The structural and functional characteristics of all organisms are determined by their chemical make up Atoms molecules cells

ls tissues organs organ system CELL 2 major compartments 1. Nucleus largest organelle of the cell 2. Cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus Cytoplasm 2 general types of structures a. organelles essential , metabolically active internal organs b. inclusions metabolically inert accumulations of cell products the cell membrane (plasmalemma) - thin limiting membrane enclosing the cell - contain local specializations for cell attachment and cell to cell communication - has permeability properties cell membrane has two layers of phospholipid bilayer a. hydrophilic portion at outer and inner surfaces of the membrane b. hydrophobic chain projecting toward the middle of the bilayer cholesterol and varying amounts of proteins, glycoproteins, and glycolipids are intercalated in the phospholipid layers Transmembrane proteins: 1. transport glucose and amino acid 2. form channels 3. functions as pumps 4. are receptors polysaccharide components of glycoproteins and glycolipids outer aspect of lipid bilayer contribute to formation of CHO-rich surface coat or glycocalyx

THE NUCLEUS - source of informational macromolecules that control synthetic activities of the cytoplasm Three components: 1. nuclear membrane encloses the nucleus 2. nucleoli 3. chromatin thread like structure in the neoplasm of the nucleus

A . Nuclear membrane - participate in the organization of the chromatin - controls the movement of macromolecules from the cytoplasm to the nucleoplasm E/M = 2 parallel membranes separated by a 10 30 um Space perinuclear cisterna Outer membrane have small granules (ribosomes) continuous with ER (endoplasmic reticulum) Inner and outer membrane continuous with one another, around circular nuclear pores B. Nucleoli - consist mainly of ribonucleoprotein (RNA) - stain with basic dyes C. Chromatin - consists of nucleic acids a(DNA) and associated histone proteins - condensed to form chromosomes DNA contains genetic material, composed of nucleotides Components: a. sugar b. phosphate group c. nitrogenous bases (purine A (adenine), G (guanine) and pyrimidine = C (cytosine), T(thymine)) DNA REPLICATION - DNA helix unwinds and nucleotides strands separated - Each strand act as template for a new complementary strand THE CYTOPLASM - living gel (plasm) of the cell (cyto) 2 categories: 1. organelles 2. 2. Inclusions suspended in semi-fluid cytoplasmic matrix cytosol cytoskeleton network of protein structures provide the cell with an internal framework E/M fibrillar elements in cytoplasm cytoskeleton Cytoskeleton Microfilaments twisted double chain of protein Microtubules chain of protein wrapped in spiral to form a tube Intermediate fibers thread like protein molecules that wrap around one another

The cytoplasmic organelles 1. endoplasmic reticulum (ergatoplasm) - extensive system of interconnected membranes that forms flattened channels and tube-like canals - consist of loose network of branching and anastomosing tubules continuous with flattened saccular structures cisternae - a closed IC (intracellular) canalicular system - limiting membrane is continuous with outer membrane of nuclear envelope 2 types of ER 1. Rough ER - abundant in glandular cells that secrete protein - bear small dense particles on the outer surface of its limiting membranes 2. Smooth ER - in the synthesis of Fatty acids and other lipids - found in cells of steroid secreting endocrine glands In the liver synthesis of lipid component of VLDL (low density lipo protein) principal site of detoxification and metabolism of lipid-soluble exogenous drugs In striated muscle sequesters and release calcium In endocrine glands in biosynthesis of steroid hormones 3. RIBOSOMES 2o 25 nm particles made of RNA and 20 or more proteins found at two locations can be free or bound both bound and free ribosomes sites where amino acids are assembled in the synthesis of proteins ribosomes usually occur in clusters of 10 or more linked together by their common attachment to a long molecule of mRNA = Polyribosomes or polysomes 4. MITOCHONDRIA - appear as slender rods 0.2 um diameter, 2-6 um L - provided ATP for cellular energy - concentrated at sites of high energy utilization - self duplicating organelle E/M smooth outer membrane 7 nm thick and thinner inner membrane = slender folds cristae amplify surface area of this membrane - the energy generating function depends on Oxygen and products of digestion of CHON, CHO and lipids 5. GOLGI COMPLEX - close to the nucleus - conspicuous in those cell types that produce large volume of secretion - essential organelle in the secretory pathway

E/M appear as stack of 4 10 parallel cisternae Consist of membrane bounded, flattened saccules arranged in parallel array. The convex surface, to which secretory protein is transported from ER cis face of GC - And trans-face - - the transport of material from the ics-face to the trans-face depnds of vesicles budding off from one cisterna and fusing with the next in the stack - the terminal ceisterna has 6. LYSOSOMES - round ovoid, highly irregular dense bodies - 0.25-0.8 um in diameter - limited by a membrane and contain hydrolytic - enzymes phosphates - range in number from few to several hundred/cell - IC digestive system In pathological conditions alter permeability of limiting membrane of lysosomes In normal events lysosomal membrane altered permitting escape of acid hydrolases that break down the cells no longer needed Heterophagy IC digestion of extracellular material taken into the cell by phagocytosis Autophagy process of controlled degradation of organelles in healthy cell the indigestible residue of autophagic activity accumulate in cells of aging animals wear and tear pigments of lipofuscin Lipid storage disorders - inherited defect in synthesis of lysosomal enzymes - lacking/absent lysosomal enzyme abnormal IC accumulation of the enzymes specific sphingolipid substrate disturbance of other functions of the cell Ex. Gaucher disease = def. acid B- glucosidase - accumulation of undegraded glycolipid substrates (glucosylceramide) in RES 7. Peroxisomes spherical membrane limied bodies 0.2 1.0 um diameter called microbodies found in proximal convoluted tubule and liver membranous sacs contain oxidase enzymes * detoxify harmful substance break down free radicals (highly reactive chemicals) lack hydrolases, but contain urate oxidase, d- amino acid oxidase, catalase are able to b-oxidate VLCFA H202 drugs 10x increase in b-oxidative enzymes in liver peroxisomes H2O2 produced as byproducts of B-oxidation Catalase breaks H2O2 H2O and O2

Peroxisomal diseases Cause: 1. failure to form or maintain the peroxisome 2. defect in the function of a single enzyme - involved in the production and decomposition of H2O2 - concerned with lipid and A.A metabolism Ex. X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy accumulation of saturated VLCFA (very long chain fatty acid) Zellweger syndrome 8. CENTROSOME AND CENTRIOLE Centrosome - centrosphere or cell center - specialized zone of cytoplasm containing the centrioles - adjacent to nucleus CENTRIOLES - rod-shaped bodies made of microtubules - direct formation of mitotic spindle - serve as basal bodies and sites of origin of epithelial cells