutely necessary to occupy the attic rooms, on account of the superior light they obtain
there,
and
consequence
is
that they
smoke
sity
insufferably if an
open
fire-place
used.
of using
German
has the effect of preventing the smoke from returning into the room.
Upon
carried
it
it
in the other,
the smoke
into the
when
;
it
made a momentary
return,
and
this
room
difficult.
method
applying
it
to
an open
fire-place,
when arranged
in the following
manner
319. Plate
in the usual
XXXIX, Jig.
manner.
1,
common
pantheon-stove fixed
at the
bottom
made
to
fit
C, C, represents
the space or
chamber
that
is
whole
is
chimney
iron,
is
shown
in section as
by pins of
when
it
is
re-
quisite to
loosely,
remove
it,
easy to be removed
when
2c
166
of excessive draught.
centre,
It
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
may
also
be made to answer as a
register, if
a damper, moving on a
its
be fixed
at tlie
but
its
pro-
perty of rarifying the air in the chimney, and the formation of a chamber to receive the
at
smoke
it
makes a return
in the
chimney.
if the
;
mantle
is
sufficiently
it is
lowered so as to
well
known
that the
fire-place
will
communicate scarcely
in
be enormous
such cases,
proportion to the
required.
produced.
The
skill
is,
in
much
In
many
smoke
is
room
is
closed,
niiiy
requisite.
be effected by conveying
air
to enter
in
an apartment
with the door always open will be avoided, and the fuel abundantly supplied with fresh air to
carry on the combustion.
We
many
;
make
the cure of
ac-
will
do well
to
make himself
quainted with the general principles herein given, by the careful application of which he
may
hope
to
difficulties hitherto
considered unattainable.
CHAPTER
320.AN
X.
Many
in
Terms
Alumina,
pure
is
is
all
clays.
It
is
perfectly white
all
Bed.
Bedding.
laid in
may bear
their weight
Work
is
motion can be nroduced. by bearing partially upon the upper-surface at either end.
The
167
it
and
makes
this operation
is
Irequently
in sufficient quantities to
bed bricks
as in the case of
pavmg.
Bedding-Stone. A plane
Bond
or
Bonding. A
and masonry
it
means such
an arrangement, or combination of bricks when laid upon each other, that the perpendicular
joint
at all times,
so) of
solidity will
Bond Timber.
Brick Axe.
Square
perpendicular direction.
An instrument
;
used to cut oiF portins of bricks before they are rubbed upon
this tool large
the rubbing-stone
for arches
by a dexterous use of
may be
Brick Trowel.
This
is
the
principal
tool
of the bricklayer;
it
is
When
ought
to
do
this
they used to be
made
steel,
Walby,
making trowels
entirely of steel.
The
may perhaps be
stone
;
we
think, never
be exceeded.
artificial
for
page 88
and of
Roman
bricks, see
page 90.
vitrified,
Burrs.
in large masses,
Buttress.
XXIX.
Cambered.
Camber
Slip,
it
is
made use of
and
is
as a rule.
When
in
is
cambered,
it
rises
in six feet,
is
employed
about
its
drawing the
of straight arches
when
curved,
it
rises only
of the arches straight, in which case the upper edge of the arch
slip
not cambered.
The camber
be burned
may
present
itself.
Clamp.
in the
A term used
air.
to denote a large
mass of bricks,
to
open
The new
168
Clay.
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
The
make
bricks with.
When
is is
it
is
which
when burned,
with-
page 88.
Clay Mill.
This
used to separate stones and coarse gravel from impure clays; for a
Coal-Ashes.
when
to
those produced by
smiths in their forges, they being partially vitrified, are the best.
The
ash mortar,
its
is
used to point or
up the
and
to receive
upon
Float-Stone.
of curved-work,
This
is
used for taking out the marks of the axe, and smoothing the surfaces
as the cylindrical backs
itself
niches.
may
coincide with
it.
Foundation.
laid
;
The
surface
first
Groining.
Groined
arches are those whose lines of continuation meet each other at any
angle and form a junction, producing thereby various intersections; see page 111.
Grout.
Mortar,
It
is
usually
poured over each layer or course of bricks, by which means the work
grout completely
filling
made
solid,
the liquid
up the
interstices.
is
Hammer.
like
One end
of this tool
formed
is
like the
the other
is
shaped
By
the pro-
making holes
in walls,
by being used as
a chopper.
that
show only
their ends
building, their whole length being laid perpendicular to the face of the wall,
called stretchers, at right angles.
Inverts, are those arches usually resting on the foundation of earth being turned upside
down,
usually
in
being
made
upon the
springings.
Jointer.
steel
it
is
used to mark
lines or in-
omitted.
The
to
line,
all
when
by the
pins,
workman
keep
work
parallel.
Marls.
Bricks
made of
best coloured ones are called ^^r*/*, and those not equal in noint of colour are called seconds
I.V
BRICKLAYING.
169
90
the softest of the firsts are used in the construction of arches, as they are easily
is
performed,
first,
by cutting with an
edged
tool called
an axe, and then rubbing them upon a sharp grit-stone with dry sand.
is
Mould.
this
This
its
brought close
to the
The mould
Niche,
is
and
They
They
are sometimes
made simply
tiles,
hemispherical.
is
Oven.
materials.
An
made of
It is
For a description,
Pargeting.
is
used to
filling
up any
It also contributes to
Paving-Bricks.
very good work
Red
stock-bricks, well burned, are the best kind for this purpose
where
is
required,
happens
in
burning them.
Place-Bricks.
These are
;
made
soft,
for
that quality
is
indispensable.
in tuck-pointing.
\
Pointing Tools.
Quoins.
building.
All those
bricks that are used to form the corners or solid angles of any wall or
made of
in their texture.
Rubbing Stone,
laid in a
it
is
usually
upon
this
stone the
bricks that have been cut witli the axe are to be rubbed until they are brought to the proper
Saw.
This An
is
made of
a piece of
flat tin.
It
is
By
this
will
if
Sewer.
fonned by an
is
sunk
like
it
is
used
as a passage to descend to mines or tunnels, placed at a great depth below the surface of tbe
earth.
See page
126.
2x
270
Skewback,
is
PRACTICAL BRICKLAYING.
the sloping plane
straight or
scheme aixh
rest
on each extreme.
Skewing.
A technical term
laid, in
Sleepers, are thick planks of timber, laid down on a foundation of earth, upon which brick
foundations are
Springings, are the bricks on each side of an arch that rest upon the piers or abutments,
the plane of their bases being parallel to the horizon.
Stocks.
clay
is
and
on
is
imbedded
Throat. The
contracted part of any open fire-place, through which the rarefied air passes
its
internal area.
The
nearer
it
is
to
the
fire,
the
Tunnel.
earth.
An
A
in.
It is
hills,
and rocks;
also to
form
Vaulting.
keep
various stores
When
the arched roofs of vaults run in various directions, and intersect each
JTl
BOOK
III.
INTRODUCTION.
321.
X HE
exact period
when
want of
sufficient data,
be positively determined
but
it
to the
mind of every
thinking man, that necessity must have been the inventor, and time
great improver.
On
of the universe,
more
particularly
we
filled
In process of time,
when
civilization
susceptible
in
of elegance and
some instances
much
practised by the
in the excavations
prove.
sufficiently
some of
their
manner
in
it
in the
having reduced the various particles into a solid and compact substance resembling stone, and
which, indeed,
is
hammer
to
it.
and
chisel to separate
from the walls without bringing off pieces of the stone attached
Connected with
this art,
to
it,
is
now known by
more comprehensive
title
of
casting,
and working
in stucco.
The
who
died
in L317.
The
materials used
by him were
sifted lime
together to the consistency of potter's clay, pure water alone being used in their amalgamation.
172
The method
tlie
by Margaritoni,
in
body of
made
to
The
tools
used for
this
steel,
now
;
giving the
first
shape
to the
work
the finishing.
Vittoria
(a pupil of
Giocomo
Tatti,
a celebrated sculptor of
in
Venice,
contemporary with
stucco.
He
unquestionably intro-
duced a
into
diftcrent
moulds of wood,
baked
clay, previously
;
By
this
mass, bent by the fingers to the necessary shape, and afterwards attached to the ground by a
little
soft stucco,
different parts
of the
ornament.
This manner of working has been called patted and pressed work, but how
fecting of the original
sity
far
it
was a per-
mode
is
problematical,
when we
must of necesfor
to the
was possible
to
make moulds
details,
most simple
depended
who
The manner
ments which have been made by the moderns on the method, the
principles of
invented by Margaritoni, together with the casting of plaster ornaments in wax-moulds, which
Buckinorham-house, a dis])ute arose between him and his Italian stucco-workers, respecting the
remuneration for
tlieir
labour.
He
reasonable demands, set his ingenuity to work, and was successful in inventing the casting of
state,
into
of rosin and bees'-wax, so that the major part of the embellishments, which had hitherto been
cast,
and fixed
in their
paste.
3;22. Before entering into a further description of the different methods of working in stucco,
it
will
be necessary
of ornament and
its
ration.
For
this
purpose,
we must
The great
civilization,
made towards
its
origin.
INTRODUCTION.
At
the annual overflowings of the Nile,
the hollows of the earth which
173
remained
filled
water-lily.
This
plant,
no doubt, at once
presented
itself to
hence
its
Thus we
lotus plants
to represent a
bundle of
Owing
isted
to the proximity of
between the two countries, the Grecians were led to copy, and afterwards to improve,
style
may be observed
in the
We
are informed by
Romans,
in the art
of decoration,
be found
sufficiently evident
by com-
The
emboss or projection from the ground- work, and a want of energy and freedom
face-work.
The
raffle
in
introduced
These
deficiencies,
by a
more correct
In the
fifth
all
subverted the
Roman
ages,
and intended
to per-
petuate the
memory of a
race of men, to
whom mankind
We
were
it
we
referring
him
to a voluminous
of books on Architecture,
in a lan-
practical
man, and
all
of an expensive description.
We,
up
there-
now proceed
introduced into England, shewing the degree of connection subsisting between them
present time, and specifying some of the most celebrated workers in each particular
style.
2y
17J,
CHAPTER
Of
seemed
I.
of the
Roman
throughout Europe
appear-
architecture.
In this style nature seems to have afforded an inexhaustible source from which to draw,
as
we
frequently observe the leaves of the oak, the maple, the thistle, and the cabbage, introin the capitals
duced
also the
human
monkeys, owls,
to
squirrels, mice,
But embellishments
in Gothic,
more
particularly belong
to
what
is
termed the
florid style, as
Norman examples
be seen
at
looking heads, and the zigzag moulding, which cannot strictly be called an ornament, as
in
many
cases,
grandeur
of design, astonishing
proportions, an expressive
mouldings.
beautiful
;
on the Continent,
in
Rouen
in
England,
at
The
by a reference
XL.
now
The
organ-screen at
York
is,
in existence.*
one very old example may be seen at the Manor Shore, York, in
it
but England
for
the application of
reviver of florid Gothic architecture in England,) Elliot, Porden, Atkinson, &c. has executed
several
works of great magnitude, among which may be particularly enumerated, Fonthill Abbey,
Windsor
seat of Earl
Grosvenor
and Taymouth
ll
by Mr. Bernasconi,
is
in the
year 1804.
it
f The
and 80
Taymouth
Castle
bcin^ 40
feel
squa.*,
feet
high;
it
was designed by
Elliot.
175
Bernasconi, the greatest Gothic modeller that ever lived, formed his taste from
York
Cathedral,
we would most
strongly enforce
As
will
the cathedral at
York
will
We
would
also
to
modellers,
the
under the
labels of doors
Of
324.
of Ornament.
many
About
some of
its
combinations,
came
The name
style
outline
and the
is
and manner of
finishing.
It is obvious,
arrived
at
its
and was
fillets
The
finest
may be seen
at
seat of the
Marquis of Bath
in
Kensington
in
some of the
;
halls
the Temple,
London
is
and
also
but, perhaps,
the
best specimen
ceiling of
Queen
Elizabeth's gallery in
Windsor
which
is literally
The
with several chairs composed of ebony, which were formerly removed to Hampton-Court, but,
subsequently, placed in the corridor at Windsor, are complete chef-d'oeuvres of this beautiful,
though peculiar,
style
of embellishment.
Of
325.
the
1630, under the auspices and from the designs of the celebrated Inigo
it
is
much
This
of fruit
It
style is
has been by some said to be a modification of the old ItaUan ornament, and indeed a great
176
similarity in design
by comparing
its
in the Architectura di
Sebastian Serho.
Albin's House,
Of
326.
tlie
Roman
Style of Ornament.
The Old
English manner of finishing, after some years, was superseded by one which
It
was brought
to
its
greatest perfec-
which was
at that time
executed by Rose
Duke of Buckingham.
architects, are finished in
Many
The
Campo
Rome.
this style.
finest ancient
specimens now
Vaccino,
pantheon,
at
The
may be
in the metropolis,
and
also at
Uxbridge-House,
quis of Anglesea.
The
parallel
of
ancient and
modern
architecture
into English
by John Evelyn,
1707,
may be
consulted with
precision
contains
many
and
to the
advancement
and
Roman
ornament,
Bulliphant, Watling,
and
The Roman
and delicacy of
finish, has,
manner of
Of
327.
of
Ornartient.
The Grecian
style
of Pericles, which period, including the reign of Alexander, must be considered as the climax
The
enterprise of
men
of genius,
amongst
whom
Stuart,
Revett,
and
Cotterill,
stand
most conspicuous, who have travelled through Greece, and published the results of
searches, illustrated
their re-
details
ib
17/
ornaments, has accelerated an admiration of those magnificent d.splays of antiquity, and consequently the adaptation of Grecian architecture, both to ecclesiastical and domestic purposes.
Its
most
striking
characteristics
are
great simplicity,
chasteness,
without that grandeur of effect so peculiarly belonging to the Gothic, and at the same time not
admitting of so
much
diversity.
The
are
lotus
their friezes,
other
the
situations.
Their
iriez;es
are
also
charged with
representing
subjects from
we have Greek
is
an imitation of an
The
finest
which
were brought over by the Earl of Elgin, and whose name they have since taken.
Rivett's
Stuart and
Atnens may
also
be consulted on
this subject
Of
Q28. In the reign of Louis
the
XIV, a
came
into ge-
shields,
trophies,
&c.
the line of the foliage throughout being invariably maintained with an exquisite degree of
spirit.
freedom and
The
Italian stucco-workers,
this
were the
first
workers of
it
London.*
Beautiful specimens of the works of the above mentioned stucco-workers are lo be found
in the county of
castles of Bishop's
Durham,
in the
at
Hardwick, and
also in the
This
style
been
disuse^'
in
England, but
architects, Sir
is
now
a great
GeofFry Wyattville
it
to the decorating
of the drawingto
and reading-rooms,
is
royal
residence at Windsor,
and likewise
the
ball-room, which
now
in
progress.
The
ball-room,
when
most
The
latter
architect has
m-
in St. Martin's
2z
178
troduced
it
Duke
of York.
The
be too greatly admired, not only for the workmansliip, but also
feet,
its
ample dimensions,
it
being 56 feet by 4G
and 73
feet high.
completely free from those absurdities so frequently complained of in a majority of the old
all its
examples,
parts corresponding with each other, thereby not having the appearance of
being lop-sided.*
We
call
We
of
would
also
recommend a reference
in
to the folio
in
Paris at
the period
the meridian of
last,
splendour
La Fosse
to
and
but not
least,
but
now only
itself
The
plates
by
gems of
art.
Havin<T thus,
we
trust,
artist
a clear and
intelligible
description of the
we
will
compositions
made use of
for internal
and external
finishing,
and
also
an explanation of the
CHAPTER
Of
the Materials
ir.
in Internal Finishing.
all
of wood, which are nailed to ceilings and partitions of rooms, with a verv narrow opening
for the
between each,
of oak or
half,
fir,
They
are
made
and four-and-
They may
be purchased by the
as single-laths,
foot,
bundle, or load.
They
degrees of thickness,
cheapest and thinnest
single laths.
lath-and-half,
and double-laths.
The
interior of
Apslcy-House
INTERNAL FINISHING.
The
laths generally
179
from Norway, the Baltic,
fir
imported
and America,
under the
title
of lath-renders.
all
is
pre-
viz.
lime-stone and chalk, which are broken into small pieces, and
piled in convenient layers, with coal, furze, or other fuel, in proper kilns,
for
that,
duced 11 cwt.
the
air,
it
qr.
lbs.
to
increased in weight daily, at the rate of a hundred weight per ton, for the
it
five
kiln,
owing
be exercised
great care be
quantity of magnesia
it
contains,
will
eventually spoil
in the finishing,
by breaking out
called
by the
its
plasterer, blisters.
The
weight of magnesia.
in
The
portion of
it
lime used
London and
in
its
vicinity
;
is
is
Essex
finishing, in which strength and durability are required, the lime manufactured at Dorking
preferred.
This useful
in bags,
hundred pecks.
331. Sand, which
is
to
be chosen of
particles of
all
earth or clay, for on the purity and quality of the sand, the strength and durability of the
or coarse
stuff,
is
materials.
it
When
is
common
its
may be used
quality,
ration,
hair,
it it
preparation
but when
if
tlie
lime-stone
is
of a hot or hard
its
is
prepa-
will inevitably
The
mode
when
the stone
is
perfectly water-tight,
depth.
which the
been well slacked must be put and mixed with a proper propor-
180
tion of waier,
an inch,
until
the pan
is filled,
when
the hair and sand must be added, the whole being well incorporated with
small hole
made
at a suitable height in
it
be
sufficiently
may be taken
made
fit
for use
by the labourers.
coat,
This composition
used
and
and
it is
walls.
It
is
also
in
which case
mixed with
plaster of Paris.
is
3o3.
Fine Stuff
It consists
commonly used
work.
It is
of pure lime slacked with a sufficient quantity of water, and well saturated.
it
afterwards run through a fine sieve, and put into tubs in a semi-fluid state, where
is
when a
may be added,
which
will
its
quality.
is
composed of
fine stuff,
it,
above described, (omitting the hair,) and very fine washed sand well incorporated with
proportion of one of the latter to three of the former.
in
the
this
stucco
applied to staircases, passages, and entrance-halls, a larger portion of sand ought to be used,
quality.
is
Putty
water
in
where
remains until
it
be completely dissolved
when
is
considered
for use.
Putty
soffits,
is
used in
all
the
finer
last
coats of
it is
and
When
it
is
mixjJ with
plaster of Paris,
which induces
prepared
in a very peculiai
manner.
disuse
;
It has,
ornaments
it
in
however,
sufficient quantity
the portion of
work con-
made very
fine,
must be added.
it
becomes
stifl",
it
wooden beater
becomes tough
viz.
it
over the wall a second time, and the same process repeated,
until
it
it
chafing
it
becomes
first
plastic,
when
it is fit
for use,
to the ornamental
work
after
has been
INTERNAL FINISHINGc
This kind
of stucco
is
181
prepared in the manner of lime, instead of being, according to the usual mode, baked in an
oven, which prevents
it
Many
who was
a pupil
of Catezi's,
Stucco,
may be
seen in
many
the working
of Gothic ornaments,
silver or
such as bosses,
is
commonly
called, is the
and
of his work
by
aid he executes
all
the finishing coat of the walls and ceilings of rooms, in cases of emer-
gency,
when time
is
of material consequence.
is
This composition
selenite,
known amongst
chemists,
by the
several
names of sulphate of
lime,
and gypsum.
property which plaster possesses,
The
Greek
known
to the ancients.
Accord-
ing to his account, the inhabitants of Ethiopia had a peculiar method by which they preserved
the
remembrance of
it
their deceased
relatives.
enveloped
in
on the
was covered.
is
The
sulphate of lime
found
its
in
immense
in
The
in its
common
freestone, excepting
is
of manufacture
it
in kilns
with
is
afterwards ground with stones to different degrees of fineness, according to the different
it is
intended.
is
found
in
great abundance
where
it is
windows of
The
specific gravity of
cording to Bergman, contains 32 parts of lime, and 68 of acid and water, requiring 500 parts
of cold, and 450 of heat, to dissolve
pitates,
it.
it
decre-
becomes very
plaster
friable
with water.
pro-
The
duced
commonly used
in the metropolis is
It
is
is
in
brought
London
in
a crude
state, calcined,
when
it
in
brown paper
It is also
found
in
most of the
also
in
Bristol.
There are
excellent
182
quarries near
This mineral
&c.
is
much used
it
of cheese-rooms, granaries,
it
After preparing
in the usual
it
on the
floors
about 2j inches thick, which, when dry, forms a smooth surface and durable flooruig, the whole
1*. 6d.
is
Paste Composition
much
less ex-
pence, and
may be
it
being frequently used for the execution of the cornices and capitals of shop-fronts.
It is
composed of
7 parts glue,
2 do.
linseed-oil,
7 do. rosin.
The
first well
then added, and the whole stirred until they be completely incorporated.
This mixture
it
is
it
is thickened until
comes
to the
is
flat
cakes,
and forced
into
moulds by
lever-press.
are either
of wood, sulphur,
or brass.
Wood
by
much
are
it,
with sweet
oil.
The
is is
in a block of
wood
or cast-iron.
When
it
the
wood
is
adopted, a space
filled
the interstices
being
up with
securely
were
not for this precaution, the mould would be crushed to atoms by the
time that an attempt was
the
first
made
it.
Brass
mould
riffled.
is
which
it
is
chased or
wooden
blocks, to protect
them from
injury.
begun
to
be much practised
in the interiors
of the mansions
may be
applied not only to columns and their capitals and bases, but also
&c.*
in
scagliola,
is
The
first
It
its
was
For
intro-
we
are indebted to
of paneling
Henry Holland,
Esq.,
who
was, for
many
years,
A beautiful
specimen of
this style
may
in St.
James's Park.
183
artists
He whom
procured
from Paris to
this
whom
finding a considerable
demand
art,
remained amongst
us,
from
and hrve
is
since brought
it
Scagliola
a composition of plaster of Paris and eartny colours, or any colours which will
alkali.
In
its
is
mixed
spirits
of turpentine, to
in the
marble intended to be imitated, the colours blend gradually into each other, as
in sienna
and the others generally executed, the imitation must be formed while the colours
are in a soft state, by putting the ground mixture into a large trough, and adding the different
colours in a proportion and a taste which can alone be acquired
If,
by experience.
strongly marked, the secondary
on the
is
colours must be allowed to set nearly hard, broken into small pieces, and
added
to the
ground
mixture, which must be kept in the trough in a soft state, as before mentioned.
or Pilasters in Scagliola.
When
is
the architect has furnished the drawing exhibiting the diameter of the shaft, a
less in
The
cir-
cumference of
common
size, in
plastering,
must be
it.
order to harden
The
set,
The
composition must be then taken from the trough, flattened into cakes about eight inches square,
applied to the column, and well beat on with a
this state
it
In
must remain
off with a
plane.
size required.
This
and scraping,
fit it
it
marble,
at the
coal.
when
it
will
be
for pohshing,
using pumice-stone,
with a wet sponge, and afterwards with Tripoli powder and char-
After going over the whole with a piece of white glove-leather, dipped in a mixture of
Tripoli
powder and
Scagliola
oil
is
of
olives,
oil.
White
using
it
184
CHAPTER
Of External
341. Within the last
fifty years,
III.
Compositions.
made
in the
art
of
Plastering, by the invention of various compositions for the covering of the exteriors of buildings,
such as
Roman
and
the period
alluded
the
application of cements to
and produce a
of,
as an inspection of
Regent
Street,
in the
Regent's
Park,
The
Greece and
ancient
Rome, has
Roman
capitals,
the
have been most amazingly improved by means of a reference to the casts procured from
now
extant.
^
no doubt, been
facilitated
invention of
in
compositions has,
by the great
scarcity of
evi-
good stone
Great Britain,
dent in comparing the streets and public buildings of the metropolis with those of the Scottish
capital.
342.
is
by
Compo, was
first
was
originally
known
;
as Parker's
Patent Cement, and sold by Messrs. Charles Wyatt and Co., Bankside, London
but there
is
now
much
Whitby,
in
is
now
known by
The
will
is
of
a more delicate stone colour, and for situations constantly exposed to the action of water, not to
in existence.
Roman cement
after the
is
clay-balls,
or septaria, by being,
manner of manufacturing
broken
EXTERNAL COMPOSITIONS.
calcined in kilns or ovens, and afterwards ground to a fine powder,
185
and put
into proper casks,
it
from damp.
with
three
parts
Two
parts
of this
composition,
of clean grit-sand,
will
form
a
it
very
pos-
free
from clay or
mud
if it
cannot be
it
well
adding as much
in
It
must be
laid
quarters of an inch in thickness, and, after being well-adjusted with the floating-rule, the handfloat
to bring
it
to a firm
and
it
sets,
which takes
if
When
the work
is
all
may
copperas to every gallon of water, mixed with a sufficient quantity of fresh lime and cement,
to
When
this
mode of
taste, so
by touching the
umber, &c.,
It
has been attempted, and in some cases very successfully, to produce ancient Gothic ruins
in cement,
and although
to
skill
and judgment
ai'e
required,
yet
we have no doubt
that,
manner of
343,
Terra Cotta,
or Artificial Stone,
is
It is
a com-
pound of
pipe-clay,
stone-bottles, glass,
and
flint,
well
sifted
through a
ingre-
The above
to
of modellers' clay.
The
having remained
two
it is
manner
which
for use.
Marnier of working Terra Cotta as applied to Capitals. pared not more than two inches and a half thick, the
a coarser nature than that used for
volutes, &c.
its
The
bell,
stuff"
of which
is
composed bein of
embellishments.
and squeezes of
artificial
bell.
stone taken from the moulds, well cleaned up with appropriate tools, and fixed to the
It is necessary,
when
3b
186
inch in diameter, on those parts of the bell where the enrichments are to be placed, in order to
let
the
damp
fix
air
To
remain
in
water
about one day, then take out the portion that remains at the bottom, which being well chafed
After the bell and the back of the enrichments have been well roughed, a
stuff
is
The
and,
fit
must be
is
left in
when thoroughly
which
common
oven, but of a
somewhat
entirely over
the coved ceiling of the kiln, and be perfectly clear of the ornament.
it
is
necessary to
commence with
a very slow
fire,
gra-
week,
must be kept up
for three
days
The
atmospheric
considered sufficiently burnt, and the kiln must be gradually opened, as the sudden admission
air will
of the
The
in
clay,
as
is
usual in
modelling plaster-ornaments, they must be moulded in the same manner as figures and busts,
with this difference, that the clay must not be oiled, nor the joints of the plaster-pieces which
it is
washed
all
when
may commence
The
oil,
which
the general method,) great care being taken in the formation of the different joints, as the
all
pieces cannot be taken from the model to be cut and fitted, but must
particular shapes while they remain on
it.
be brought to their
pieces are made, so
When
the sufficient
number of
In taking
it
is
may
more
readily,
which being done, the mould must be well washed and put
in the air,
into the
when
it
will
be
fit
ing in
as
is
customary in casting
in plaster
from a plaster-mould.
the
Mould
in
dry, the
workman must
and press a thin coat over the whole of the face of the mould, adding on the back, that of a coarser quality, rubbing in small portions at a time, so that the ornament may be firm and sohd.
Immediately after squeezing, the ornament must be taken from the mould, cleaned
its
place.
When
the
times,
it
is
liable to
EXTERNAL COMPOSITIONS.
the purpose of destroying
its
187
adhesiveness, dust a
little
mould.
These methods of moulding and casting may be judiciously applied not only
also to
all
to capitals,
but
kinds of work in this composition, such as coats of arms, vases, fountains, figures,
and
busts, always taking the precaution never to allow the substance of artificial stone to
half, for
is
exceed
will
be
render
it
superior to
Roman
but
it
may
also
kitchens, &c.*
first
is
now
sold
by the
It
is
sole manufacturers,
Messrs. Fi'ancis
and White,
at
composed of pounded
The manner
of working Mastic
entirely different
from that of
Roman
Cement.
linseed-oil,
To
is
and
let
them be
well incorporated
by the
amalgamation
complete, which
may be
easily ascertained
shovel, should
until
any bright spots be observable, the treading must be again and again repeated
when
it is
considered
fit
for use.
The
the work
and screeds
in
for the
guidance of
Roman
breadth.
This being
done, the bricks must be well saturated with boiled linseed-oil of the best quality, and the
mastic laid on with the hands, assisted occasionally by the laying-trowel, until the space be-
to
The
floating-rule
is
is
then passed
it
until
Thus a space of
up
mastic,
These directions
occur,
it
will
be necessary
formed by applying a
window-frame
and
rules.
The
up and adjusted
The
best
specimen of mastic-work
in
London
is
Duke
Xgg
In order to run mouldings with mastic, a mould of wood must be cut, in every way threeeighths of an inch less than the intended moulding.
The
broken
tiles,
must be
first
Roman
All ornaments executed in mastic must be cast in plaster-moulds, similar to those used in figurecastino, only that they
beinfT taken to
oil,
Manner affixing
Modillions, %c. on
5o^/. Dovetail a
;
of the aper
it
fill
the hole.
it.
is
may be
ivith
Mastic.
laid
The
completely
The
Roman cement
at the places
most
convenient for the working of the floating-rule, levelhng from the slab that goes round the
room.
in breadth,
and a
a coat
It
must
afterwards be floated, the screeds cut out, and their places filled
up
in the usual
way.
is
may be used
The exteriors
It is liar
of many of the public buildings in the metropolis are covered with this composition,
is
amongst which
simply a mixture of lime and sand, the strength of the lime being preserved by the pecuin
manner
which
it
is
prepared.
In
its
it
ought
always to be
made from
The
lime,
being taken before being slacked and ground to a fine powder, must be placed in
When
used,
it
it
manner of working
Roman
cement.
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING
189
CHAPTER
Operations,
346. Lathing, which
sists
is
IV.
the
in nailing thin
slips
The
nails
used in
to
and
cast-iron
for
much
be
The
cast-iron ones
may be employed
common
any degree of
safety,
when
For stoothed
walls
may be
work
After having determined the size of the ceiling, or walls, the laths whose lengths best suit
the spaces between the joists must be chosen, and the nailing so managed, that the joints be as
much broken
by giving
it
as possible, as paying attention to this will strengthen the plastering laid thereon
tie.
a firmer key or
347. Pricking-up, or
first
coating,
is
upon a
face
is
ceiling, or partition
this
well
is
which
to follow.
is
the cheapest
manner of
on a
single coat
Two-coAT WORK,
is
also another
in the
North of England,
with a small
over,
in performing
slightly scratched
broom prepared
finer
hme and
hair spread
which must be made regular with the derby, and afterwards smoothed with the setting-
trowel.
350 Floating,
is
all
work intended
to
be well
must be observed
The
pricking-up coat being sufficiently dry, and the projection of the cornice ascertained
ceiling, a screed
level.
and
to
is
This
effected
by driving
in
a nail at the
it
3c
190
put in at
its
it
exactly coincides
round the
put in
from the
walls,
a small triangle.
and with a
made
terms a dot.
feet.
These dots
commonly 10 or 12
When
stuff,
coarse
level,
floating-rule,
so that
may bear
well
on each of the
This being
finished,
forms a perfect
screed round the whole of the ceiling, and serves for a guide in the floating of the inner part of
it.
This screed being dry, others are formed about eight feet apart, parallel
set,
to the
ends of
them are
filled
up
flush,
The
floating
is
it
back-
is
The
ceiling
in the
then gone over with the hand-float, making good any deficiencies that
may appear
floating,
by adding a
little
whole
is
apply to the floating of walls, with this difference, that the screeds must be
at the
levelled as
is
the
floating has
it is
remained
until
it
solid,
which
little
requires
fine sand,
is
and sometimes a
little
gauged
it
in small quantities at
a time, by adding to
causes
setting
to set
more
it,
quickly.
The
floated
is
is
applied to
otherwise there
a probabihty of
Bat cracks
may
arise
much
and too
little
Floated work, executed by a judicious workman, the materials being good, and the
its
Trowelled Stucco
is
a very neat
mode
is
of finishing,
much used
in
drawing-rooms,
the floating
Trowelled stucco
is
worked on a
floated ground,
laid on.
When
is
is
considered
for
its
fit
for use.
The
upon
tlie
ground prepared
reception, about
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING.
one-sixteenth of an inch thick,
191
as even as possible,
largest trowel,
and
about nine inches long, and three inches and a half wide, planed smooth, with a handle attached
to the
upper side
to enable the
workman
to
move
it
with
facility.
When
a convenient portion
in his left
of the work has been so spread, the plasterer, with a brush which he holds
sprinkles a small portion of the stucco with water,
hand,
it
and follows
this operation
by rubbing
it
whole
ration
is is
reduced
to a
compact surface.
;
In order to
make
it
again repeated
finally,
after
which
it
is
sprinkled with water, and smoothed with the settingin various directions with a
trowel, and,
brushed repeatedly
dry stock-brush
until
it
The
water has the effect of hardening the face of the stucco, so that,
it
being well hand-floated and finished with the setting-trowel and stock-brush,
feels to
Walls intended
to
this
kind of stucco.
prepared with a
less portion
and
is
merely skimmed on the floated work, and polished by the assistance of water and the
setting-trowel.
354.
Rough
in
Stucco,
is
is
worked
much
worked on a
floated ground,
it
in a half-dry state,
and a thin
with the setting-trowel, and subsequently gone over with the hand-
adding
stuff" to
fill
This stucco
is
is
also
sometimes
it
It
must be
left
stone.
When
may be
bonded masonry.
355. Rough-Casting,
is
is
performed by
hair,
first
laid.
As
finished, a
second
workman
plastering, in
composed of a
thin piece
of sheet-iron, about seven inches long and five inches wide, with a wooden handle attached to
192
it.
The
materials used for rough-casting are fine gravel well washed, until completely free from
all
until the
whole
is
in
a semi-
fluid state.
will
be necessary,
viz.
straight
it.
and
circular
more labour
in the execution of
Plain
Straight Cornices.
it
should invariably
is
be the practice of the plasterer to examine the drawings, even before the preparation
for the pricking-up coat, as,
made
when
it
eight inches,
it is
cornice
is
to
be formed.
of the bracket
is
The form
the precaution to allow an inch back from the line of the cornice for necessary stuff required in
the formation of the members.
On
stuff,
When
made from
all its
members.
is
made of wood,
copper, or iron.
When wood
used, sycamore
found best adapted for the purpose, but beech, and other hard woods, are
are generally employed
sometimes used.
Wooden moulds
but
when
to
there
is
of cornice to be done,
pattern, copper or iron
when
there are
many rooms
moulds are most preferred, they being more durable than wood, and
arrises, in
the plasterer
particular,
3.58.
is
enabled to make better work with them, as they tend to make the
clean.
it is
in
and
copper has been removed with a pair of large shears, the members
files
must be
all
This being
completed, the profile, so cut, must be inserted in a piece of deal about half an inch thick,
leaving about a quarter of an inch of the metal protruding from the wood, which must be level-
Another mould
is
which
is
employed
in
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING.
Paris.
193
This mould
is
traced from the other by keeping the line one-eighth of an inch within
stuff.
The
may
in
be formed
that
entirely
manner
then taken
The
The
made
for (as
it
is
technically
and
walls having
been antecedently
floated,
ceiling,
in
the
and
also
encroachment on the
At
In the
in
making of these screeds, much care must be taken, as the correctness of the cornice
great measure
their formation.
its
These preliminaries
and a
straight line
drawn
all
ning rules, which consist of pieces of wood about three inches wide, and half an inch thick,
nailed
upon the
line
(which has been drawn round the room) for the purpose of directing
the cornice
is
one to
to
work
the coarse
stuff,
which, at
first,
making
it
weaker
The
plasters a part of
on the place
is
it
to
be
the other
workman then
and
is
wall, thus
This
operation
stuff.
is
as perfectly
formed as
it
is
This being done, the putty and plaster are then gauged, and the same process gone
in
through as
the coarse
is
stuff,
using the fine mould, and adding gauged stuff until the exact
formed.
is
When
very great,
it
is
requisite to
the lower parts of the cornice, as the large mould will run no further than the square of
projection.
The
in
mitres, internal
and
worked
is
in every
way
similar,
excepting that
when th^y
3d
194
are circular, they must be run from a centre, by means of what the mould
is
termed a gig-stick,*
fits
to
which
attached
it
to a pin placed
When
ellipsis,
method
is
to
a trammel, such as
Mouldings belonging
360.
to
what
is
called
termination of the
mouldings on the
and perfectly
level.
mouldings marked on
it,
run on.
The
to the curve
to
made
for the
mould
mould-
move between
when
finished, the
ing
may
bottom, in the aperture made in the intersection-board, and at the top, at the crown of the arch,
end of the
in-
This apparatus
is
generally
it,
composed of
it
a screw
by which
is
This beinw
effected, there
screws must be put, that come in contact with the horse, which serve to steady
when
it
has
been fixed
in its
The mould
bottom of
running
;
being cut in the usual way, must have two pieces of board attached to the
at right-angles to
it,
fit
the upper piece, attached to the mould which goes on the horse,
viz.
may be
three inches
wide, and the lower one six inches, and of equal lengths,
shorter, in proportion to the size of the moulding.
The
is
similar to that described for cornices, except that the finishing coat
must be
mixed with
fine sand,)
which must
also
be gauged and
which gives to Gothic mouldings more the appearance of stone, which the plasterer frequently
endeavours to imitate in
this peculiar
it
style
of architecture.
The
gig-stick, io
called a trainer.
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING.
if
195
It is
at the
extreme termination of the moulding, about one inch and a half of additional
a ground for floating in
spaces, after the
stuff,
which
will
form
ribs.
These
ground
may
suit the
and
finally finished
some
difficulties
is
of an oblong shape, as
become of various
but,
where circumstances
may be
easily obviated,
by having the
intersecall
tion-board of a circular plan, and so contriving the curves of the arches, that they
may be
of
the same shape until they come directly over the intersection-board, gradually easing them off
as they approach the extremity at the top.
In ceilings where the ribs are very numerous, and of various curves, the two following me-
thods
in
First, as the
moulding, as
not run
it
down
which
mould-
only formed.
With
this small
continued
down
to the intersection-board at
mould
left off
running,
is
The
second method
is
calls
the concave surface of which must exactly coincide with the back-ground of that portion of the
moulding which occupies the space from the top of the intersection
to the intersection-board,
it.
and
moulding
to
be run upon
The
face of
oil,
the cylinder thus forms the ground-work of the intersection, and being well oiled with sweet
a sufficient
is
run on
it
it,
The
cylinder being well oiled, the pieces are easily taken from
and fixed
in their
proper situations
with a portion of pure lime mixed with a small quantity of hair and sand, and well gauged with
plaster of Paris, the intersection-board serving- as a guide at the bottom,
It is
ai-e
finished by hand.
perhaps necessary to observe to the inexperienced, that the panels between the ribs of groined.work are inva-
when the
wori(
is
on a
circulai- plan.
196
Tne
ings are executed with the assistance of joint or mitre rules, but, in most cases, they do not
require so
much
foliage.
manner
that, in
The
formation of ornamented cornices presents a grand field for displaying the taste of the
;
plasterer
and
in the
selection of
style,
ornament for
this
purpose
strict
is
applied, as
nothing can appear more absurd than the loading a cornice indiscriminately with ornaments,
which in no way coincide with the finishing of the other parts of the room.
The
may be
Grecian Cornices.
363. Grecian cornices are
;,
together
frets,
What
diversity,
is
idea of
its
is
most
fre-
These
friezes are
modelled to various
sizes,
The most
Roman
364.
Cornices.
As we have
Roman
much improved by
the addi-
cornice,
in
characteristic
ornaments,
and metopes,
cornices
have
frequently blocks
or modillions,
introduced
into
them,
similar to
The Roman
Ionic frieze
is
is
supported
at
by figures of children, as
Temple of Fortuna
Virilis,
Rome.
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING.
197
its
The
as
Corinthian cornice
is
enrichments,
may be
Roman
ornament.
It consists
and
roses.
may be
seen by a refer-
which
is
Rome, where
it is
executed
in
relief.
Of
it is
unnecessary to give a
as
it
is
the same as the Corinthian, the entablature being the same, and the only difference between
the two orders being in the volutes of the capital.
Gothic Cornices.
365.
The
in
been carried
but when
we
ments may be derived, we are led to conceive that by closely studying the old examples, many
in their execution.
The
filled
a plain space between them, or by continued and running ornaments composed of the acorns
vine,
&c.
French Cornices.
366. During the reign of Louis
to a great extent in France,
XIV. what
are
now
called
and
partially in
been revived,
and,
when designed
nificent effect.
These
cornices,
in
;
its
upper
the cove being always charged with luxuriant foliage emanating from a
human
or a beautifully-ornamented shield,
outer edges.
An
may be
in
Ornament.
Working Ornament
367.
hij
Hand.
suit-
The
able tools,
commonly
"
Hand Ornament
working,"
is
at
withstanding,
we think
it
necessary to advert to
it.
3e
198
In working ornament, according to the method practised by the old Italian stucco-workers,
necessary, in the
first place,
to
which
in
is
afterwards
up by a
our account of
into the
proper shape,
and
finally finished
with the assistance of small steel tools of various sizes and patterns.
When
long
the ornaments are intended to have a gi'eat emboss or projection from the ground,
nails,
with tarred twine twisted round them, for the purpose of making the stuff adhere
more
closely,
must be driven
into
the timbers
cleai-,
it
and
in the
hang completely
tlie
will
The manner
rooms
in
which they are executed, can be attained by practice and shrewd observation alone
facility in
acquirement of
this
Enriched mouldings
their situations
worked
in
by
filling
the spaces
left
them with
soft stucco,
steel tools.
is
The method
to
commonly ipplied
Gothic work,
also first
fine
stuffs,
stucco, composed of putty and fine sand, which also must be gauged.
first
The ornaments
steel instruments
being
called
worked
into
eir
scratch-tools,
which being on
its
edges similar
effect at a
proper distance.
Modelling.
S68.
The whole
in clay,,
which method, as we have before stated, has of late years almost entirely supplanted the process
of working the ornaments
in their places
by hand.
artist
it
Having,
in
our explanation of the different styles of ornament, pointed out to the young
to
to the subject
as angle-pieces,
and
fuliage
enriched mouldings, such as ogees or ovolos, as the eye of the modeller in the former case being
his sole guide, whereas, in the mouldings, the
service.
OPERATIONS IN PLASTERING.
For example.
199
3,
In
in
No.
1,
requisite to
be modelled in
clay,
a templet exactly corresponding with the profile of the moulding, and running a small portion
of the moulding out with
design of the ornament
is
it
in clay, in
a small case of
wood adapted
its
to
the purpose.
The
of tools
When
finished in the
to
modelling,
moulded
in
wax, and a
sufficient
number
cast
a length
varying from eight inches to one foot, and afterwards cleaned up and corrected with steel and
brass tools.
is
called an original, as
it is
a sufficient quantity of the plain moulding in putty and plaster to the exact form of the angle.
The
embellishments are then modelled on the mouldings, and also moulded thereon, the mouldso that, after being cast,
ceilings.
they
will
exactly
fit
the
in their
a ground of clay must be floated out to the length and width required,
on which the design must be marked and finished in the usual way.
Moulding Ornaments.
369.
plasterers, viz.
moulding
in
wax, and
moulding
soffits,
The
former
is
applied to
all
as friezes,
ogees, ovolos, &c., and also to centre flowers and angle pieces.
for
The
latter is generally
employed
in
wax moulds,
to
and
it
may
also
be applied
works
Roman
oil,
and a
sufficient
wax and
rosin
it is
completely covered.
will
it
When
the
wax
is
whole must
cause the wax to leave more readily, after which the clay being
will
be
fit
This method
will
be found
is
sufficient
is
required, but
when what
it
wanted, as
is
in water.
The
leaf
up
in
all
round within one-sixteenth of an inch of the edge with a substance of clay an inch wide,
rivets
which
must be
inserted.
The
which may
200
fence of clay
is
after
and the
little
clay all
removed from
it,
when
wax must be
oiled, or the
liquid clay.
first,
poured
over the
which
prevent the
united,
wax from
escaping.
When
this
mass
dis-
and the
Moulding
in Plaster.
370. In moulding in plaster, the same as in wax, the clay-model must be oiled with sweet
oil,
but the plaster must be laid on (not too soft) by one piece at a time, forming the joints,
fitting
and
them
to
each other
in
skill
of the workman
may
suggest.
After having completely covered the model with pieces, the whole must be removed, and when
perfectly dry, soaked in
boiled linseed-oil.
chy,
The
mould being
well satu-
rated with
in the
oil,
and quite
are
fit
for use,
and may be
same manner
as wax-moulds.
Casting in Plaster.
37 1
tioned.
is
The moulds
being prepared and properly cleansed, are oiled in the way above-menbeing mixed with water to a semi-fluid
is
state,
well dubbed into the mould with a small brush, which, after remaining a short time,
floated
The
is
The
workmen
Friezes and basso-relievos should always be cast with a half-inch ground at their backs, which
serves to strengthen
and secure
their proportions.
Fixing Ornaments.
372. "VMien the enrichments about to be fixed are small in
size,
they
may be
fixed in the
grooves or indents prepared for them, with putty well gauged with plaster; but when the
ornaments
ai'e
of a weighty description,
it
becomes necessary
to use fine
stuff",
and
to cut
filled
away
with
work
The
is
then
201
in the
and the
on the back
placed
have a portion of
on
it
when
it is
in its
may both
incorporate.
When
the ornaments are extremely heavy, such as coats of arms and shields, in addition to
it is
CHAPTER
373. Plate
V.
Fig.
1,
is
3,
of panels,
Fig. 3,
to circumstances.
Fig.
5,
is
4,
Fig.
Abbey,
in
is
introduced.
Fig.
6,
St. Catherine's
demolition,
which of
course renders
more
valuable.
Figures 7 and
York.
Fig.
9,
;
style in
York Cathedral
are executed
and Jig.
Ornament. Pig.
choir.
5,
is
1,
finial
Fig.
2,
screen, at
Fig.
4,
Chapter-house, York.
Fig.
6,
Fig.
7,
Fig.
8, finial
Wells Cathedral.
374. Plate
Fig. 10,
is
W.
Brown.
1,
XLIL
Fig. 2,
is
Fig.
3,
is
Hampton
5,
Court, but
now placed
Windsor
Castle.
Figures 4 and
6,
Ann
of Cleve's
monument
in
Westminster Abbey.
First.
Fig.
displays the
front
and
profile of a bracket
Roman
Ornament. Fig.
1,
Temple of
2,
now
extant.
Fig.
shews
3 F
202
llie soffit
ogee and
bead.
Fig.
6,
1,
Roman
376. Plate
XUV.
French
Ornament. Fig.
Fig. 2,
is
an enriclied cynia
it.
Fig.
it
3,
shews the
also
profile
of a large bracket
tiie
might
be adopted for
support of a
moulding
at the springing of
an arch.
Fig.
4,
when applied
an enrichment applied
ro
CHAPTER
377.
VI.
AN
Alabaster;
unprepared
state.
Antique Ornaments,
Antique
IuctIi
and
estioi-
Roman
style
of architecture.
;
Bass-Relief, or Basso-Relievo
the ground, with their
in the
first,
a model, or
cast,
in
full
proportion.
M.
much
less,
for
stuflF fit
of
shape to a
common
shovel,
lower
end, and
so that
it
made out of a
piece of deal one inch and a half thick, tapeVed up towards the handle
may be
conveniently used.
The
other
is
five feet
in length,
mortar
down towards
the end
which
is
BiNN
a sort of
dam
of any convenient
size,
Blister
203
that which
is
ceiling.
Cast
but,
in plastering,
more
particularly applied to
Roman
sulphur moulds; ornaments formed in this way being entirely distinct from those made
cotta, or mastic,
Coat
Corbel
of mouldings alone, and in others, enriched with leafage, heads, &c. with leafage
An
example of one
filled
may be
;
XLI.
fig. 10.
Core, or Bell
are placed.
Crocket
which
is
furnished in plate
XLI.
fig. 5.
Cylinder,
used
in
Derby
Dots
a two-handed
float,
four
Drag
in
pre-
paring coarse
Egg-Mould;
by bands.
Emboss
Fine Stuff
Finial
of which
;
the kind of stuff used for giving the finishing coat to the work.
the ornament which forms the extreme termination of a Gothic pinnacle, examples
may be
seen in plate
are
XLI. figures
and
8.
Floating Rules,
composed of
to
and a half
thick,
and are
in arjbhitecture,
it
is
in plastering,
on
of a thin piece of plate-steel, about eight inches long, and two inches and a half wide, at the
handle-end, and tapered off to a point at the other.
six inches long,
A smaller one
long,
is
The
Hand-float,
and five-eighths of an inch thick, with a handle of the same material attached to
in finishing trowelled
and
is
used
204 Hawke,
is
generally
made
of a piece of deal,
inches square, and three-quarters of an inch thick, thinned off to the edge,
it.
with a handle four inches long affixed to the under side, for the purpose of holding
Honeysuckle
See page 173.
first
Lop-sided
a piece of ornament
is
said to be lop-sided,
when both
first
used in
Model,
ornament finished
in
clay
it
is
also applied to a
Pan.
See Binn.
a
method of working
in stucco, invented
by Vittoria, a pupil
Planceer.
Pricking-up
See
;
the
Raffling
Rose
sofiit.
is
Rose
also signifies
out towards the ends, which are notched in a similar manner to a fine saw, and are used for the
cleaning up of ornaments.
Screed,
for the
in plastering, signifies a
Setting
term
is
the quality that any composition possesses of getting hard in a short time.
This
Sieves, are of various degree of fineness, being used for the purpose of straining liquid-lime
through
in the
Soffit, from the Italian word Soffito, means the under part of the corona, and
plied to the under parts of the heads of doors
also ap-
and windows.
Spaced Ornaments
are those fixed in Gothic cornices, with a plain space between them.
it.
Spandrils; spaces, either plain or ornamented, between an arch and the square formed round
Templet,
for the
of wood, in which
its
is
purpose of running
being modelled.
tapered off to a sharp point
;
they
Tripoli
polishing of scagliola.
Truss
an ornamental support.
SLATING.
205
BOOK
IV.
SLA TING.
378. Slate, a laminated species of stone, which
is
may be
com-
extracted from the quarries in the same manner as other stony substances.
The
strength of slate to that of Portland stone has been computed to be in the ratio of five to one.
The
thickness of slates
is
very variable
fine
slate is so
may be com-
prised within an inch, which will be the average thickness of only three of the coarser kind
The
average thickness of
Slates,
used
in the
length,
light
;
and from
same
well adapted
slate is
generally procured.
The Welsh
so arranged
approaching
to
sky blue.
The Westmoreland
379. Slates
may be
but to prevent
this,
it is
courses, or rows, to incline the plane surface of the boarding to the horizon at a sufficient
angle, to
make
the joints between any two slates of every course as close as they can be conveto
niently made,
and
make them
fall
line
them.
By
this
may be rendered
moisture or wet.
It is evident,
slates,
every course, will greatly contribute to the perfection of the work, as well as to
regularity.
To make
straight
close joints
slates
which
join,
slate
must be made
and
parallel to
in the
made
straight
and perpendicular
may be arranged
in a straight line.
be permanent without some ligature to connect the slates with the boarding, they are, therefore,
generally secured by
the
nails
into
boarding.
them pass
freely,
makes one or
3g
206
more holes throu;;h each
not the head.
SLATING.
slate, sufficient to
nail,
but
Small fine slates have generally their edges straight, and at right-angles to each other.
We
security
and
is
necessary that every slate have three straight edges, the bottom end being at rightis
but
when
it
is
rough, a small portion in the middle of the breadth ought to be straight, and no
When
fore, in
very small slates are employed, one nail to fasten each of them will be sufficient; there-
every course of such slates throughout, the holes ought to be at an equal distance from
the lower edge of the course, for reasons which will afterwards
make
it
this evident,
and each
can be conveniently
in
made
but
when
will, at least,
order to
place
them
ought
of the
to
slate,
and situated
in
tended to be concealed
but here
it
is
that these holes should be at an equal distance from the lower end of the slate, as the shape of
them
in various positions
however, regularity in
in
slate,
all
each
slate,
and
if
the courses succeed each other in equal breadths, or in their succession totlie
wards the
top of
all
every
and
all
therefore, the timber used for the immediate fastening of the slates
lines,
would only be
re-
and
to
be of
sufficient
when
home
to their places
This circum-
stance has given occasion to the introduction of narrow pieces of timber, called battens, with
large intervals between them, to be used instead of boards set closely together.
380.
The two
perpendicular
of the slate
intended to be
courses, to a
all
is
The
first
certain distance,
As
slates
vary in
grada-
having prepared three edges of each, they are then cut to the different
in
lengths,
and placed
heaps of various
all
sizes,
in regular gradations
of an equal length.
is
The
The
In every course of slating, the straight Une formed by the lower end of the slates,
the apparent edge of the course.
called
vs
The
SLATING.
called the back of the course
to the
;
207
is
exposed
eye
is
called the
From what
foregoing principles, will exhibit, alternately, external and internal angles, having the arrises of the
external angles parallel to one another, as well as those of the internal angles
;
tail
of each
slate,
formed
tails
We
shall
now endeavour
to ascertain
how much
may be
Suppose
a roof were
all
cover half the length of the backs of the slates in the next lower course
adjacent courses of slating, a wire, or right-line, perpendicular to the plane of the margin of
the middle course, and in the upper extremity of the joint between two slates, will
fall
;
upon the
upper edge of the course below, and upon the lower edge of the course above
and, conse-
quently, if the slates cover each other less than half their length, there will be an aperture at
It is
may
length of the
slate.
if
In every three adjacent courses of slate, laid according to the principles here pointed out,
the nails are placed in the edges of the slates, the distance between the top of the slate of the
slates in the
uppermost course,
is
called the
bond
or, if
the slates have a nail in the middle of the head of each, the distance
which that
nail in the
lowermost course
is
in
the
called the
Opposite
When
margin or
all
is
is
sum of
the length of a slate and the breadth of the bond, the breadth of the
is
visible part
of a course
are in
equal to the difference between the length of a slate and three times the
order to
make
it
it
will
For
this
purpose,
let
then will,
is
1b - =:
= breadth of
208
It
is,
SLATING.
however, more convenient
in
make
therefore,
when
the
one-third of the length of the slate, the breadth of those parts in which
is
architects
;
who
but,
make
this rule
in
and
in
much
therefore, in
secure,
false in
and
the other,
This rule
is
therefore
principle,
and
will
is
therefore justly
condemned by
all
experi-
is
in
order to
decomposition, as iron
will
nails,
in their
To
is
prevent
this,
be proper
to
but as the
expense of these
other expedient,
saturated with
have been
in
lately introduced.
An-
in
nails,
is
to
immerse them
oil,
them soak
the paint or
dried,
oil
completely adhere to their surface, they are then taken out, and
fit
when thoroughly
are
for use.
It is the business
fix
and here,
in
order to save
edges
smaller battens
when
when
thus,
in width,
in
of the
slates.
l)e
By
sqifare will
way
are not
more than
will necessarily
if
of equal lengths, they ought to diminish in a regular progression, and at the same time the
slater
The
SLATING.
209
Unless that these gradations and proportions are attended to in the execution of the work,
the slates can never be
otherwise,
if
made
to lie
in a plane
surface
or
the tops of the slates are brought close to the boarding or battening, the beds
;
in
the penetration of winds, nor the drifting of rain or snow, and, in the act of repairing the roof, the
slates,
from their surfaces only partially coinciding, and generally open, would be
liable to
break
If
in
all
would require
be curved with a small incurvation at the bottom of the roof; but continually
it
is
nution, for if the breadths of the slates are equal, the line
straight line.
which
be a
Moreover,
if
succeed each other, without diminishing in thickness, the weight of the same quantity of surface nearer to the top of the covering
inequality
to the bottom,
and
this
is
of no less importance,
is,
make them
all
that
is,
sured in a horizontal direction between every two adjacent joints should be the same every
where.
Any
to lessen the
good
effect
combination of these circumstances, and the choice of slates of the best quality, will
comfortable and secure covering from inclement weather.
occasionally admitted, in order to
make a
Though
a small deviation
may be may be
accommodate
and though
this
of
little
will deteriorate
of the work.
382.
The
ratio
which
exists
is
to wall,
and
termined also
the angles which are formed by making the height of the roof one-fourth and one-third of
the breadth of the building.
fourth the ratio of 4 to
1
;
is
the ratio of 3 to
1,
but
we
shall here
is
recommend a
therefore
roof will be 60. the angle at the base will be 30, and half the vertical angle of the
ancles at the bases of the three roofs will be as follow
:
The
When
its
is
inclination is..
26
24
3h
210
SLATING.
When
When
is
inclination
is
30
its
0'
inclination
.............
..........
is
....
33
41
The
slater's-work, since
we
for then
the breadth of both sides, or twice the length of the rafter, will be equal to four times the height
of the roof.
Agreeably
suitable
to these extremes,
it
bond
ought
however, that, in either case, the slates thus employed ought to be of the best quality, and of
the largest
size.
The bond
of the
slates, in
order to
make
only upon the pitch of the roof, but upon the length and thickness of the slates.
As a
roof
one that
is
higher.
is
plain,
from
the nature of the bond depending always upon the third course, that the position of the slates
in
the
first,
third, fifth,
seventh, &c.
slates
series of the
even courses.
Upon
this consideration,
:
The
The
equal to the
2d.
sum of
the margin of that course and the margin of the course next above.
in
is
ference of the margins of the slates in the lower course, and the slates in the course next
These
whether the
or irregular order
or in any decreasing
principles, arrive at
we
shall,
the
sum and
breadths of these margins, and, consequently, the breadths of the whole series of margins from
the eave to the ridge. In the case in which the length of the slates of the consecutive courses form a decreasing
arithmetical progression, the difference between any two adjacent margins
difference between the lengths of the slates in any two adjacent courses.
is
Example.
Let
SLATING.
211
three inches, to find the breadth of the margins, the distances of the battens, and the breadth
Now, because
is
dif-
length of the
first
slate
27 inches, we
(27
and | (27
1) = 13
the series
10,9,8,7,6, &c.
will
The sum
cover
;
will
common method
first
= 90 inches,
term,
or 7 feet 6 inches.
inches,
By
makes 17
first
which
is
the distance from the lower edge of the eave to the upper edge of the
12,
11,
batten,
and
13,
as they ascend.
It will
not be more
difficult to
slates are
ranged
in
any promiscuous order of the courses, observing, however, that the alternate odd courses,
the
first,
viz,
As
to the
margin of the
first
number of them
will
extend.
Exa7}iple. Haying given the lengths, 36, 29, 35, 39, 30, 25,
slates,
in inches,
of the consecutive courses of a slated covering, the breadth of the bond three inches, and the
breadth of the
first
margin 17 inches,
to find
number of courses
will
By
we
courses,
.......
slates in the
even places
17, 26, 36, 22,
first
.....
term.
&c.
by placing 17
two
as
the
first
of these
as to
series of lengths,
and
series
101, &c.
wb'icn
are the
margins
will
make.
Hence
212
the eighth term,
1 1
SLATING.
107 of this
series,
is
inches.
we
series
is
carried, viz.
of eight margins.
term of
remaining terms,
term, 17 inches,
we add 3
inches, the
sum 20
is
first
383.
EXPLANATION
XLV. No.
Plate
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
Welsh
all
slates
from rags,
or Queen's to doubles.
No.
7,
a fine slate
an inch.
Fig.
1,
exhibits a portion of the section of the side of a slated roof, the length of the slates
being 30 inches in the breadth of the upper course of the eave, and diminishing gradually by a
common
low,)
difl^erence of
two inches
in
in
Example
1,
in arithmetical progression,
having a
13,
common
is
The
first
margin
is
which
the
the slates,
the slates
is
proportioned to the distance between the heads, the slates are therefore thickest ai
the bottom, and continually thinner the nearer they approach to the top, which are therefore of
the least thickness.
In
ftqiire.1 2, 3, 4,
roof,
the lengths of
1
the slates as they succeed each other, and the breadths of the margins, are the same as in Jig.
is
about four
times
the
tliickness
of the slates
in Jig.
1,
in
order to
The
section, Jtg. 2,
more
section. Jig. 1.
Let
be
13, 12,
11,
GH,
&c. of the margins, but not the same as the distances, bd,
tiifle
The
made
the same as
those between the heads of the slates, will not occasion any sensible error, neither in the breadths
slates,
it.
neither affect the practical operation nor yet the result arising from
SLATING.
For the distances between the battens are the hypothenuses of right-angled
the distances between the heads of the slates
triangles,
213
of which
may be
but,
to the
made
For
battens 13 inches, as
m figure
;
2.
\
dis-
tances are doubled, then the results will be doubled, the double of
1
triangle
now,
hypothenuse
we have P-f-262=
-f
076
= 677,
is
lies
is
less
'01, or less
a covering of slates
108
feet,
to
an inch, therefore,
roof.
is
them an
elevation above
Thus,
angle which
if
make with
and
the slates
be three-eighths of an inch thick, the angle which the plane of the slates make with the plane
of the boarding will be
1 33'.
To
draw
by a
practical
method.
6,
2.
In fig. 7,
CB
perpendicular to
CB
slate.
Join
BD,
CDB
is
that
make with
In fig, 2, having
drawn
dc,
to the angle
BDC,
fig. 7, prolong
//
dc
to
V,
&c.,
draw the
straight lines
D,
^'
F,
/H,
&c.,
diminish in proportion to
Fig.
3,
exhibits the
same breadths of
all
figures
and 2
but
equal, causes
them
to recede farther
from
boarding, as
they are more distant from the eave, and thus, instead of following the straight line of the section of the boarding, they
assume a
line
of a curvilineal form
were brought
to their
above the
lie
would only
upon
Such
positions
upon
by
3i
214
The
section, fig. 5,
is
SLATING.
given as an illustration of the second example, in which the slates,
thou^^h equal in length throughout each course, follow one another in the succeeding courses of
such
irrei^ular lengths
which,
when measured by
same as those
in
larity in the
may
lie
upon a
straight or plane
must
The
fg.
5,
here alluded
ing,
This example
is
useful, as
it
slat-
but
how
load of material.
Fig.
7, exhibits
to,
for
is
slated
coverings,
best
in,
adapted
to the climate of
of,
Great Britain.
in the
The
lowest
is
that which
or the vicinity
London, and
AB,
one-third of
in
/A
or
/B,
of the rafter,
adapted
in the
384.
The
slates
most
in use
latter are
:
slates
Welsh
them
slates,
and
liable to
Slates of this kind, after they have been long exposed to the atmosphere
;
decomposed, or reduced
powdered
state.
;
in this
country
nor
probable they
:
will
be again introduced.
ft.
in.
1
ft.
tn.
Doubles, average
size
.-.-.
Ladies
Countesses
--
13-08
18
6
hy
10
Duchesses
2 3
Welsh Rags
Queens
Imperials
2 2
Patent Slate
10 20 20 20 2
.0
SLATING.
215
The Doubles
The Ladies
are
made up from
slate.
up
to the size
of such a description of
Countesses are
385.
in size
still
larger.
its
particularly neat,
and
is
known by having
all
386.
roofs,
Patent Slating
but
is
so called,
among
mode
of laying
it
on
we
It
was
first
brought into
Patent slating
may be
;
on
rafters of
much
it is
considerably lighter
the
much
common
sort of slating.
Welsh
Rags, but
is
composed of the
Inqjerials,
is
which are
lighter,
and much
neater in appearance.
common
rafters should
be
left
loose
on the
purlins,
so that a rafter
may be
The work
of covering
is
bond
is
down
consists in
of
bedded
These
slates.
up with more
putty,
to
resemble the
The
may
filleted,
but lead
preferable.
The Patent
Slating
thus be
with a
rise
;
slates
and
sometimes
but
as,
in this form,
On
the
very
little
compo-
The
made use of
as a covering to buildings,
to,
may be
"
of great
utility,
inasmuch as
it
may
or
diminishing from, the quantity of timber employed in roofs of different spans and elevations.
That
sort of slate," says his lordship, " other circumstances being the same,
least
is
esteemed the
best,
water
for the
swells
slate.
;
This
it
is
scarcely
slated ones
for
good
216
slate
SLATING.
imbibes but
little
water
and,
when
tiles
some measure,
to slate."
He
adds,
"
tile,
taken out and weighed as soon as they had ceased to drip, and
tile
had
its
hundredth part of
tile,
its
weight.
was merely
in
before the
in
weight
it
had before
it
was put
but the
tile
the water
same quantity
that
had
been spread on
surface
for
it
was this quantity only which had been imbibed by the slate,
tile.
The
tile
was
left to
dry
in
a room heated
60 of Fahrenheit, and
it
all
He
adds,
Westmoreland
Kendal
at 3s. 6d.
amount
at
to
1/.
The
coarser sort
will
may
be had
'2s.
id. a load, or
per ton.
cover
so that there
is
when
the
than
if it
difference of
its
shillings
to
and sixpence."
this slate
owes
it is
light-
much
split,
as
to the thinness to
and
it
is
heavier.
COMPARISON
388.
IN
A Common
Plain Tile weighs thirty-seven ounces, and they are used, at a medium, seven
hundred
to cover a single
pounds and
roof.
in
three-quarters,
on a single square of
are
Both the
laid
plain and
pan
it.
commonly bedded
mortar
on a roof without
Common Lead
or Copper, for covering roofs, generally requires seven pounds of the former,
latter, for
foot.
SLATING.
cwt. qrs.
lbs.
217
16
Lead
Fine Slate
Coarser ditto
Plain Tiles
G G
8
18
21
1
Pan-Tiles
2
best adapted to
Hence a
support.
careful builder
may
select
may be
389.
The SLATERS'
TOOLS
various
The Saixe
is
of
steel,
knife, except
to a point
;
its
back a piece of
iron,
is
drawn sharp
slates.
The Ripper
is
formed of
iron,
about the same length as the Saixe, with a very thin blade,
little
tapering towards the top, where a round head projects about half an inch, with two
at the intersection of
nails out
notches
This
tool
is
used for
lifting
of old slating,
differs
when
but
it is
to be repaired.
The Hammer
having a notch
little
is
from the
common
tool of the
that the
upper
nails that
do not drive
satisfactorily.
used
The
need no description.
They
better p.arts of the slater's work, as mouldings, chimney-pieces, skirtings, casings, &c.
feet superficial.
Besides
the nett dimensions of their work, slaters are allowed six inches for eaves, and four for hips, for
common
slating
may be
3k
218
SLATING.
.
Doubles
Countesses
4.
d.
2 2
Imperials--
2
12
6
6
(>
13 ^^
6f/.
---
^
the mouldings, from 4s.
to
2*.
to
5i. 6(/.
per
per
foot.
sold at so
much per
piece.
391. EXPLANATION
Back of a Slate.
Backer.
The upper
slate
side of
narrow
slate
when
the slates
Bed
between the
nail
of the under
slate,
slate.
The or lower part of the slating hanging over the naked of the Holing. The piercing of the admission of exposed to the weather. Margin of a Course. Those parts of the backs of the of a pyramidal form, for fastening the Nails. Pointed or copper, or
Eave.
skirt
wall.
slates for
nails.
slates
iron,
zinc,
slates to the
laths or boarding.
They
are commonly of the description or shape of clout-nails. are used without boarding, and screwed to the rafters, with
Patent Slates.
slips
Those which
in putty, to
of
slates,
bedded
proper length. A gauge by which are regulated Sorting. Regulating proper length by means of the Squaring. Cutting or paring the sides and bottom of the Tail. The bottom or lower end of the the head of the Trimming. Cutting or paring the side and bottom edges of a
Scantle.
slates
slates to their
scantle.
slates.
slate.
slate,
slate
PLUMBlNti.
21U
BOOK
V.
CHAPTER
I.
PLUMBERY OR TLUMBING.
392.
Plumbery comprehends
tlic
practice of casting
lead, also
making
The
ductility of lead
enables the
by means of
tools,
a white metal of a considerable blue tinge, very soft and flexible, not very
into very fine wire,
;
tenacious,
though
it
it
is
easily
melts at G12, in
In
boils
Lead
is
of congelation.
may be broken
not
hammer.
though the brightness of
its
Lead
much
altered
by exposure
to air or water,
It
is
surface,
is
when
off.
rest
difficult
when
its
specific gra-
by condensation,
Sheet-lead
is
this
may be
hammer
first is
or passing
that in
it
through
it is
rollers.
used
in
which
cast,
and
in this state
it is
where water
is
kept.
In architecture,
it is
it is
tech-
87
lbs. cast-lead,
by which
is
to contain
this use is
is
melted
in
which
run.
is
may remain
of
The
220
tlie
PLUMBING.
iron pot just rests
it
upon
it.
In using
is
tlie
furnace,
in at
they heat
it
is
placed
within
and
ignited,
thrown
random with
is
Near
the furnace
the table or
to
be
cast.
This
is
formed of
it
large pieces of
wood
well jointed,
at the ends.
Around
runs a
frame or ledge of wood three inches thick, and about two inches high from the table, technically
culled the sharps.
The
is
from three
to four feet,
and
their length
This table
to
is
covered with a stratum of fine sand slightly moistened with water, taking care
make
it
it
The sand
in this
state
closely
compressed by beating
a straight
Over the
a strike or rake of
wood which
it,
and
is
a space proportionable to
is
strike
used
mould.
At
itself,
table
is,
its
it
use
is
in
conveying
that
oblique disposition
that
may by
it
means
it
at the fore-side,
where
has no ledge,
some
enough
to
thus disposed, with a large iron ladle they take the melted lead, coals,
this,
and
all
mixed
as
it
is,
they
fill
When
full,
they take out the coals, and clean the lead with another iron spoon, pierced after the manner of
a
scummer
its
matter running
and spreading
itself
upon
and drives
it
to
means of the
strike,
The
in
Where
exposed
to
it
is
desirable
to increase
much
lami-
sun or wet,
it is
now
The
and makes
it
resist
oxydation
is
much
longer.
This process
is
Lead Pipes
in
are universally
employed
for
bending them
Although some
as iron
kinds of water corrode the metal by degrees, this will not produce so
much harm
under the
if it
was used
in sufficient quantities
have any
effect at all.
PLUMBING.
Tlie method
in
221
is
now very
an iron mould, upon a cylindrical iron rod of the size for the bore of the intended pipe, the
;
lead being three or four times the thickness of the intended pipe
are then
and
in short
lengths, which
till
the pipe
is
is
reduced
to the
Another method
mill, in
to
of a flatting
each of
when put
in
together, have a
number of
circular cavities
The
pipe
is first
rolled
cavities,
to the last,
with very
little
metal.
many manufactories of
and
396.
Solder
is
it
a state of fusion than the metal intended to be soldered thereby, and be of the same colour.
solder generally
in
The
lead,
it
made use of by
the plumber,
is
and
is
made of
;
tin
and
common
gridiron
in this state
is
to the price
of
397.
The ground
whether
it
be of plaster or boards,
liable to crack.
will
The
more than
make
rolls.
joined
this
is
The seams
edges of the lead up, and over each other, and then dressing them down
The
rolls
are
formed by fastening a piece of wood about two inches square under the joints of the
lead,
and
dressing one of the edges of the lead over the roll on the inside, and the other edge over both
down by hammering.
Soldering
is
sometimes
crack
this
mode should be
rejected on account of
its liability to
when exposed
to alternate
All sheet
as dry as possible
fall
and
for this
it
is laid,
should have a
is
laid.
Gutters
and by dressing
This
is
399. Flashings are pieces of milled lead about eight or nine inches vide, and are fixed round
22'2
the extreme edf^e of a
lead of the or fixing
it
PLUMBINCi.
flat
One edge
it
is
flat
by means of wall-hooks.
from half an inch to two
roofs, Sec,
The
inches.
Socket pipes are those which are used for conveying superfluous water from
to five inches diameter.
eight or ten feet, dressed on a cylindrical core of wood, and fastened at the vertical joinings with
solder
;
by an astragal moulding
it,
in
Two
back lap
joints,
The
which
is
either
made of
sheet lead,
or cast in a mould,
400. Pumps. Those supplied to the public by plumbers are usually made by engineers,
suitable apparatus for boring the barrels, they being
who have
its
made of
nature.
They may be
divided into three distinct kinds, namely. Sucking, Lifting, and Forcing
little
Pumps.
used
the lifting
The
pump
The
consists of
two pipes,
flanches,
the barrel and suction pipe, the latter being smaller in diameter.
The
is
shaped
o-ravel.
and
The working
Pixion
barrel
cylindrical,
The
spindle
is
generally
made of wood
in the
by which
it
is
may be hooped
base.
The
ends.
Lifting
Pump
is
consists, as in
closed at both
The
piston
usually solid,
and
box, in the plate, which closes the upper end of the working barrel.
laterally with the suction pipe,
The
barrel communicates
differs
rising main.
This pump
ceding only in having two valves, the lower one moveable, and the upper one fixed.
In Plate
XXXIX.
pump,
as
fig. 2,
3,
perfect lifting
the
water-%^..y
valves,
and
also
PLUMBING.
the superior means applied in
excellent proportions of
all
tlie
223
oil.
Tlie
give the two figures before-named for the benefit of our practical readers,
who
will
here have an
opportunity of examining the internal construction engraved from a working drawing, very kindly
furnished us by Messrs.
Bramah and
consists of a
The
the
first
it
making part of
and the
where
it
the second
tlie
is
joined to
is
by
the beginning of
main, and
delivered,
The
pump
is
it is
it is
found requisite to
variety of
pumps
we have enumerated.
The
sold to
to
only puts
them together
so as to
The
made
in a similar way,
to the
plumber, who
together, so as
places the basin, apparatus, traps, socket pipe, cistern, and forcing or lifting
to
pump
put them
in action.
is
Sheet lead
the
to prices
arranged at intervals by
is
Milled lead
usually charged
The
best
the
galvanic effect produced causes the iron to be oxydized, the lead being preserved almost entire
while there
401.
is
it.
The
tools
will
The
following
enumeration
be deemed
Centre
same manner
as a carpenter's.
Cutting Knives, of
the chalk line.
various sizes
mark
left
by
is
side,
It is
used for stretching out and flattening the sheet lead, or dressing
Files, of various sizes.
various sizes
224
HOUSE PAINTING.
it
may be
The
opposite end
is
spindle shaped.
in soldering.
Hammer, made
of iron, which
;
these are of various sizes, and are used for melting solder
Mallets,
CHAPTER
ir.
HOUSE PAINTING.
402.
House Painting
or water, which
is is
compounded
either
with
oils
employed
painting
may
and var-
upon wood,
iron,
and stucco,
capable of resisting the decomposing and destroying mical changes effected in them, are rendered thereby of preserving various substances from premature decay. qualities of the atmosphere, and term more generally, in allusion to the decorative part, as applied It is here intended to use the
to buildings, as well as to its
more
essential ones,
and as
it
is
The
will
is
in churches, theatres, or
slight variations, as
We
shall
used as a base
mix and
dilute
403.
White Lead
is
the principal ingredient used in house painting, forming the basis of most
It is
coils,
about half an inch apart from each other, and then placing them vertically
a portion of
good vinegar
at the bottom, in
set in a
vapor of the acid oxydates the lead, producing a carbonate of lead, which may be taken
white flakes
oil,
in
when
state
These
flakes are
lead.
in
which
sold in the
The
are
much
it
be prowhite
duced,
The Nottingham
HOUSE PAINTING.
lead
is
225
technically called flatting or
gloss,
commonly or
dead
white.
404. Linseed
quantities.
It
is
Oil
is
flax,
it,
in large
otI
is
the principal
The
its
natural
in its
its
brown
colour,
and a tardiness
The goodness
of linseed
It
therefore, consists
in
state,
it
and
in its
drying soon.
will increase
its
drying proper-
ties.
But keeping
it
for
some considerable
These
effects will
it
the atmosphere and light, both of which tend to bleach and improve
This
may be
ren-
it
many
other substances
but
all
increase
oil
one pound of
half a
pound of sugar of
umber
them
so long as the discolouring the oil will permit, for the oil
When
is
the
oil is
fire, it
may
through
406.
flannel, after
settled.
is
Oil of Turpentine
oil,
distilled
techni-
Turps
it
and
if
mixed with
oils,
oils,
with
it
the
more
volatile parts of
such
it is
and
much
On
it
this
account
very gene-
for
which "purpose
over drying
It is
oil,
it is
perfectly transparent
it,
and
and colours
it,
and
it
is
we
are
describing.
It
;
will
be the
407. Litharge
in the
silver.
It is
in the
Sugar of Lead
is
made by
dissolving
it
in vinegar,
and
reducing the
oils
as in the
It is also
common
use of the
oils,
where
oil,
it is
and sold
ready
to
at
any time.
It
is
White
Vitriol, or sulphate of
zinc, is
commonly used
as a dryer.
found as a
3 M
226
HOUSE PAINTING.
may be made
artificially
oils,
by a peculiar applialso
much used
in
making drying
and
when ground
with
oil,
410. Putty
that has
linseed
oil,
is
that
made with
drying
oil
been very much boiled, by the use of which a composition may be formed, that will become
but
will yet
sufficiently hard,
brittle as that
which
is
made
of
common
cases, the
oil
it is
it
will
be
and
some manufacturers
The
first
coatings or layers,
on wood or
iron,
ought always
to
be of white
is
best that can be obtained, great care being taken to procure that which
thoroughly ground
first
coat upon
fir
it
will
These
are, in general, so
render
it
difficult parts
indeed
to
it
may be
truly said, to
The
usual method
is
with a mixture of white lead ground in water, having a portion of red lead
the liquid vehicle being parchment size
;
mixed therewith,
when
this
is
oil,
to
smoothly finished with the brush, in the direction of the grain of the wood.
coats are dry, the parts so treated should be
When
to
the two
make them
oil.
The
all
the nail-holes
left
filled
up or stopped with
being
per-
smooth.
somewhat diluted
forming three
least,
sometimes added.
Where
it is
when
finished should not be of a perfect white, the last coat should have a small quantity of
to
will
will
produce a
very pleasing
effect,
and
in
The
usual proportion
three
is
of the
latter,
which
will
the
whether
must be made
sufficiently thin
with turpentine,
will
It
oil
may be
requisite to
obser\e
HOUSE PAINTING.
a large proportion of turpentine
is
used,
little
difficulty
is
experienced in laying
it
on large sur-
faces perfectly even, the one part blending into the other very easily, but, in flatted work, con-
siderable
management
;
is
of the colour
in that
and
it is
where the
manner,
frequently necessary to have two persons employed at the same time, upon
The
to
best
mode
of proceeding
is
hand
compartment
be
flatted,
and
if this
be properly accom-
but where the sides of a room are too lofty for one
it
person to effect the object in time, then two must be employed to ensure success,
impossible to produce a
nearly so. sary for
all
being almost
flat tint,
is
It
must
also
new work
that
to
be well executed.
want of
gloss, is
more
likely to soil
but
its
has of retaining
its
colour, renders
It
it
indispensable for
situations
where
it
is
inapplicable to parts that are exposed to the weather, preservation being in that case the principal object.
What has
sufficient.
suffice as to painting
oil,
But
shall
care,
we
now
offer
attended
to, will
render that
it is
laid
damp
or moisture, which can only be the case where the walls have been erected a sufficient time to
and wearing
well, consists in
attending
for
not only in congelation, but also in evaporation, must be well aware, that
foreign a
when
it
body obstructing
its
it
immediately
resists
forming
number of
plaster,
to
be repaired.
In
those works where persons have an interest in the durability, two years
a time to thoroughly dry both the walls and plaster are scarcely allowed, and hence the
;
228
HOUSE PAINTING.
mode adopted
for priming or
on the
first
oil,
prepared as above-desciibed,
on very evenly, so as
It
to leave the
more than
should then be covered with at least three coats of white lead and
If the stucco
be intended
tint,
it
ill
then be proper about the third coat of painting, to prepare the ground for the desired
slight
is
tint
by a
advance towards
it.
Grey
and
lake.
and
fine
chrome yellow.
Fawn
umber and
white.
In some cases
it
may be
suffito,
may be washed
oft'
fit
and completely
removed
colour.
at
to
413. DisTEMPUK. In this kind of painting, the white colour or base most commonly used
finest whitintT,
is
the
which
is
it
prepared
for
in large quantities
by various manufacturers.
:
The
colours most
and
refiner's verditer
an inferior
grey
may be compounded
damp
blue or indigo
pea greens,
umber and
tint.
ground very
washed over
so as to ensure the
particles.
In
made of common
glue
will
is
afford
parchment
size will
not require less than two coats of any of the foregoing colours, in order to cover the
plaster,
When
become discoloured by
stains,
and
it
be desired
to
have
it
painted in
distemper,
is
one coat at
least
of turpentine, which
generally cover
all
The above
required
;
process
will also
in cases
is
only
In every kind of painting, but particularly in oil-painting, the greatest degree of cleanliness
The
brushes and
all
dry upon them from time to time, by scraping and washing, which may be done
GLAZING.
with a blunt knife and strong soap and water, for
if this
229
be not done, the colours
will
soon become
very
foul,
will in
is
inferior.
in
woods, as satin-wood, mahogany, rose-wood, &c., and likewise various species of marble.
this
flat
For
is
furnished with several camels' hair pencils, and with one or more
is first
An
even ground
laid of a
for
of turpentine.
This
is left
The
painter then prepares his palette-board with small quantities of the colour required, and having
some boiled
oil
it
it
over a
is
panel, and if
The
drawing
it
down
The
produced
When
fixed
is
varnish.
not
much
common
its
way, but
any of
freshness.
CHAPTER
in.
GLAZING.
415.
On
glass very
little
It,
indeed,
;
appears, from the ruins of several Grecian buildings, that they had apertures or windows
it
and
would seem, from the nature of their construction, they were adapted
to receive a
frame
filled
yet,
Roman
it
in the
Bede
is
the
first
who
He
likewise informs us
who introduced
now
remain,
it
is
making of
time after.
glass,
made
Glazing, as
now
practised,
glass,
and
fixing
it
into sashes of
glass.
wood
or
casements of lead
3 N
230
Plain coloured glass
GLAZING.
may
is
very
little
more
common
Coloui'ed glass
is
Claude Lorraine,
about
Glazing
in
lead-work
These
sashes are formed with a groove or rebate, on the back of their cross and vertical bars, for the
reception of the glass, which the glazier cuts to
called putty.
its
proper
size,
and beds
in the
composition
Putty
is
made
oil,
into
it
When
wood.
red-ochre
is
mixed with
The
what
is
glass.
Glaziers
now use
chiefly
which
is
firsts,
value depends.
The
glass
is
bought by the
which
thirds.
These
vfilued at
about four
guineas
and the
is
third.s,
two guineas.
:
The crown
glass
manufac-
neighbourhood
sort,
Green-Glass
is
another
much used
common
it
From many
old windows,
of.
is
Waved Plate-Glass
all
if
it
indented
was
;
for-
but
to
be obtained
is
in
London.
Ground
Rough Glass
is
common
polish taken
off",
and rubbing
witli
sand
Plate-Glass
is
made
use
of,
The
lai'ger
The
Plate-Glass Company,
in
Albion-Place, London,
inch, in proportion to
far,
the most celebrated depot for this the value increasing accordingly.
is
There
it is
sold
by the
its size,
Though
now
so
^
much
pre-
ferred, as to
be used
is
in
many shop-windows
German Sheet
ceding, had
it
much
Bohemian Plate-Glass
used about
thirty years ago,
it is
now
quite rejected.
GLAZING.
416. Glaziers value their work by
or squares, employed.
feet, inches,
231
parts, according to the size of the panes,
and
The charges
of the
Company
s.
d.
feet,
ft.
per square
in.,
3 3 3 3
10
ditto
ditto ditto
4 2
Ditto,
Ditto,
2
2
ft.
under
ft.
Seconds of the same dimensions are about ten per cent, cheaper
and
Thirds, of similar dimensions, are 10 per cent, cheaper than the seconds.
Green
glass
is
The
size,
price of
all
kinds of bent glass, for circular and other windows, varies accordin'^ to the
it,
and
fitting
it
in.
in squares, or
which are cast and drawn for the purpose, and soldered together
is
This
leaden work
of various
sizes,
according
left in
and
The
to
grooves
have
their
cheeks sufficiently
be
in,
pressed
to
down
it
all
round
Sucli
admit the
glass,
and again raised up, when the glass has been put
vertical
keep
firm.
and cross
b.irs
which, having been soldered to the lead, are twisted round the iron.
bars, instead of being of iron, are often of
In cottage
windows the
wood.
;
417. Glaziers formerly cut their glass out with an instrument called & grozhig-iron
cess was not only tedious but difficult,
tion of the
entirely
diamond, which
is
The handle
is
moderate drawing
tools are a rule
The diamond
is
His other
The
former
is
inches,
and
is
into
any required
The
straight edges
are merely thin pieces of some hard wood, about two inches wide, and one quarter of an inch
thick,
for the
diamond
to
work
against.
ping
knives,
in lenTtii,
edges to an apex.
They
Hacking-out Tool
is
its
which are to be
filled
with
The
glazier
luimmer
is
used by
232
GLAZING.
its
Glaziers are also furnished with a pair of compasses, which has one of
socket to receive the handle of the diamond, for drawing and cutting out any peculiar shapes of
glass for fan-lights, &c.
Good glazing
large,
it is
liable to
be broken by the least pressure within, or even the wind from without
more-
beyond the
line
of
wood
in the inside,
should be further secured by small sprigs being driven into the rebates of the sash, and covered
over with another coat of putty.
The
business of a glazier includes the cleaning of windows, and this forms no inconsiderable
constantly employed
The
charge
is
the
number of windows
number of squares
each frame.
The
master-glazier takes
in
risk of
his
cleaning them.
many
Kingdom
it is
the
wood-work apper;
taining to the sashes, for the quantities of glass contained in the respective squares
also,
the
lead-work.
ligent person
And
such
is
if
any
intel-
was to attempt
them out of
it,
valuator,
it is
pre-
sumed, may, at some period or other, equalize our customs, weights, and measures
period arrives, the system of valuation must be dependent upon local customs.
tities
The
of glass, should, in
all cases,
be measured, except
in the widest part
;
in circular fan-lights
and
similar works,
to
where the
the glass
is
glass should be
measured
make
fit
the apertures can be considered only as waste glass, the price or allowance for whicii
not embraced in the value charged by the glazier for his glass so consumed.
JrL
DESCRIPTION or
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