Engg Physics Notes

SCE
SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE

01
DEPT OF PHYSICS
SCE
NOTES PREPARED BY.1. Mr.Jagadeesh Gowda.G.V, HOD, 2. Ms.Shashikala
BS, Asst. Prof., 3. Mr.Gnanendra DS, Asst. Prof., 4. Ms.Bharathi D, Asst. Prof.,
Department of Physics, Sapthagiri College of Engineering, Bangalore,
Karnataka India-560057. SCE

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE

Notes Prepared by SCE, Department of Physics

UNIT 1
MODERN PHYSICS

Prepared by: 1Mr.Jagadeesh Gowda GV, HOD, Department of Physics, 2.Ms.Shashikala BS, Asst. Prof.,
3.Mr.Gnanendra DS, Asst. Prof., 4.Ms.Bharathi D, Asst. Prof., Department of Physics, Sapthagiri College
of Engineering, Bangalore, Karnataka India-560057.

Syllabus:
Introduction to Black Body Radiation. Energy distribution of spectrum in a Black body,
various laws of Black Body Radiation. Photoelectric effect & Compton Effect -Explanation
Wave-particle dualism. De-Broglie Hypothesis, Characteristics of Matter waves. Davisson
& Germer experiment Phase velocity, Expression for phase velocity, Group velocity,
Expression for Group velocity Relation between phase velocity & Group velocity, Group
velocity & particle velocity, De-Broglie wavelength
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Black Body:
A perfect black body is the one which absorbs all the
radiation that is incident on it, no matter what the radiation
frequency is. Conversely when a perfect black body is heated it
emits radiation at all frequencies.
Fig (1-1)

A black body can be constructed using a hallow
object coated inside with lamp black and having a small hole as
shown in fig (1-1). The radiation entering through the hole is almost completely absorbed due to
multiple reflections.

Energy distribution of a Black Body Radiation Spectrum:
In 1859 Kirchhoff formulated two laws about black body radiation which are as follows
1. A black body not only absorbs the entire radiation incident on it but it also a perfect
emitter at high temperatures.
2. The radiation emitted by a black body depends only on the temperature not on the nature
of the body

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The variation of radiation curves are shown in the graph (1-2). The following observations can
be made
from the radiation curves.
(1) There are different curves for different visible Graph (1-2)
Temperatures
(2) There is a peak for each of the curves
which indicates that the EM wave of
that wavelength corresponding to the Infra red
peak is emitted to the largest extent at
that temperature to which the curve 6000K
corresponds Energy
(3) The peak shifts from curve to curve 4000K
towards the lower wavelength side 3000K
as higher temperatures are considered
ultra violet 0.4 0.8 1.0 2.0
Wavelength
Laws of Black Body Radiation:
In order to explain spectrum of black body radiation number of laws have been put
forward, notable among them are as follows

Stefans Law of radiation:
In 1884 Stefan and Boltzmann showed that the total energy radiated by a black body per unit
area per unit time is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e.,
E

E =

Where the Stefan iss constant.
This law is experimentally verified, but it does not explain the energy distribution in the
spectrum of Black Body Radiation.
Wiens Displacement Law:
According to Wiens observation the wavelength of maximum intensity
m
is inversely

proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitting body because of which, the peaks of the
energy curves for different temperatures get displaced towards the lower wavelength side
i.e.,
m

m
T = constant = 2.898x10
-3
mK
Wien showed that the maximum energy E
m
of the peak emission is directly proportional
to the fifth power of absolute temperature
i.e., E
m
T
5

E
m
= constant x T
5

Wien also deduced the relation, between the wavelength of emission and the temperature
of the source as ,
E
d = C
1
-5

,
-
d

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Where E

d is energy per unit volume for wavelengths in the range and +d
C
1
and C
2
are constants

Drawbacks of Wiens law:
Wiens law suits only for shorter wavelength region and high temperature value of the
source. It failed to explain the gradual drop in the intensity for radiations whose wavelengths are
longer than the ones corresponding to the peak value.

Rayleigh- Jeans Law:
According to the principle of equipartition of energy, an average energy kT should be
assigned to each mode of vibration. But, the number of vibrations per unit volume, whose
wavelengths are in the range and +d is given by 8
-4
d.
Hence the energy per unit volume for waves whose wavelengths are in the range and +d is
given by,
E
d = 8
-4
d.
This equation is known as the Rayleigh- Jeans Law.
Rayleigh- Jeans Law correctly predicts the fall of intensity of the radiation towards the longer
wavelength side.

Ultraviolet Catastrophe:
As per the Rayleigh- Jeans equation, the radiant energy increases enormously with the
decreasing wavelength i.e., the black body is predicted to radiate all the energy at very short
wavelength side. But in practice, a black body radiates chiefly in the IR and Visible region of the
EM spectrum, the intensity of radiation decreases down steeply for shorter wavelengths. Thus,
the Rayleigh- Jeans Law fails to explain the lower wavelength side of the spectrum. Thus the
failure of Rayleigh- Jeans Law to explain the spectrum beyond the violet region towards the
lower wavelength side of the spectrum is particularly referred to as Ultraviolet Catastrophe.
Plancks Radiation law:
Max planck assumed that radiation is emitted in packets or bundles of energy called
quanta or photons instead of continues waves. All photons associated with light of frequency
have the same energy given by
E = h
Where h = 6.625x10
-34
JS (Plancks constant)
= frequency of a photon
The assumption in the derivation of Plancks law is that the walls of the experimental black body
consist of a very large number of electrical oscillator, with each oscillator vibrating with a
frequency of its own. .in the Planck brought two special in his theory.
They are,
(i) only that value of energy could be possessed by an oscillator, which is an integral
multiple of h. i.e., the allowed energy values are defined in the set nh
where n = 0,1,2,3,.etc.
(ii) An Oscillator may gain or lose energy by emitting or absorbing respectively a
radiation of frequency whose value is given by =
, where is the difference

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in the value of the energies of the oscillator before and after the emotion or absorption
had taken place.
Based on the above ideas he derived an equation which successfully explained the entire
spectrum of the blackbody radiation.
It is given by E
d =
1

d (since =
)
The following graph (1-3) predicts the observations of all the three laws of blackbody radiation
spectrum
Plancks law

Rayleigh-Jeans law
Wiens
law

E
d

Reduction of Plancks law to Weins law:
For shorter wavelengths, =
is large
When is large,
,
-
is very large.
,
-

,
-

,
-
=
,
-

Making use of this in Plancks equation,
E
d = 0
}
1

d
E
d = C
1
-5

,
-
d
Where C
1
= and C
2
=

The above equation is the expression for Wiens Law.

Reduction of Plancks law to Rayleigh- Jeans Law:
For longer wavelengths, =
is small
When is small,
is very small.
Expanding
,
-
as power series, we have

,
-
= 1 +

(Since
is very small its higher power terms could be neglected.)

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Therefore
,
-
=

Making use of this in Plancks equation,
E
d = 0
1

d
E
d =
d
The above equation is the expression for Rayleigh- Jeans Law.

Photoelectric Effect:
The phenomenon of emission of electron from the surface of a metal when a radiation of
suitable frequency incident on it.
The emitted electrons are known as photo electrons. The movement of these electrons constitutes
photoelectric current.
The apparatus used to study photoelectric effect is shown in fig(1-4).
Radiations

G Evacuated glass tube
W W Quartz window
G C Photosensitive cathode
A Anode
e
-
e
-
e
-
m

Micro ammeter
C e
-
e
-
e
-
A Ba Battery

_
Ba m
The apparatus consists of an evacuated tube which contains two electrodes. The electrode E is
the metal plate which emits electrons on being illuminated with light of suitable frequency. It is
kept at a lower potential with respect to the other electrode C which collects the photoelectrons
to constitute a small current in the external circuit.
The observations in photoelectric effect are not explained by wave theory of light. They are
explained by Einstein using Plancks quantum theory.
Following are the observations in the photoelectric effect:
1. There is no emission of photoelectrons below a certain frequency of incident light which
is called threshold frequency.
2. There is no time lag between the arrival of light on a metal surface and the emission of
electrons.
3. The retarding potential required to reduce the current to zero is known as the stopping
potential. The stopping potential varies only with the frequency and does not depend
upon the intensity.
4. Increase in intensity of light increases the current.
According to Einsteins theory for photoelectric effect, the incident light consists of
photons of energy
E= h
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When the photon strikes the metal surface, it transfers all its energy to an electron. A
certain amount of this energy is required to release the electron from the surface and the
remaining energy appears as kinetic energy of the electron.
Therefore h = W +

The minimum amount of energy required to release the electron from the surface is
known as the work function. When incident photon has just sufficient energy to liberate
the electron with zero velocity, the incident photon frequency is the threshold frequency
0
.
Therefore Work function is W
0
= h
0

If W= W
0
, the kinetic energy will be maximum.
Therefore h = h
0
+

If stopping potential is V, then
Therefore eV =
= h (-
0
)
The above equation predicts that there will be no emission of photoelectrons for
0
.
These observations confirm the particle properties of light waves.

Compton effect:
When x-rays are scattered by solid medium, the scattered x-rays will normally have same
frequency or energy. However Compton observed that in addition to the scattered x-rays
of same frequency or wavelength, their existed some scattered x-rays of a slightly higher
wavelength that is lower frequency. This phenomenon in which the wavelength of x-rays
shows an increase after scattering is called Compton Effect.
Compton explained the effect on the basis of the quantum theory of radiation.
Considering the radiation to be made up of photons, he applied the laws of conservation
of energy and momentum for the interaction of photon with electron
Consider an x-ray photon of energy h incident on an electron at rest as shown in
fig(1-5).
After the interaction, the x-ray photon gets scattered at an angle with its energy
changed to a value h
1

and the electron which was initially at rest recoils at an angle.
It can be shown that the increase in wavelength which is known as Compton shift is
given by

Where
is the rest mass of the electron.

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When =90
o
,

This constant value is called Compton wavelength.
Thus Compton Effect is also experimental evidence in favor of the quantum theory of radiation.
Physical significance of Compton effect :
In Compton effect the Compton shift is explained on the basis that the x-ray photons collide with
electrons and, during the collision the energy exchange between the two occurs as though it is a
kind of particle-particle collision. Thus, it demonstrates the particle nature of x-rays which we
know is electromagnetic waves, or, it signifies the particle nature of waves in general.
Wave particle dualism:
The experiments based on interference, diffraction and polarization in light shows that light
behaves as waves. While the Black body radiation, Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect
show that the light behaves as particle.
Therefore the light has dual property and is known as wave particle dualism.
The dual nature was observed by de-Broglie & in his study, assuming that what is true with
energy (X- ray/light) is also true with matter, as they are interchangeable according to Einsteins
theory of relativity, put forward an hypothesis stating that Since nature loves symmetry, if
the radiation behaves as particle under certain circumstances, then one can even expect
that entities which ordinarily behaves as particles to exhibit properties attributable to only
waves under appropriate circumstances.
This hypothesis is known as de-Broglie hypothesis.
According to which when a particle has a momentum p, its motion is associated with a
wavelength called de-Broglie wavelength given by,
=

Where h is Plancks constant and p is momentum of the particle.

de-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron: For an electron accelerated
under a potential difference of V, the energy acquired will be eV. If m is the mass & v is the
velocity of the electron, then the energy equation for non-relativistic case can be written as,
eV =
..(1)
If p is the momentum of the electron, then
P = mv
Squaring on both sides, we have, p
2
= m
2
v
2

or mv
2
=

Using the above equation, eqn(1) becomes
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eV =

or

From de-Broglie hypothesis we
have , =
) ..(2)
Since h, m & E are physical constants the value of
will also be constant.

By substituting the values of the constants in eqn(2) we have

Davisson & Germer Experiment (Experimental study of matter waves)
Davisson & Germer in 1927 designed an apparatus to determine the wavelength
associated with electrons. The experimental set up is as shown in figure(1-6).

Experimental set up:
It consists of a tungsten filament (F), variable voltage source, Nickel metal (N) and an electron
detector (D). When the filament is heated the electrons are liberated from it by thermionic
emission. These electrons are passed through narrow slits in order to get a fine beam of electrons.
This electron beam was accelerated and directed at the nickel target which was mounted on a
support by the applied voltage. When the electrons hit the target metal they get scattered around
the metal. The electron detector was mounted on an arc so that it could be rotated to different
angles () to observe the scattered electrons from the metal surface. Keeping the accelerating
potential constant the intensity of electrons was measured by varying the angle . Polar graphs
shown in graph (1-7), below show the dependence of electron intensity on .
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From the graph (1-7) we make
following observation, In the plot of 40 V,
the variation was found to be smooth
devoid of any maxima and minima. When
the experiment was repeated with
accelerating potentials of 44V, 48V, 54V,
60V, 68V a slight but distinct maxima
was observed at 44V. With higher
potential curves, the maxima appeared
more and more pounced up to the case of
54V curve and there afterwards it declined
& faded away.
Davisson & Germer came out with a proposition to account for the ionization current
becoming maximum for particular values of V & .
Let us consider only the electrons that are scattered at an angle of 50
0
under an
accelerating potential of V = 54V. As per the de-Broglie hypothesis,
m..(1)
Davisson & Germer further
suggested that, just as X rays undergo
diffraction when incident on a crystal the
waves associated with the incident beam
of electrons also under diffraction while
incident on nickel crystal obeying the
Braggs Law
Braggs law is given by 2dsin =
n
Where is the
glancing angle, d is the inter planar
distance
The inter planar spacing is obtained from
x-rays analysis is found to be d=0.91 .
The glancing angle

by applying Braggs equation,
= 2d

It is seen that the values obtained experimentally using Braggs equation and de-Broglie equation
agreed well and provide evidence for the existence of matter waves.

Group velocity and Phase velocity:
The equation for displacement of a wave is given by
y= A
where y is the displacement along y axis at the instant t
is the angular frequency
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


k is the propagation constant or wave number
x is the displacement along x axis at the instant t. The phase velocity for a wave is given
by; V
phase
=

If a point is imagined to be marked on a travelling wave, then it becomes a representative point
for a particular phase of the wave, and the velocity with which it is transported owing to the
motion of the wave, is called the phase velocity
Group velocity is the velocity with which the envelope enclosing a wave group is called wave
packet, formed due to superimposition of two or more travelling waves of slightly different
wavelengths, is transported. It is the velocity with which the energy transmission occurs in a
wave

Expression for Group velocity (V
g
):
Let us consider two travelling waves of same amplitude, but of slightly different wavelengths
and frequencies. The two waves can be represented by the following two equations.
y
1
= A ..(1)
y
2
= A (2)
where, y
1
and y
2
are the displacement in the directions normal to the direction of propagation at
the instant t
A is the common amplitude is the angular velocities
K and (k+ is the wave numbers
X is the common displacement at the instant t
is the differences in angular velocity and wave numbers
The resultant displacement y due to the superposition of the waves is given by;
Y = y
1
+ y
2

y = A + A (3)
Since (
) (
)
Equation (3) is written as ,(
) (
) - ,(
) (
) -
As the difference in frequency of the two waves is very small because y
1
and y
2
form part of a
group and k terms in the sine part can be neglected as they appear in combination with 2 and 2k
which are quite large compared to these quantities. The same cannot be done in cosine part as these terms
do not appear in combination with 2 and 2k. Hence one can write the above equation as
,(
) (
) - (4)
From a look at the equations (3) and (4) one can conclude that under the approximation
mentioned above, the wave component of the original reference wave and the resultant wave remains the
same while the amplitude changes from A to ,(
) (
) -
The amplitude of the resulting wave is as per the cosine component of equation (4) and it reaches
its maximum when cosine component value becomes 1. That is ,(
) (
) -
,(
) (
) -
From the above equation one can write

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Group velocity (V
g
). Under the limiting case k tending to zero the group velocity V
g
can be written as

------------- (5)

Relation between Phase velocity (V
p
) and Group velocity (V
g
):
Equations for group and phase velocity are given by
V
g
=
and V
p
=

Where is the angular frequency of the wave, and k is the propagation constant.
Therefore, kV
Phase

Therefore, V
g
=
)
=
) (
)..(1)
We know that,

Differentiating we get,

Or (
) (
) .
/
Substituting the above in eqn (1)

)

This is the relation between Phase velocity and Group velocity.

Relation between group velocity(V
g
) and particle velocity
We know
Energy of a photon E = h
or
..(1)
We know
or =
) .. (2)
Further,
) (3)
dividing eqn (2) by (3)
..(4)
We know that, E =
where p is the momentum of the particle.

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Using the above in eqn(4)

But,
where
is the velocity of the particle.

(5)
We know that, group velocity
..(6)
from eqns(5) & (6)

Relation between Velocity of light(c), Group velocity (V
g
) and Phase
velocity(V
p
):
We know that, phase velocity

But,

But,

This is the relation of velocity of light with Phase velocity and Group velocity.

Expression for De-Broglie wavelength (Derivation using Group velocity):

The Group velocity is given by,

, where and

and (
)
Thus
)

This leads to (

writing
(particle velocity)
Or, (

--------(1)
Let m be the mass of the particle, v be its velocity, and E be its total energy. If V is the potential
energy of the particle, then

--------(2)
h where is the frequency of the waves associated with the particle and h is the
Plancks constant.
h
--------(3)
Let the particle be moving in a field of constant potential, that is ,Vis a constant. Thus when
differentiated, eqn (3) becomes

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or,

) --------(4)
from eqns(1) & (4)
(
) (

)
Integrating,

Let the momentum of the particle be p, that is, p= also, postulating that the constant of
integration is zero, we have,

Or,

The above equation is the de Broglies equation.

Characteristics of matter waves:
(1) Matter waves are the waves that are associated with a moving particle. The wavelength
of the wave is given by =

(2) Matter waves are associated with charged as well as uncharged particles. Hence they are
not electromagnetic in nature.
(3) The amplitude of the matter waves at a particular region and time depends on the
probability of finding the particle the same region and time.
(4) Under the limiting case the relation between group velocity and the phase velocity is
given by
, which leads to an interesting observation that matter waves

have the velocity more than that of light. This observation compel one to think that matter
waves are not the waves which can be physically felt but indicate only the probabilistic
nature of these waves.
(5) The velocity associated with the electromagnetic radiation remains constant for all the
wave lengths while the velocity of matter wave differs under different conditions
associated with it.
(6) The wave and the particle properties are not exhibited simultaneously.

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UNIT-2
QUANTUM MECHANICS


Syllabus:
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle and its physical significance (no derivation).
Application of uncertainty principle (Non-existence of electron in the nucleus). Wave
function. Properties and Physical significance of a wave function. Probability density and
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Normalisation of wave function. Setting up of a one dimensional, time
independent, Schrdinger wave equation. Eigen values and eigen function. Application of
Schrdinger wave equation Energy eigen values for a free particle. Energy eigen values of
a particle in a potential well of infinite depth.

The Uncertainty:
It is not possible for Simultaneous measurement of both the position and momentum (two
conjugate variables) of a particle with arbitrarily high precision. If one tries to measure the
position of a particle precisely there is an uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and vice
versa even with sophisticated instruments and technique, it arises from the wave properties
inherent in the quantum mechanical description of nature i.e. the uncertainty is inherent in the
nature.
Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle:
Statement: It is impossible to measure two conjugate quantities simultaneously with
unlimited accuracy. Quantitatively the product of the uncertainties in the values of the two
conjugate quantities must be at least equal to or greater than

Heisenberg's derivation of the uncertainty relations, one starts with a particle moving all
by itself through empty space. To describe thus, one would refer to certain measured properties
of the particle. Four of these measured properties which are important for the uncertainty
principle, are the position, momentum, energy, and the time. These properties appear as
"parameters" in equations that describe the particles motion.
The uncertainty relations may be expressed as

Where,
h Planck's constant
Uncertainty in the position measurement.
Uncertainty in the momentum measurement
Uncertainty in the energy measurement.
Uncertainty in the time measurement at the same time as the energy is measured.
Uncertainty in the angular momentum measurement
Uncertainty in the angle measurement at the same time as the angular momentum is
measured
Applications of Uncertainty Principle:
1. The non-existence of free electron in the nucleus:
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The diameter of nucleus of any atom is of the order of 10
-14
m. If any electron is confined
within the nucleus then the uncertainty in its position () must not be greater than 10
-14
m.
According to Heisenbergs uncertainty principle,

(1)
Where, = 10
-14
m
On substituting the values in eqn(1)

We get
Ns
is being minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron which is equal to the
maximum accurate value of momentum of the electron.
i.e

Ns .(2)
According to the theory of relativity the energy of a particle is given by

.. (3)
Where m
0
is the rest mass of the particle and m is the mass of the particle with velocity v.
Squaring the above equation (2) we get,
. (4)
The momentum p of the body is given by

or

multiplying by

We get,
.(5)
Subtracting eqn(4) by eqn(3)
We get ,

Or
..(6)
Substituting the value of momentum From eqn(2) and the rest mass as 9.11X10
-31
kg
In the eqn(6) we get,
The Kinetic energy of the electron becomes
(6)
]
Since the second term in the bracket is smaller in magnitude compared to the first term it is
neglected.

J
Or
The above value for the kinetic energy indicates that if an electron exist within the nucleus it
must have energy equal to or greater than . But the experimental results on decay show
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that the maximum kinetic energy of an electron is of the order of 3-4 MeV. Therefore the
electrons cannot exist within the nucleus.
Explanation of decay:
When a radioactive nucleus under goes decay a nucleus is formed whose atomic
number increases by one unit but its mass number remains same.
i.e
z
X
A

z+1
Y
A
+
-1
e
0
+
i.e
0
n
1

1
p
1
+
-1
e
0
+
Where n, p, e
-
& represent neutron, proton, electron & neutrino respectively.
An electron is emitted by the nucleus just when this process occurs, is called a -particle.
Kinetic energy of the -particles:
The excess mass of the nucleus is converted in to kinetic energy of the emitted particles
as per Einsteins mass-Energy relation

In decay since proton remains inside the nucleus the
Excess mass converted to energy = kinetic energy of electron + kinetic energy of the neutrino (1)
If an electron are emitted with maximum kinetic energy the accompanying neutrino must
possess minimum kinetic energy, since rest mass of neutrino is zero, the minimum kinetic energy
is almost zero.
Practically it will be the kinetic energy of electron alone which accounts for the excess mass
converted to energy as in eqn(1).
A graph of number of electrons emitted in decay versus kinetic energy possessed by the
emitted electrons is shown in graph.

Number of
-particle
Kinetic energy
2. Kinetic energy of the electron in an atom:
In an atom electrons go round the nucleus in various orbits. Hence, the uncertainty in its
the position could be estimated and with this we can estimate its momentum and also the kinetic
energy of electron.
We take an example of a H-atom in which the kinetic energy of an electron is estimated.
We know that the radius of an H-atom is 0.5.
The maximum uncertainty cannot exceed this value of 0.5.
We can write, 0.5
According to uncertainty principle

Substituting the values,
We get
Kgms
-1

WKT, minimum uncertainty in the momentum of the electron which is equal to the maximum
accurate value of momentum of the electron.
i.e

Kgms
-1

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But kinetic energy of the electron
J
i.e E = 3.8 eV
Actual kinetic energy of an electron in an H-atom is 13.6 eV. However the value of 3.8 eV
estimated on the basis of uncertainty principle, can be considered to be in reasonably good
agreement with the actual value.

Wave function:
The function which describes the nature of matter wave is considered to be wave
function. The concept of wave function was introduced by Schrodinger in the matter wave
equation.
Wave function is a variable whose periodic variations constitute matter wave.
Wave function is represented by
can be either positive, negative or complex. Hence is not a observable quantity. Usually
consists of both real and imaginary parts.
The wave function is a complex quantity and can be written as

Where A and B are real quantities.

Physical significance of Wave function:
(1) Probability density: According to Max born interpretation, the probability of finding the
particle described by the wave function at a point (x,y,z) in space at time t proportional
to the value of ||
. A large value of ||
represents large probability of finding

the particle. The probability of finding the particle is zero at a point only if ||
at
that point.
The probability of finding the particle in a certain volume element dv = dxdydz is ||

which is called the probability density if ||
represents probability.
Thus has no physical significance but ||
gives the probability of finding the atomic

particle in a particular region.
the wave function is called the probability amplitude.
(2) Normalisation: As the particle has to exist somewhere in space, in the total probability
of finding the particle is unity or 1.
i.e,
||

This type of mathematical equation for such condition is called normalization condition.
A wave function which satisfies the above equation is said to be normalized equation.
When the particle is bound to the limited regions the probability of finding at infinite
distance is zero. i.e,
||
is zero at x =

Properties of the wave function:
Physically acceptable wave function should satisfy the following conditions.
(1) is single valued everywhere: As probability is a single valued function, must
also be a single valued function at every point in space.
Example:
f
1
At point x = P, the wave function has three
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f
2
functions f
1
, f
2
and f
3
. .
f
3
Since f
1
f
2
f
3
the probabilities of finding

the particle has three different values at the same
location which is not possible. Hence the wave
P x function is not acceptable.
(2) is finite everywhere:
At x = Q, wave function is not finite. i.e, is
Infinity. Thus it signifies a large probability of
Finding the particle at a single location x = Q
which violates the uncertainity principle. Hence
The wave function becomes unacceptable.
Q x
(3) and its first derivatives with respect to its variable are continuous everywhere:

At x = R, wave function stops at A & restarts at B.
f
1 A
Between A & B wave function is not defined. If it is

f
2
B an acceptable wave function the state of the system
At x = R cannot be ascertained.
R x Also, when is not continues the first and second
derivatives of will not be finite.

(3) For bound state, must vanish at infinity
or ||
must vanish at
Infinity:

Time Independent Schrdinger wave equation:
The general differential equation of a wave travelling in x- direction with velocity v
having the wave function is given by

.(1) (
)
The general solution of the eqn (1) is given by

.. (2)
\Where is the angular frequency,k is the wave number associated with the wave &
is a
constant.
Differentiating eqn(2) with respect to t twice
we get,
(Since i
2
= -1)

Substituting in eqn(1),
We get
(3)
but

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Consider a particle of mass m associated with a de-Broglie wave of wave length and
moving with a group velocity v
g
then

... (4)
If E is the total energy of the particle and V is the potential energy associated with the particle
then
E = KE + V =
V
E =
V (divide & multiply by m)

..(5)
Put eqn(5) in eqn(4)
We get
(6)
Substituting eqn(6) in eqn(3)
eqn(3)
- .. (7)
Equation (7) is the expression for time independent Schrdinger wave equation.

Eigen Values and Eigen functions:
For bound state i.e, a particle confined to a finite region and for single valued, continuous
and finite solutions of Schrdinger wave equation
-
They can be certain definite values of E with boundary conditions. These values of E are the
allowed values of E of a particular system and are said to be Eigen values.
Corresponding to each allowed value of E, ther is one function obtained as solution of the
above equation.
This function is referred as Eigen function.
If is well behaved function, then the operator may operate on in two different ways.
1. The operator operating on the function may change the function in to another
function
i.e,
2. The operator operating on the function may have the function unchanged but with a
complex or a real multiple .. (1)
Where is the real or complex number. In the case the function is called the Eigen function of
the operator the number is called the Eigen value of the operator associated with the Eigen
function
Equation(1) is called an Eigen value equation.

Example:
The Eigen value of an operator can be illustrated considering an operator (
) operting on a
well behaved function
, then the result is

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Comparing this with the above eqn(1), we see that -4 is the Eigen value of operator (
)
associated with the Eigen function

Application of Schrdinger wave equation:
Particle in 1 Dimensional potential well of infinite height:

Consider a particle of mass m moving back and forth along
X direction between the walls of the box. Since the box
has walls of infinite height at x=0 & x=a, the potential
barriers at x=0 & x=a are infinite. The particle has a mass
V V m and its position x at any instant is given by
V=0 The potential energy V of the particle can be assumed to be
Zero between x=0 & x=a.
x = 0 x = a In terms of boundary conditions imposed by the
x problem, the potential function is defined as
V=0 for
V= for
V= for .
The particle cannot exist outside the potential box so its wave function is zero for
. Hence we have to find the value of with in the box i.e, between x=0 & x=a.
The time independent Schrdinger wave equation in 1-D is given by

-
For a particle within the box V = 0

-
Let
. (1)
Or
. (2)
The general solution of the eqn (2) is given by
.. (3)
but

Again,

Here D need not be zero
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


where n = 0,1,2,3.

Substituting c and k in eqn(2),
we get
. (4)
Rearranging eqn(1), we get,

or
. (5)
eqn(4) & eqn(5) are called Energy Eigen function and energy Eigen value of a particle inside the
potential well.

From the above equation it is clear that particle in a box cannot have arbitrary value for its
energy, but it can take values corresponding to n = 1,2,3
When n = 1,
this is called ground state energy or zero point energy (E

0
)
When n = 2,
= 4 E
0
this is called first excited energy state
When n = 3,
= 9 E
0
this is called second excited energy state

Normalization:
The Normalized wave function for a particle in box can be determined by applying
normalization condition, i.e,
|

Substituting for
from eqn(4) we get,

But we know that,
+
Or
)+
= 1

+ = 1

[] = 1

Thus the Normalized wave function of a particle in 1-D infinite potential well is given by
)

Wave functions, probability densities and Energy levels for particle in an
infinite potential well:
The most probable position of a particle in an infinite potential well and energies for
permitted states can be evaluated by Energy Eigen functions and energy Eigen values.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


The general equations for Energy Eigen function and energy Eigen value for a particle is as
follows,

) and

Case (i), n = 1;
This is the ground state and the particle is normally found in this state.
For n = 1, the Eigen function is

) .. (1)
In eqn(1),
for both x=0 & x=a. But
has maximum value for

Also |
for both x=0 & x=a. It is maximum at
it means in the ground state the

particle cannot be found at all at the walls of the well, and the probability of finding it is
maximum at the central region.
Regarding the energy of the particle, the energy of the ground state or zero point energy is given
by

Case (ii), n = 2;
This is the first excited energy state and the particle is normally found in this state.

) .. (2)
In eqn(2),
for x= 0,
& a. But

Also |
for x = 0,
& a. It is maximum at
it means in the first excited energy

state the particle cannot be found either at the walls or at the centre.
Regarding the energy of the particle, the energy of the first excited energy state is given by

Case (ii), n =3;
This is the second excited energy state and the particle is normally found in this state.

) .. (3)
In eqn(3),
for x= 0,
& a. But

Also |
for x = 0,
& a. It is maximum at
it means in the second

excited energy state the particle is most likely to be found in these locations.
Regarding the energy of the particle, the energy of the second excited energy state is given by

A plot of versus x and ||
versus x for above three cases is shown in the below graph

n=3
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


E
3
=9E
0
|

n=2

E
2
=4E
0
||

n=1

E
1
=E
0
|

x=0
x=a x=0 x=a

x x

Energy Eigen values for a free particle:
Free particle is not under the influence of any kind of field or force. Thus it has zero
potential i.e, V = 0.
Hence Schrdinger wave equation becomes
-
WKT, in the case of a particle in a infinite potential well the condition V = 0 holds good only
over a finite width a and outside this region V = .
Since for a free particle V = 0 holds good everywhere, we can extent the case of a particle
in a infinite potential well to the free particles case, by treating the width of the well to be
infinity i.e, a =
WKT, the equation for Energy Eigen values for a particle in a infinite potential well is

(1)
where n = 1,2,3
rearranging eqn(1) we get

here for particle with constant energy E but confined in the well n depends on a. Hence as
, . In the limiting case when a = , the particle is no more confined in any sort of
well but free, at which time it also follows that n= , which means a free particle can have any
any energy i.e, the Energy Eigen values are infinite in number.
the permitted energy values are continuous and there is no discreetness in the allowed energy
values of there is no quantization of energy. Thus a free particle is a classical entity.

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


UNIT-5
LASERS


Syllabus:
Principle and production. Einsteins coefficients (expression for energy
density). Requisites of a Laser system. Condition for Laser action. Principle,
Construction and working of He-Ne and semiconductor Laser. Applications of Laser
Laser welding, cutting and drilling. Measurement of atmospheric pollutants. Holography
Principle of Recording and reconstruction of 3-D images. Selected applications of
holography.

Introduction:
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Laser was
invented by T Maiman in 1965. Production of laser light is a consequence of interaction of
radiation with matter which may be explained by considering energy levels of matter or a
quantized system.
Ex: Consider a simple quantized systems which has two energy levels of energies E
1
and E
2

E
2
N
2
Here N
1
& N
2
represents number of atoms present in the
ground state and excited state, which in turn called
E
1
N
1
Number density or population of the respective levels.
At thermal equilibrium the population of these levels may be defined by Boltzmann law
i.e,
and

Where k Boltzmanns constant
T Absolute temperature
E
1
& E
2
Energies of

ground state and excited states
Therefore the relative population of the system is given by

here

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Radiation interact with such a system in terms of transitions, it may be from higher level to lower
level and vice versa.
According to Max Planck only those radiations whose frequency is equal to
can
interact with matter. i.e, for a radiation
where h is Plancks constant.

There are three ways with which interaction of radiation and matter takes place.
1.Absorption:
In this process the system absorbs the incident radiation (photon) in its ground
state E
1
and moves to upper (higher) energy level E
2
, provided the photon energy is h or

E
2
E
2

E = h
E
1
E
1

The energies of the levels can be written as
E
1
+ h E
2

In such a condition the atom is said to have made transition to the higher energy level and is
indicated as atom*.
i.e, atom + photon atom*.

2.Spontaneous emission:
When an atom in its excited energy state E
2
makes a transition to the ground state E
1
on
its own, without any external agency, it emits a photon of energy h or
This is known as
spontaneous emission of radiation.
E
2
E
2

E = h

E
1
E
1

The energies of the levels can be written as
E
2
- h E
1

In such a condition the atom is said to have made transition to the ground energy level and is
indicated as atom.
i.e., atom* - photon atom.
The photon may be emitted in any direction. Two such photons which are spontaneously emitted
by two atoms under identical conditions may not have any phase similarities and also they are
not in same direction and hence that are incoherent.

3.Stimulated emission:
If a photon having energy h interacts with an atom in the energy state E
2
, the photon
stimulates or forces the atom to undergo transition to ground state E
1
giving raise to another
photon of the same energy h or
this process is known as stimulated emission.

E
2
E
2

E = h E = 2h

E
1
E
1

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


In such a condition the atom is said to have made transition to the ground energy level
and is indicated as atom.
i.e, atom* atom + (photon + photon)

The emitted photon has the same phase wavelength, direction and polarization as that of
the stimulating photon. Hence the light produced by stimulated emission is coherent.

RELATION BETWEEN EINSTEINS COEFFICIENTS AND EXPRESSION
FOR ENERGY DENSITY:
Consider a system of atoms having ground state energy state E
1
and excited state energy
E
2
with number densities N
1
& N
2
respectively.
If photons of frequency
are incident on the system of atoms there will be induced

absorption. The rate of absorption of photons will be proportional to the number density N
1
of
the atoms in ground state and the energy density E
in the wavelength range +d of incident

radiation,
The rate of absorption N
1
E

The rate of absorption = B
12
N
1
E

Where B
12
is a constant known as Einsteins co-efficient of induced absorption.
Atoms in excited state E
2
can come down to ground state either through spontaneous emission or
through stimulated emission of radiation. In the case of spontaneous emission, the rate of
transition of atoms from E
2
to E
1

does not depend on the energy density of the incident radiation
and is proportional only to the number density of atoms in the excited state i.e.,
Rate of spontaneous emission N
2

The rate of spontaneous emission = A
21
N
2

Where A
21
is a constant known as Einsteins co-efficient of spontaneous emission.
In the case of stimulated emission, a photon of frequency
is required to stimulate the

atoms. Hence the rate of stimulated emission is proportional to the energy density E
and the
number density N
2
of the atoms in the excited energy state E
2
i.e.,
Rate of stimulated emission N2 E

The rate of stimulated emission = B
21
N
2
E

Where B
21
is a constant known as Einsteins co-efficient of stimulated emission.
In a state of thermal equilibrium , the rate of transition of atoms from E
1
to E
2
must be
equal to the total rate of transition from E
2
to E
1
.
The rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + rate of stimulated emission
B
12
N
1
E

= A
21
N
2
+ B
21
N
2
E

Deviding each term by N
1
,we get
B
12
E

= A
21

+ B
21

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


)(
)
1
From Maxwell-Boltzmann law,

]
Comparing above eqn with the energy density eqn from Plancks law of black body radiation
E
d =
1

d
We get,
------------(1)
And

------------(2)
Equation (1) indicates that the probability of induced absorption is same as the probability of
stimulated emission.
From Equation (2),

For large
. As
for large energy difference between the ground staste and

excited state, the probability of spontaneous emission is much larger than the the probability of
stimulated emission.

REQUISITES OF LASER SYSTEM

1.EXCITATION SOURCE FOR PUMPING: Pumping is the process of supplying energy to
the laser medium with a view to transfer into the state of population inversion.
There are different pumping techniques like,
Optical pumping (a light source such as a flash discharge tube is used to illuminate the active
medium) e.g.; solid-state lasers.
Electrical discharge method (the electric field cause ionization of the medium & raises it to the
excited state) e.g.; He-Ne laser, argon laser etc.,
Direct conversion method (conversion of electrical energy into light energy takes place) eg;
semiconductor diode laser.

2. ACTIVE MEDIUM: in a laser medium only a small fractions of atoms of a particular type
have energy levels suitable for achieving population inversion. such atoms can produce more
stimulated emission than spontaneous emission and cause amplification of light hence these
atoms are called active centers. The rest of the medium acts as host and supports active centers.
The medium hosting the active centers is called an active medium or this is the medium which
when excited reaches the state of population inversion and promotes stimulated emissions
leading to light amplification.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


3. LASER CAVITY:

A pair of optically plane parallel mirrors and an active medium constitutes laser cavity.
One of these mirrors is fully reflecting and the other is made partially reflecting such that more
than 90% of incident light is reflected from it and a small fraction is transmitted through it as
laser beam.
Functions of laser cavity:
i) it provides a positive feedback of light into the lasing medium.
ii) it sets an optic axis as the most favorable direction for buildup of light beam.
iii) the reflective mirrors constituting the cavity confine more than 90% of the emitted photons to
be within the laser medium such that a very high optical energy density is always present in the
lasing medium.
iv) Standing wave pattern (constructive interference) is possible if the chosen length of the cavity
is an integral number of half wavelengths.
i.e., L=m
where m is an integer >0

the cavity is said to be resonant at wavelengths,

CONDITIONS OF LASER MEDIUM

1.POPULATION INVERSION: it is the non equilibrium state of a system at which the
population of the higher energy state is more than that of a lower energy state i.e.,

Population inversion is achieved by choosing metastable levels whose life period is greater than
normal higher energy levels (10
-3
S).

E
2
N
2

E
M

E
1
N
1

Example: Let us consider a system which has two energy levels E
1
& E
2
here N
1
& N
2
defines
populations of the two levels. From E
2
to E
1
spontaneous emission is possible because of less life
period (10
-9
S).If we choose a level E
M
which is known as meta stable level then more number of
atoms accumulate at this level for a longer time because of greater life period and hence we can
achieve population inversion between E
M
& E
1
levels that results in stimulated emission.

2. METASTABLE STATE:
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


The energy levels whose life period is unusually long, compared to normal energy levels
are called meta stable states. Atoms excited to metastable state remain there for an
appreciable time which of the order of 10
-6
S to 10
-3
S which is 10
3
to 10
6
times the life
times of the normal energy levels.
Example: same as above explanation along with diagram.

HELIUM NEON LASER:

Construction: It consists of a discharge tube with a diameter of 1 to 1.5 cm and of length 1m.
the tube is filled with a mixture of He-Ne gases in the ration 10:1. Brewsters windows are sealed
to the tube at both of its ends in order to get a plane polarized beam. Two optically plane mirrors
are fixed on either side of the tube out of which one is completely silvered and other is partially
silvered so that some of the incident laser beam could be trapped by transmission.

Working: in He-Ne laser Ne atoms energy levels are suitable for laser action hence they are the
active centers & the pumping technique involved is electric discharge method.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


When a voltage of about 1000V is applied across the two electrodes, a glow discharge of the
gases is initiated in the tube. During discharge many electrons are rendered free from the gas
atoms. These free electrons accelerate towards anode at which time they begin colliding with He
atoms in their path since He is the majority gas present. This kind of collision is called 1
st
kind
collision where the He atoms are excited to the two energy levels 2
1
S &2
3
S which are metastable
states for helium. This process can be written as,
e
1
+He e
2
+ He*
Where e
1
& e
2
are the energy values of the electrons before and after the collision and He & He*
are the helium atoms in the ground and excited states. Since 2
1
S &2
3
S are metastable states, the
atoms remain there for a relatively long time, which leads to an increase of population in each of
them.
Now, for neon gas there is a close coincidence in energy between two of its excited states
designated as 3s and 2s with the two metastable states 2
1
S & 2
3
S of the He atoms. Because of the
matching of energy levels resonant energy transfer takes place from helium to neon atoms. As a
result, the neon atoms get elevated to the 3s and 2s states, whereas the helium atoms return to the
ground state. This type of collision is called 2
nd
kind collision which can be represented as,
He*+Ne He+ Ne*
Where Ne and Ne* are the neon atoms in the ground and excited states.
Thus the population of 3s & 2s levels of neon increases rapidly which leads to population
inversion and also three main types of transitions become available between higher states to
lower ones.
1. Transition from 3s to 3p level gives rise to radiation of wavelength 33912 which is in
infrared region.
2. Transition from 3s to 2p level gives rise to radiation of wavelength 6328 which is in
visible region.
3. Transition from 2s to 2p level gives rise to radiation of wavelength 11523 which is also
in infrared region.
Fallowing the 3 transitions described earlier, the atoms from 3p and 2p levels undergo
spontaneous transitions to 1s level. But, 1s level is a metastable state for neon, because of which
its population increases rapidly. This in turn adversely affects the population inversion
conditions for 3s & 2s levels. This problem is counteracted by considering the collision of 1s
level atoms with the walls of the container.
Thus starting from the stage of excitation of helium atoms to the stage of neon atoms coming to
the ground state, the cycle works continuously and hence He-Ne laser is referred to as a
continuous- wave laser.

Energy level diagram:
Resonant energy transfer

Metastable 3S
2
1
S 20.61 eV 20.66 eV
3.39m

2
3
S Metastable 2S 6328
19.82 eV 19.78 eV
1.15m 3P

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Excitation of atoms due to 2P
To electron collision Spontaneous emission
1S Metastable
Neon atoms return to ground
state by collision with walls of
the tube

HELIUM (GROUND LEVEL) NEON

SEMICONDUCTOR DOIDE LASER(GALLIUM ARSENIDE LASER):

+ VE

P- type
Voltage LASER
Source
N- type
pn- junction
- VE

Construction: The Gallium Arsenide laser diode is a single crystal of GaAs, and consists of
heavily doped n & p regions. n section is formed by doping with tellurium whereas the p section
is obtained by doping with zinc. The overall size of the diode is very small and each of its sides
is of the order of 1mm. the p-n junction has a width varying from 1m to 100m. A pair of
parallel planes are cleaved or polished so that they act as reflecting mirrors. The other two sides
perpendicular to the junction are roughened to suppress reflections of the photons, so that they
will not develop any lasing. The end surfaces of the p and n sections parallel to the plane of the
junction are provided with electrodes in order to facilitate application of a forward bias voltage
with the help of a voltage source.
working: According to the energy band diagram of a heavily doped pn-junction (without bias)
due to very high doping on n side, the donor levels are broadened and extend into the conduction
band. The Fermi level is also pushed into the conduction band. Electrons occupy the portion of
the conduction band lying below the Fermi level. Similarly, on the heavily doped p side the
Fermi level lies within the valence band and holes occupy the portion of the valence band lies
above the Fermi level. At thermal equilibrium the Fermi level is uniform across the junction.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


When the junction is forward biased by applying suitable voltage the electrons are injected from
the n type region and holes are injected from the p type region into the junction. A current begins
to flow and at low forward current level, the electron-hole recombination causes spontaneous
emission of photons and the junction acts as an LED.
As the forward current trough the junction is increased the intensity of the light increases
linearly. However, when the current reaches a threshold value the carrier concentrations in the
junction will rise to a very high value. As a result the conduction band or the upper energy levels
are having a high electron population while the valence band or the lower energy levels are
vacant. Therefore the condition of population inversion is attained in the narrow junction region
which is then named as inversion or active region. At this stage, a photon released by a
spontaneous emission may trigger stimulated emissions over a large number of recombinations
leading to the buildup of laser radiation of high power (around 9000 ).
Energy level diagram:

E
C

E
V

E
F

E
F

E
C

p-type n-type E
V

depletion
region

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER:

1.Directionality: In laser ,the active medium is in a cylindrical laser cavity. Any light that is
travelling in a direction other than parallel to the cavity axis is eliminated and only the light that
is travelling parallel to the cavity axis is selected and reinforced. Light propagating along the
axial direction emerges from the cavity and becomes the laser beam. Thus, a laser emits light
only in one direction.
2.Monochromaticity: If light coming from a source has only one frequency(single wavelength)
of oscillation, the light is said to be monochromatic and the source a monochromatic source.
Light from traditional monochromatic sources spreads over a wavelength range of 100 to 1000
. On the oter hand, the light from lasers is highly monochromatic and contains a very narrow
range of a few angstroms (< 10 ).
3.Coherence: If the phase difference between different wave fronts of the propagating light is
maintained same then the light is said to be highly coherent.
There are two types of coherence, namely a) temporal coherence and b) spatial coherence.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Temporal coherence is the correlation of the phase characteristics of the propagating light waves
at the same reference plane located in their path, but at different instants.
Spatial coherence is the correlation of the phase characteristics of the propagating light waves
at different points in space at the same instant of time.
4. Light intensity: Because of the phase
correlation that exits continually between the
photons issued from a laser source, the laser light is
highly intense.
5. Focussability: Since laser light is highly
monochromatic and also a highly collimated beam, it
can be brought to a sharp focus by a lens. However,
because of diffraction effects the beam cannot come
exactly to a point focus but will be focused over a
spot.

APPLICATIONS OF LASERS:
Lasers find variety of applications in various fields due to their properties which are
much different from the ordinary light. Few applications like laser welding, cutting, drilling,
measurement of pollutants in the atmosphere and holography are discussed here.
LASER DRILLING:
In case of a conventional drilling a drill bit is held to the specimen with large amount of force
between them apart from the force used to hold the drilling machine and the specimen. This
brings about large amount of mechanical friction and hence most of the energy gets wasted in
producing of heat, sound and other energies. The heat energy produced creates an uneven
distribution and in the process either the specimen gets distorted or spoiled hence, proper
lubricant is essential. Apart from this the specimen also puts the force on the drill bit resulting in
to deformation of drill bit. This leads to non-uniform drills created by the same drill bit. Apart
from this if the drill is needed to be very small in diameter then having a drill bit with high
mechanical strength of that size becomes impossible but in the todays world of miniaturization
thus becomes essential. These practical problems can be overcome by using high power lasers as
there is no mechanical contact between the laser and the specimen and the highly directional
laser can also be concentrated on a narrow space. Drilling can be done at any angle and through
very hard and brittle materials. However the drilling through lasers needs a high precession both
in space and time. Typical drilling through laser is as described below.
High energetic pulses of 10
-4
to 10
-3
s duration are made to fall on the material. The heat
generated due to these pulses evaporates the material locally, thus a hole will be been formed.
Nd-YAG laser is used for metals and the CO
2
laser is used for metallic and non-metallic
materials. The pulsed laser exposure is controlled through a time controller, as any variation in
this will result in not only the variation in depth but also in width. Further, to avoid accumulation
of molten metal in the drill a high-pressure inert gas preferably argon gas is passed. A typical
schematic diagram is shown in figure. The drills created through Lasers are highly uniform.
Since lasers can be concentrated on a small space very small drills can be created.

LASER WELDING:
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Laser welding plays very important role to reduce the roughness of the melted surface,
eliminate mechanical effects and to limit the heat effected area in the material. Laser welding are
generally used for welding multilayer in which the thermal properties differ at interfaces.
Compared to the other types of welding such as arc welding and
electron beam welding the laser welding is more efficient because
it is contact less process, does not destruct the material and the
structure remains homogeneous. The laser welding process is as
explained below.
The laser beam is focused on to the material as shown in
the figure at a particular point at which the junction is to be
formed between the two layers. Because of high intensity of the
beam falling over a smaller region generates lot of heat energy which melts the material within
that small region. When the temperature of the material is reduced the molten part of the material
solidifies and makes a stronger joint.

LASER CUTTING:
Laser beam is made to concentrate at a point and the specimen is moved with a uniform
speed. This creates molten state in the metal. Repeating this movement to and fro for number of
times the depth is made to go on increasing and ultimately the whole of the specimen can be cut.
Since laser can be concentrated on a very small space and the surface energy is very smooth the
cutting becomes uniform. This cutting through laser light is facilitated using high pressure
oxygen so that the efficiency becomes better. This also helps in high uniform cutting. The
combination of this system with the programmed robot will give a better control over the whole
process. Coupling the laser with NC machine will make the three dimensional cutting possible.
Surface after cutting will be very smooth and hence no polishing is required. A typical schematic
laser cutting diagram is presented in figure.

MEASUREMENT OF POLLUTANTS IN THE
ATMOSPHERE:
Of all the pollutions the air pollution in the
atmosphere is considered to be the most hazardous which
basically results from the creation of dust, smoke, flash etc.
These pollutants are in the size of nano meters. The challenge
here is not only the size of the particle but also the very less
quantity of pollutant. The conventional method of Chemical
analysis fails because of the less quantity and the practical
limitations in the measurement of quantity accurately. The
other method of quantitative analysis is through the spectroscopic analysis which depends on
Kirchhoffs law which states that a material which has a capability to emit certain wavelengths at
higher temperatures also has the capacity to absorb the same wavelength at lower temperatures.
These wavelengths are the characteristic of that particular material and the amount of absorption
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that happens at lower temperature is directly proportional to the concentration of the material.
This is achieved usually by making a continuous light to fall on the substance known as
Absorption technique. By measuring the absorption and the wavelength the quantitative and
qualitative analysis of the elements present are done.
But in case of air pollution the quantity is so small that even this method finds it difficult
to identify using an ordinary light source. Thus to achieve the accuracy, lasers are used as a
source of light because of their important properties like monochromatic, high radiation density
and highly concentrated energy so that it can even interact with the smallest percentage of
element present in the atmosphere. Pollutants can also be identified using Raman Back-scattering
method. In this method the laser light is made to pass through the sample and the spectrum is
recorded for the transmitted light. As the laser is a monochromatic source the spectrum is
expected to give single intense line corresponding to the frequency of laser light. But also it
consists of several lines very close to the intense line on either side of it. It is because of Raman
scattering. These spectral lines are called side bands. The side bands in the Raman spectrum
observed at certain frequencies correspond to oscillating frequency of the molecule plus or minus
the incident frequency. Each molecule has different oscillating frequency and hence the different
molecules produce side bands at different frequencies. With the help of these side bands one can
find the type of pollutant present in the sample.

HOLOGRAPHY
When a photograph of an object is taken all that we see is the amplitude variation but no
path difference. This leads to a two dimensional view. In view of this, there is a necessity that a
technique has to be developed, such that when photograph is taken it should have the information
about amplitude variation and path difference between the two points. This is what is known as
Holography. The information about the path difference between the two points is nothing but the
information regarding the phase difference between the two rays coming from two different
points, That is, to have a holography what that we need is the information regarding amplitude
variation and phase variation. The only experiment which can give us both these information is
an interference experiment and hence the techniques of holography has to essentially depend
upon the interference phenomena.
In principle holography can be had using multiple wave lengths of source but a single
color will give a better information regarding the phase difference and hence use of
monochromatic source of light is preferable. Hence, a laser as a source becomes very important
in holography because not only it is monochromatic but also it has both the phase and temporal
coherence.
PRINCIPLE
The idea of recording the whole information (Holography) of a three dimensional objects
on a two dimensional photographic film was conceived by Dennis Gabor in the year 1948. The
principle is, superimposing the wave that is scattered by the object with another coherent wave
called reference wave. These two waves produce the interference pattern on the recording
medium which is the characteristic of the object. This is known as recording process. The
interference pattern which was recorded consists of amplitude distribution and the phase of the
waves scattered from the object hence it is called hologram.

Construction of a hologram and reconstruction of the image are as explained below.
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Consider two coherent waves P and Q are
made to fall on the photographic plate with different
angles of incidence as shown in the Figure.
Superposition of these two waves results in
interference fringes on the photographic plate which
can be observed after developing the film. These
fringes carry the information regarding phase and
intensity of the beam.

If once again the coherent waves P and Q are made to fall on the film at the same
positions then these waves pass through fringe pattern and the waves P
/
and Q
/
can be observed
from the transmission side these waves appear as if they are the continuation of the waves P and
Q respectively (Figure).

If one of the incident waves say Q is blocked and only one
wave P is made to fall on the film. This wave gets diffracted by
the fringes that are present on the film and the emergent wave gets
split in to two parts. One of the part gets deviated from its path and
emerges as if it is the continuation wave Q (Q
/
) which is not
present there and the other part emerges as P
/
Figure 16. In this
way in holography, the arrangement is done to get one of the
coherent waves reflected from the object called object beam on to
the photographic plate when the reference beam is made to
incident directly on the photographic plate in the same
position as explained above. The reference beam gets
diffracted by the hologram and produces secondary
wavelets. These secondary wavelets superimpose on
each other and produce maxima in certain directions
and generate a real and virtual images of the object. On
the transmission side one can view the real image and
on the other side virtual image of a three dimensional
object Figure.

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RECORDING:
Recording of the image of an object can be done in two ways
(i) wave front division technique and
(ii) Amplitude division technique
In both the techniques the object and a mirror are placed one next to the other as shown in figure.
The expanded laser beam is then directed on this arrangement in which a part of the laser beam is
incident on the mirror and the rest is incident on the object. A photographic plate is placed in
such a position that it receives the light reflected from both the mirror and the object. The part of
the light reflected from the mirror and is incident on the photographic plate will be in the form of
plane wave fronts and this is called the reference beam.
When laser is incident on an object every point on
the
object scatters the incident light all around. Due to such
a scattering spherical wave fronts proceed from each

point on the object, a part of each of which will be
incident
on the photographic plate and this is called the object
beam.
The photo sensitive surface responds to the resultant effect
of interference between the spherical wavelets of the
GABOR ZONE PLATE
object beam and the plane waves of the reference beam.
Thus the interference effect is recorded on the plate and it
consists of concentric circular rings or zones that mark
successive regions of constructive and destructive
interference. The ring pattern is called Gabor Zone Plate
pattern.

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE IMAGE:
When the reference beam is made to incident directly on the photographic plate in the same
position as explained above. The reference beam gets diffracted by the hologram and produces
secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets superimpose on each other and produce maxima
in certain directions and generate a real and virtual images of the object. On the transmission side
one can view the real image and on the other side virtual image of a three dimensional object.

Since the beam is incident on the entire hologram each and every zone plate participates in this
process to regenerate both a real and virtual image of the object point by point.
APPLICATIONS
1. HOLOGRAPHIC
INTERFEROMETRY.
The one of the important testing
process is non destructive testing of
specimen which basically depends upon
interferometric methods. The nature of
holographic process to give objective
analysis of a specimen when illuminated
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with a reconstruction wave allows us to have interference leading to a method called double
exposure holographic interferometry. This uses the photographic process between the object
wave and a reference wave of a specimen which is under stress alternatively to create a
hologram. The holograms so created give us two object waves when illuminated with
reconstructive wave, the first one for an unstressed object and the other one for the stressed
object. When these are overlapped again they gives us the interference pattern leading to the
information about the qualitative and quantitative stress distribution. Since interference is
involved in the whole process the slightest variation in the stress distribution can be
analyzed.
There is another type of holography known as variant holography which gives us what is
known as real time interferometry in which a hologram is formed of an unstrained object and
the image produced by the hologram is superimposed on the reconstructed object of a
strained specimen. If the object undergoes any strain, fringes will be formed and this can be
studied as function of time. Such type of studies is used in study of vibrating objects like
musical instruments etc.
2. MICROSCOPY
The very principle of holography which involves the measurement of path variation
gives us a tool in which depth measurements are involved of microscopic level which are
constant or transient in nature. The ordinary microscopic studies involving interference can
be used for non transient variations but are inadequate for transient microscopic event.
Therefore to study the transient phenomena in a certain volume hologram comes as handy
which is recorded over a time and event and can be studied later through a hologram as it is
frozen in this dynamic holography. Such studies can be utilized in the analysis of cloud
chamber, rocket engine and aerosols etc.
3. CHARACTER RECOGNITION
This is used in optical image in which the recognition of a character is essential. This
involves what is known as cross correlation of character and image, the difference of which
is measured through holography process.
4. PRODUCTION OF HOLOGRAPHIC DIFFRACTION GRATINGS.
Two laser beams one as reference and another as a sample having a constant phase
difference are superimposed such that they produce interference. The laser source used will
be plane polarized and hence alternatively bright and dark lines of uniform thickness will be
formed. Using this, holograms are produced which are nothing but diffraction gratings. Such
a uniform formation of gratings is impossible as all other methods involve mechanical
approach which needs a very high control.
5. INFORMATION CODING
In the present era of quantum computing which involves optical coding requires the
information to be stored in a compact space and in more secured manner. This is achieved
through virtual storage of information through a hologram. The information can be
reconstructed and acquired through this hologram.

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UNIT-5
SUPER CONDUCTIVITY AND OPTICAL FIBERS


Syllabus:
Introduction to Super conductivity, Concept of critical temperatures & critical field,
effect of magnetic field. Miessner effect, Type-1 & Type-2 Super conductors & their
applications. BCS theory, Concept of cooper pair &their motion in the lattice. High
temperature superconductors Applications: Maglev vehicle, SQUID, Super conducting
magnets. Problems. Introduction to Optical fibers, Total internal reflection, Critical angle,
structure of Optical fiber, Concept of numerical aperture, Expression for numerical
aperture Propagation mechanism in Optical fibers. Acceptance angle, condition for
propagation, V number. Types of Optical fibers (a) Step index (b) Graded index, Modes of
transmission (1) Single mode (2) Multi mode. Attenuation mechanism, attenuation
coefficient. Applications: Block diagram discussion for point- to-point communication.
Problems on Optical fibers.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION TO SUPERCONDUCTIVITY:
The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drops
to zero below a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called Superconductivity and the
threshold temperature is called critical temperature.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:
All metals are good conductors of electricity. These conductors have loosely bound electrons in
their outermost shells. These electrons are known as free electrons.
During the flow of current in a metal, the electrons leave the atoms to which they were bound to
and move in a general direction i.e., the fields direction. Because of the loss of electrons, the
atoms become positive ionic cores. Due to the thermal excitation, the atoms will always be
oscillating about fixed positions in the framework of the metal i.e., lattice. These vibrations are
called lattice vibrations.
The resistance of a metal to the flow of current is caused by the scattering of the conduction
electrons by the lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases, the amplitude of the lattice
vibrations also increases there by increasing the resistance. The resistance decreases with
temperature and reaches a minimum value at T=0K. The residual resistance at T=0K is due to the
impurities in the metal.
The variation is expressed by the Matthissens rule,

Where is the resistivity of the given metal
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is the residual resistivity

is the temperature dependent part of resistivity.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a Superconductor:
The resistance of a superconductor in the non-superconducting state decreases with decrease in
the temperature as in the case of a normal metal up to a particular temperature T
c
. At T
c
,the
resistance abruptly drops to zero. T
c
is called the critical temperature and signifies the transition
from normal state to the super conducting state of the material under study. The critical
temperature is different for different superconductors.
Ex: Mercury loses its resistance completely and turns into a superconductor at 4.2K.
BCS Theory of Superconductivity:
According to the BCS Theory an electron moving through crystal lattice creates a slight
distortion in the lattice. This is because of the coulomb forces between the negatively charged
electrons and the positively charged lattice. If this distortion persists for a long time then a
passing electron can be affected by it. The effect of this phenomenon is that current is carried in
a superconductor not by individual electrons but by bound pair of electrons called cooper pairs.
The BCS theory is based on a wave function in which all the electrons are paired. The interaction
between one of the electrons in a pair and the lattice does not affect the total momentum of a
cooper pair. As a result the flow of electrons continues indefinitely.
The lattice vibrations are quantized in terms of phonons. Therefore the process described above
can be called as electron-lattice-electron interaction via the phonon field. During this interaction
there is a reduction of energy. The interaction between two electrons may be considered to be a
case of attraction between the two. Cooper has shown that the attractive force between the two
electrons is a maximum when the two electrons have equal and opposite spins and opposite
momentum. At temperatures below the critical temperature the attractive force between the two
electrons will exceed the force of repulsion. This leads to the formation of Cooper pairs. a
Cooper pairs can be defined as a pair of electrons bound together by the interaction between two
electrons with opposite spins and opposite momentum in a phonon field.
When the electrons flow in a material in the form of cooper pairs they do not encounter
scattering the resistance factor simply vanishes the conductivity becomes infinity the result is
superconductivity.

Meissner Effect:
A superconducting material kept in a magnetic field expels the magnetic flux out of its body
when it is cooled below the critical temperature and thus becomes perfect diamagnetic. This
effect is called Meissner Effect.
Consider a superconducting material above its critical temperature a primary coil and a
secondary coil are wound on the material. The primary is connected to a battery and a plug key
K. the secondary coil is connected to the ballistic galvanometer. When the key K is pressed the
primary circuit is closed and the current flows through the primary coil which sets up a magnetic
field in it. The magnetic flux immediately links with the secondary coil. This amounts to a
change in flux across the secondary coil and hence a momentary a current is drawn through the
BG which shows the deflection. Since the primary current is steady the magnetic flux will also
become steady and the flux linkage with the secondary becomes constant as there is no further
change in the flux linkage in the secondary coil ,the current will no more be driven in the
secondary circuit. Now the temperature of the superconductor is decreased gradually as soon as
the temperature croses below the critical temperature the BG suddenly shows the deflection
indicating that the flux linkage with the secondary coil has changed.
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Critical Field:
The strength of the magnetic field required to just switch a material from superconducting state
to normal state is called critical field.
Temperature dependence of resistivity of Critical feild:
If T is the temperature of the superconducting material, T
c
is the critical temperature, H
c
is the
critical field and H
0
is the field required to turn the superconductor to a normal conductor at 0K ,
then the relation for critical field is given by ,
)--------------- (1)
Under the influence of a magnetic field whose strength is greater than
, the material can now

become superconducting however low the temperature may be.
Types of superconductors:
Type I superconductors(soft superconductors)
Type I superconductors is perfectly diamagnetic in the super conducting state. It possesses a
negative magnetic moment.
Immediately after the applied magnetic field H exceeds the critical field H
C
the material
loses its diamagnetic property and becomes normal. The magnetic flux will penetrate throughout
the body. The resistance of the material rises from zero to a value as applicable to a normal
conductor. The critical field of Type I superconductors is very low. The low Hc value excludes
them from being used for applications.

Type II superconductors(hard superconductors)
Type II superconductors has two critical magnetic fields. When the applied magnetic field
strength is less than the critical value
the magnetic flux is completely expelled from the body

and the body behaves like a perfect diamagnetic. When the field strength cxceeds
the
magnetic flux partially fills the body. As the field is increased more and more of the flux
penetrates the body. The diamagnetic property of the material gradually decreases. When the
field strength exceeds the second critical value
the flux fills the body completely. The

diamagnetic property vanishes and the body becomes a normal conductor. Between the lower
critical field
and the upper critical field
the material is said to be in a mixed state called

the Vortex state. In this state there is a flux penetration but the material retains the zero
resistance. Hence it is still a super conductor in this state. As the field increases the body
becomes a normal conductor. The upper critical field
is many more times the lower critical

field
hence they find use in the buildup of devices which work in high magnetic fields such
as super conducting magnets.

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High Temperature super conductors:
The High Temperature super conductors are also called as High T
C
materials. All high
temperature super conductors are different types of oxides of copper and have a particular type
of crystal structure called perovskite crystal structure. The critical temperature is higher for those
which have more number of copper-oxygen layers in the structure unit.in 1986,an oxide of
lanthanum, barium and copper was observed to have a critical temperature of 36K. in 1987 an
oxide of yttrium , barium and copper was found to have a critical temperature of 90K and then an
oxide of Thallium,barium,calcium and copper was found to have a critical temperature of 120K.
the main future of these high temperature superconductors is the presence of parallel sheets of
cuo
2
. efforts are going on to find superconductors with critical temperatures near room
temperature.

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UNIT-7
CRYSTAL STRUCTURES


I ntroduction
The crystal structure (arrangement of atoms) can be thoroughly understood because
solids have specific properties which depend on the structure. The materials are generally
classified into (i) solids, (ii) liquids and (iii) gases. Solids are further classified into Crystalline
and Non-Crystalline (Amorphous) solids depending on the arrangement of atoms. If the atoms
are arranged periodically throughout the solid then it is said to be crystalline otherwise it is said
to be non crystalline solid.
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The atoms / molecules are electrically neutral. But when atoms or molecules are brought closer
together, a repulsive force operates between the similar charges in the atoms or molecules. An
attractive force operates between the dissimilar charges. The ultimate force, holding the particles
together in solids, is the resultant of attractive and repulsive forces (figure 1)

A
t
t
r
a
c
t
i
v
e

f
o
r
c
e

R
e
p
u
l
s
i
v
e

f
o
r
c
e

r
0

Inter atomic/inter molecular distance
r
0
= the equilibrium distance between atoms or molecules
Figure 1
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There appears at least distance, at which the particle cluster is the most stable. This minimum distance
between the particles is the equilibrium distance (r
0
). The arrangement of particles in crystals is decided
by the nature of bond between the particles and the value of the equilibrium distance. The atoms /
molecules in the solids are held together either by (1) Ionic bonds, (2) Covalent bonds, (3) Metallic
bonds or (4) Molecular bonds.

Crystal Structure: In 1848, A French crystallographer Bravais was the first person to
introduce the concept of space lattice (which is a mathematical concept) to describe the crystal
structures.

SPACE LATTICE: A space lattice can be generated by putting infinite number of points in space in such a
way that the arrangement of points about a given point is same as at any other point. Each lattice point
represents the location of an atom or particular group of atoms of the crystal. Intersection of any two
lines in the figure 2 is a lattice point.

Figure 2

Basis: A set of an identical atom/s which is correlated to lattice points is called basis.
Crystal structure: A crystal structure is formed when the basis is substituted in the space lattice
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i.e. Lattice + Basis = Crystal structure (figure3).

Bravais Lattice: The Bravais Lattice has infinite number of lattice points in it. If a set of identical
atoms / molecules are substituted in the space lattice then the lattice is said to be Bravais lattice. The
surroundings of any atom/molecule is same as any other atom/molecule in the lattice. Otherwise it is
said to be non-Bravais lattice. Below are the some figures representing both Bravais lattice and non-
Bravais lattices.

+
=
Lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure
Figure 3
+
=
Fig 4(a)
Bravais Lattice

/
+
=
Fig. 4(b)
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BASIC VECTORS:

To represent the position of lattice points a coordinate system is required.
A coordinate system is used to represent the position of lattice points in space lattice. The periodically
repeating arrangement of all lattice points in space can be described by the operation of parallel
displacement called a translation vector R .
Figure 5
Let a and b be two vectors having equal magnitudes and oriented along AB and AC respectively as
shown in the figure 5. With a and b as coordinate vectors, the position vector R of any lattice point
can be written as,
R = n
1
a + n
2
b

Where, n
1
and n
2
are integers, whose values depend upon the location of lattice points with respect to
the origin.
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For a three dimensional representation of position vector R is written as:
R =n
1
a + n
2
b +n
3
c
Where, the terms have their usual meanings.

CRYSTAL LATTICE AND UNIT CELL:

A crystal lattice is a space lattice in which the lattice sites are occupied by atoms or clusters of atoms.
Each lattice point is associated with atom or group atoms, are called the basis.

The Basis must be identified in composition, arrangement and orientation such that the crystal appears
exactly the same at one point as it does at other equivalent points. The figure 6 shows the basis
consisting of a group of two atoms. When the basis is repeated with correct periodicity in all direction
the crystal structure is obtained. Thus,

Space lattice + Basis ------------ Crystal Structure

figure6

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UNIT CELL

The entire lattice structure of a crystal can be generated by identical blocks known as unit cell. The unit
cell may be a group of ions, atoms or molecules. The unit cell is the smallest building block or geometric
figure from which the crystal is built up by repeating it in three dimensions figure 7.
Figure 7

PRIMITIVE AND NON PRIMITIVE CELLS:

A unit cell can be chosen in a number of ways. The figure8 shows two ways of choosing a unit cell in two
dimensions. In the first way the unit cell contains lattice points only at the corners. This type of unit cells
is called as Primitive Cells. In the second way the unit cell contains lattice points in addition to the
corners. These are known as Non Primitive Cells.

Figure8
Note: The unit cells differ from the primitive cell in that it is not restricted to being the equivalent of one
lattice point. Thus, unit cells may also be primitive cells, but all the primitive cells need not be Unit Cells.

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TYPES OF UNIT CELL:
1. Simple cubic (sc)
2. Body centered cubic (bcc)
3. Face centered cubic (fcc)
4. Base centered (bc)
Simple cubic: (sc)
When a unit cell contains points only at the corners, the arrangement is the simplest and the cell is
referred as simple cubic or simple primitive or p-type cell. There is no lattice point inside the cell.

Body centered cubic: (bcc)
There is one point at each of the eight corners and one lattice point at the center of the cell. Totally
there are 9 lattice points in this unit cell. It is also called as I type cell.

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Face centered cubic: (fcc)
There is one lattice point at each of the eight corners and one lattice point at the center of each of the
six faces of the cubic cell. Totally there are 14 lattice points in this structure. It is known as F-type cell.

Base centered cell : (bc)
There is one lattice point at each of the eight corners and one lattice point at each of top and bottom
faces. There are totally 10 lattice points in this cell. It is also called as C- type cell.

CRYSTAL STSTEMS:
The classification of crystals into seven crystal system follows from the symmetry of the primitive cells.
The systems can be distinguished from one another by the angles between the axes and the intercepts
of the faces along them. Geometrical considerations show those seven sets of three axes called
crystallographic axes, which are sufficient to construct all crystal lattices. This leads to the classifications
of all crystals into seven crystal systems.
The seven basic crystal systems are;
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1. CUBIC
2. TETRAGONAL
3. ORTHORHOMBIC
4. TRIGONAL OR RHOMBOHEDRAL
5. MONOCLINIC
6. TRICLINIC
7. HEXAGONAL

(1) Cubic:
a = b = c
= = = 90
simple cubic(sc)
body centered cubic(bcc)

face centered cubic(fcc)

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(2) Tetragonal :
a = b c
= = = 90
simple body centered

(3) Orthorhombic:
a b c
= = = 90
Simple

base centered body centered face centered

(4) Monoclinic:
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a b c
= = 90

Simple base centered

(5) Trigonal or Rhombohedral:
a = b = c
= = 90

Rhombohedral system

(6) Triclinic:
a b c
90
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Triclinic system

(7) Hexagonal :
a = b c
= = 90, = 120

Hexagonal system

LATTICE PARAMETERS:

To completely illustrate the crystal structure, the basic minimum parameters required are:
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(1) The inter atomic or intermolecular molecular distance in x
-
, y
-
and z
-
direction (a b and c)

(2) The angles (o , and ) between the x and y, y and z and z and x axes.

The angle between the x and y axes is taken as o , the angle between the y and z axes is taken as ,
angle between the Z and x axes is taken as are called the crystal parameters(figure 7 represents cubic
structure).

Therefore, the acceptable way to study structure of crystals is in terms of inter-lattice distances
and the inter-planar angles, i.e. in terms of the crystal parameters.
Crystal Systems:

Bravais demonstrated mathematically that, in 3 dimensions there are only 14 different types of
arrangements possible theoretically for Bravais lattices in seven crystal systems.
The 14 Crystal lattices are represented in table1 and the crystal systems with unit cells in table2.
Table 1 Seven Crystal Systems and 14 Bravais lattices
Crystal System
No. of
lattices
14 BL
Unit Cell Coordinate Description
1 Triclinic 1
1. Simple cubic OR
primitive
a b c
90
2 Monoclinic 2
2. simple cubic
a b c
= = 90
3. Body centered
3 Orthorhombic 4 4. Simple cubic
a b c
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5.
Base Centered = = = 90
6.
Body Centered
7.
Face Centered
4 Tetragonal
2

8. Simple cubic
a = b c
= = = 90
9.
Body Centered
5 Trigonal or
(Rhombohedral)
1
10.
Simple cubic
a = b = c
= = 90
6 Hexagonal 1
11.
Simple cubic
a = b c
= = 90, = 120
7 Cubic 3
12. Simple cubic

a = b = c
= = = 90
13. Body centered
14. Face centered

Directions and Planes in a Crystal Lattice:

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In crystal system, it is necessary to refer to the crystal planes, and directions of the straight lines joining
the lattice points in a space lattice. A notation system which uses a set of three integers (n
1
, n
2
& n
3
) is
adopted to describe both the positions of planes or directions within the lattice.

Figure9
A resultant vector R which joins Lattice points A and B (figure9) can be represented by an Equation.

R = n
1
a +n
2
b +n
3
c , If n
1
= n
2
= n
3
=1,

then R =a + b + c

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CRYSTAL PLANES AND MILLER INDICes
Figure10

It is possible to define a system of parallel and equidistant planes which can be imagined to pass
through the crystal structure are called as Crystal Planes. The position of a crystal plane can be
expressed in terms of three integers namely Miller indices.

If x, y and Z are the starting co-ordinates for a plane then the Miller indices of the plane are
obtained by the following procedure:

(1) Consider the x

,y and z co-ordinates of the lattice points of the plane lying on the x, y

and the z
directions of a reference frame

(2) Take the reciprocals of these x, y

and z co-ordinates values.

(3) Reduce the reciprocals into integers, by multiplying each reciprocal with LCM of the
denominators.

(4) Then, if possible simplify these resulting numbers.

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These simplified numbers, derived from the x, y

and z co-ordinates of the lattice points on the
plane are named as the h, k and l values of the plane and is called the Miller indices of the plane.
All the planes parallel to this plane will have the same indices. So the hkl values for a plane also
represent a family of all the parallel planes. The miller indices which is the set of parallel planes
is written as <hkl>
Example: Given that,
X= a
5
6
Y= b
4
3
Z= c
2
3

Taking the ratio of intercepts with the basis vectors, we obtain

=
(
c
z
b
y
a
x
, ,
(
2
3
,
4
3
,
5
6

Taking reciprocals of the three fractions

(
3
2
,
3
4
,
6
5

Multiplying throughout by least common multiple *LCM+ 6 for the denominator, we have the
Miller indices
(5 8 4)

Which is read as five eight four

If a plane is oriented parallel to a coordinate axis, its intercept with the coordinate is taken as
infinity, since the reciprocal of infinity is zero, the corresponding Miller indices value will also be
zero.

Thus the Miller indices is a set of 3 lowest possible integers whose ratio taken in order is the same as
that of the reciprocals of the Miller integers of the planes on the corresponding axes in the same
order. Similar to the case of representation of directions in the space lattice, any given Miller indices
set represents all parallel equidistant crystal planes for a given space lattice. Owing the rotational
symmetry, certain planes which are not parallel to each other become in distinguishable from the
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


crystallographic point of view. In such cases, Miller indices are enclosed in braces {} instead of
parenthesis or brackets, which represents all the equivalent planes. For example in the case of cubic
lattice, the 6 planes referring to 6 faces of a unit cell are represented by the Miller indices as (100)
(001) (010) (010) (001) collectively designated as {100}

EXPRESSION FOR INTERPLANAR SPACING IN TERMS OF MILLER INDICES:

Figure11
To get the interplanar distance, consider a plane ABC with Miller indices (hkl). In the reference
frame, draw a normal to the plane from the origin. Let OP is the normal to the plane ABC. Let angle
POA = o, and POB = and POC = be the angles made by the normal to the plane with the x, y and z
directions. OP = d is the interplanar distance

Then, from the figure, Cos o = ON/OA = d/x

Cos = ON/OB = d/y

Cos = ON/OC = d/z
But from the definition of Millers incise derived in the earlier section,

h = a/x therefore, x = a/h
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k = b/y therefore, y=b/k

l = c/z therefore z= c/l

Writing the values of x, y and z in the above trigonometric equations we get,
Cos
h a
d
OA
OP
/
= = o
Cos
k b
d
OB
OP
/
= = |

Cos
l c
d
OC
OP
/
= =

From solid geometry, Cos
2
o + cos
2
+ Cos
2
=1
Substituting the values of the trigonometric relations we get
1
2
2 2
2
2 2
2
2 2
= + +
c
d l
b
d k
a
d h

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
(
+ +
c
l
b
k
a
h
d
d
2
hkl
=
(
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
c
l
b
k
a
h

Then, the interplanar distanced is given by
d
hkl
=
2 / 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
(
+ +
c
l
b
k
a
h

For cubic lattice a=b=c then,
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2 2 2
l k h
a
d
hkl
+ +
=

EXPRESSION FOR SPACE LATTICE CONSTANT:

Density is a macroscopic property. Basically it is the mass per unit volume. In case of crystals, mass
of atoms packed in a conventional unit cell per unit volume of the cell gives the density of the
crystal.

Density of a crystal =

=
.(i)
Here m is the mass of atoms packed in the conventional unit cell of the crystal. V is the volume of
the unit cell. Mass of atoms packed in the conventional unit cell of the crystal. V is the volume of the
unit cell. Mass of an atom in the structure is given by the ratio of the atomic weight or Molecular
weight (M) to the Avogadro number (N
A
). Mass of atoms contained in the conventional unit cell is
then the number of atoms in the unit cell times the mass of an atom. If there are n atoms in the
conventional unit cell, then, the mass of atoms in the unit cell is given by

Na
nM
m =
..(ii)

From equation ( i ), mass of atoms in the unit cell in terms of the density of the crystal is given by,

From (i) V m =

From (ii)
V N
nM
A
=

From this equation, the density of the crystal is
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3
/ m kg
V N
nM
A
=

In case of a cubic lattice the volume of the unit cell V = a
3

Therefore
3
3
/ m kg
a N
nM
A
=
The lattice constant a =
0
3 / 1
A
N
nM
A
|
|
.
|
\
|

Coordination Number (N) & Atomic packing factor(APF)

The number of atoms at equal and least distance from a given atom in the structure is the
coordination number. It can be taken as the first nearest neighbors of an atom in the structure.

Atomic packing factor is the ratio of the volume of the unit cell occupied by atoms to the net
volume of the unit cell. APF=
=

The following are the possible structures found in a cubic system of crystals, resulting due to the
kinds of packing of atoms,

1. Simple Cubic (SC),
2. Body Centered Cubic (BCC) and
3. Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

(a)Simple Cubic Structure (SC )

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Calculation of lattice constant in terms of atomic radius
In a simple cubic structure, the space lattice is cubic. Atoms are placed at all lattice locations.
Therefore, an atom at a lattice location will be in contact with all its six nearest neighbors (figure12).
Thus the co-ordination number for a simple cubic structure is N=6. In a simple cubic structure, the
lattice constant is the cube edge of the conventional unit cell. Thus the lattice constant is the distance
between the centers of two neighboring atoms. That is the lattice constant a = 2r, where r is the atomic
radius. The atoms at the lattice locations are shared by eight unit cells. Each atom at the lattice location
of the unit cell contributes (1/8) to the unit cell .The number of atoms contained in a unit cell in the
structure is given by the number of lattice locations in the unit cell multiplied by the contribution of the
atom at each location. That is the number of atoms in a unit cell of the simple cubic structure is given by

n = (no. lattice locations X contribution of atoms at these location)
n = [8 X (1 /8) ] =1

Figure12

The parameters describing the structure of a simple cubic structure are:

1 Co-ordination Number N = 6
2 Number of atoms in a unit cell n = 1
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3 Atomic radius R
4 Lattice constant r = 2r
5 Volume of a unit cell V = a
3

6 Volume of an atom (4/3) t r
3

Volume of the unit cell occupied by the atom is given by

= (number of atoms in a unit cell) X [volume of an atom]
= (n) X [
]

Atomic packing fraction in a simple cubic crystal structure is

, a=2r

APF =
=1x(
) = 1x(
) =

= 0.52 = 52%

(2r)
3

Hence atoms occupy 52% cell volume.
(b) Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

In body centered cubic structure, the space lattice is cubic. Atoms are placed at all lattice
locations and there will be an additional atom at the body center of the cubic unit cell. In this
structure, the atoms stacked along the body diagonal of the cubic unit cell are in contact. That is, the
atom at the body center of the unit cell will be in contact with all other atoms at the cubic lattice
locations of the unit cell. Each atom in the structure will have eight nearest neighbors (figure 13).
Thus, the co-ordination number for a body centered cubic structure is N = 8. In a body centered
cubic structure, the lattice constant (a), is the cube edge of the conventional unit cell.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Figure13

Let d be diagonal distance between the atoms in a plane of the unit cell. Then,
) i ( a 2 ) a a ( d
2 2 2 2
= + =
If D is the diagonal of the cubic unit cell, then
) ii ( a 3 ) a a 2 ( ) a d ( D
2 2 2 2 2 2
= + = + =
But, the atoms along the body diagonal, are in contact, Therefore D = 4r
And D
2
= (4r)
2
- - - - - - - - (iii)
From equations (i) and (iii) ,
D
2
= (4r)
2
= 3a
2
,
Thus, the relation between the lattice constant (a ) and atomic radius is,

3
r 4
a =
The atoms at the lattice locations are shared by eight unit cell. Therefore, each atom at
the lattice location of the unit cell contributes ( 1/8 ) to the unit cell. The number of atoms
contained in the unit cell of the structure is given by the number of lattice locations in the unit cell
multiplied by the contribution of the atom at each location plus the atom at the body center of the
unit cell. That is the number of atoms in a unit cell the simple cubic structure is given by

n = (no. of lattice locations X contribution of atoms at these location) + (atom at the body
center)
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n = [8 X (1 X 8)] + 1 =2

The parameters describing the structure of a body centered cubic structure are :

1 Co-ordination Number N = 8
3 Atomic radius r
4 Lattice constant
a =(4 / 3 ) r
3

6 Volume of an atom a = (4/3) tr
3



= (n) X [
],

Atomic packing fraction in a simple cubic crystal structure is

APF =
=2x(
) =
=0.68 =68%
(
)
3

Hence the atoms occupy 68% of bcc cell volume. This is more densely packed than SC unit cell

(C) Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
In a face centered cubic structure, the space lattice is cubic. The conventional unit cell consists of eight
small cubelets. Atoms are placed at alternate lattice locations. The atoms stacked along the face
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diagonal of the cubic unit cell are in contact. The atom at any lattice location of the unit cell will have
twelve nearest neighbors (figure14)

Figure14


Let d be the diagonal distance between the atoms in a plane of the conventional unit cell. Then,
d
2
= (a
2
+ a
2
) = 2a
2
- - - - - - - (i)
But, the atoms along the face diagonal of the conventional unit cell are in contact.
Therefore,
d = 4r - - - - - (ii)
And d
2
= (a
2
+ a
2
) = 2a
2
- - - - (iii)
From equations ( i ) and ( iii ) ,
d
2
= (4r)
2
= 2a
2
,

Thus, the relation between the lattice constant ( a ) and atomic radius is,
a =
2
r 4

The atoms at the lattice locations of the conventional unit cell are shared by eight such
cells. Therefore each atom at the lattice location of the unit cell contributes ( 1 /8 ) to the unit cell.
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The number of atoms belonging to the unit cell in the structure is given by the number of lattice
locations in the unit cell multiplied by the contribution of the atom at each location plus the
contributions of the atoms at the face centered locations. The number of atoms in a unit cell of the
face centered cubic structure is given by
n = (No. of lattice locations X contribution of atoms at these location)
(No. of atoms at the face centers X their contribution to the unit cell)

n = [ 8 X (1 /8 )] + [ 6 X ( 1 / 2)] = ( 1 +3 ) = 4

The parameters describing the structure of a face centered cubic structure are :

1 Co-ordination Number N =12
3 Atomic radius r
4 Lattice constant
a =(4 / 2 ) r
3

6 Volume of an atom a = (4/3) tr
3

Atomic packing factor is the ratio of the volume of the unit cell occupied by atoms to the net
volume of the unit cell


= (n) X [
],

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Atomic packing fraction in a face centered cubic crystal structure is

APF=
=4x(
) =0.74=74%

(
)
3

Hence 74% of cell volume is occupied by the atoms in fcc unit cell. So fcc
unit cell is most densely packed among sc, bcc.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF SODIUM CHLORIDE:
In terms of Bravais lattice NaCl as FCC structure. Sodium chloride has equal number of cations
and anions. In this structure formation, sodium atom donates its valence electron and acquires
positive charge and at the same time chloride atom accepts the electron and acquires negative
charge. Due to this opposite charges, strong electrostatic forces are created and both ions are
bonded together known as ionic bonding.
In this structure ,six opposite kind of ions surrounds one kind of ion .therefore the
coordination number of this structure both Na and Cl ions is six. Na and Cl ions take alternate
positions.
Consider one sub lattice or sub unit cell as shown in diagram, there are 4 Na and 4 Cl ions
are present. The coordinates of these ions may be written as,
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Na: [ 0 0 0 ], [

0 ] , [
] , [ 0
]
Cl: [
], [ 0
] , [ 0

] [
]

Figure18
Density of sodium Chloride

Density of a crystal in terms of its lattice parameter is given by

3
A
m / kg
V N
nA
=
Here n is the number of sodium chloride molecules in a conventional unit cell. In place of A the
molecular weight of sodium chloride molecule is to be considered. V is the volume of the conventional
unit cell with a lattice constant a = 5.63 Au. This is the distance between any two neighboring sodium
atoms or the neighboring chlorine atoms. The number of molecules in a unit cell is equal to the sum of
sodium atoms [n (Na)] contained in the cell and the chlorine atoms [n (CI)]. The number of sodium
chloride molecules in a unit cell are:
N = [n (Na)] + [n (CI)]

The number of sodium atoms in the cell is:

[n (Na)] = 8 (1/8) + 6 (1/2) = 1 + 3 = 4
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The number of chlorine atoms in the cell is:

[n ( CI ) ] = 4 (1/4) + 4 (1/4) + 1 = 4

Therefore, there will be four sodium chloride molecules in a conventional cell

Atomic weight of sodium is
A (Na) = 22.98 X 10
-3
Kg

And that of Chlorine is A (CI) = 35.45 X 10
-3
Kg

Therefore, the molecular weight of sodium chloride molecule is

A = A (Na) + A (CI) = (23 X 10
-3
) + (33.45 X 10
-3
) kg
A = (58.43 X 10
-3
) Kg

Volume of the unit cell is V = a
3
= (5.63 X 10
-10)

3
m
And the Avogadro number is N
A
= (6.023 X 10
23
)
The density of sodium chloride crystal is
3 3
3 ) 10 23
3
A
m / kg ) 10 174 . 2 (
10 X 63 . 5 )( 10 X 023 . 6 (
) 10 X 43 . 58 ( 4
V N
nA
=
= =

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND :

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Diamond is one of the hardest material available in nature. This structure is another example for
fcc. Diamond has only carbon atoms and it is metastable state at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. A unit cell is made up of 18 carbon atoms (eight corner atoms, six face center
atoms and one at center of 4 tetrahedral positions as shown in diagram). The coordinates of 5
carbon atoms in one sub unit cell (say PQRS and T) can be Written as,
Atoms Co-ordinates
CARBON (000),( 0),( 0 )(0 )and ( )
In this structure, each carbon atom bonds to four other carbon atoms in a tetrahedral manner.The
bonds are totally covalent. Diamond may be considered as a combination of two interpenetrating fcc
cells of same atoms that are displaced from each other by 1/4
th

of body diagonal. The interatomic
distance between any two atoms is 1.54A
O
.

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Figure19

Density of Diamond :Density of a crystal in terms of its lattice parameter is given by

3
A
m / kg
V N
nA
=

In diamond structure, the number of carbon atoms in the conventional unit cell is

Contributions from the atoms at the corners of the cube = 8 ( 1/8 ) = 1
+
Contributions from the atoms at the centers of the faces = 6 (1/2 ) = 3
+
Contributions from the atoms at the body centers = 4 ( 1 ) = 4

n = 8

Atomic weight of carbon is A = 12.01 X 10
-3
kg.
Lattice constant a = 3.567 Au
Volume of the unit cell V= a
3
= (3.567 X 10
-10
)
3

And the Avogadro number is N
A
= (6.023 X 10
23
)

The density of diamond is

3 3
3 10 23
3
A
m / kg ) 10 X 514 . 3 (
) 10 X 567 . 3 )( 10 X 023 . 6 (
) 10 X 01 . 12 ( 8
V N
nA
= = =

n =
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


BRAGGS LAW:

The above diagram shows a beam of monochromatic x-rays incident at a glancing angle .It
may be noted that in optics ,we use to measure incident angle as well as reflected angle
between the ray and normal drawn to the plane.But Bragg measured these angles between the
ray and the plane itself and it is called as Braggs angle.
The x-ray beam is partially reflects and refracts from the different planes of the NaCl crystal at
A,B,C etc.The paths of rays until A,M and from A,N are equal. But if we compare the total paths
of two rays(R
1
,R
2
) then ray 2 takes an extra path of MB and BN By drawing perpendiculars AM
and AN, we can calculate the path difference between two rays
Path difference= MB + BN
From the two triangles AMB, ANB
We know that,
sin =

=

or MB= d sin

Similarly, sin =

or BN=d sin
Now path difference = d sin + d sin
=2d sin
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The two reflected rays will be in phase, if the path difference is integral multiple of (n) and will be in
antiphase if the path difference is odd multiple of

i.e., (2n-1)/2.
By taking the first condition
2d sin = n
Where n is the order of the spectrum.
Therefore , 2d sin = n
Where, n=1,2,3
The above equation is called Braggs equation (or Braggs law) and is called glancing angle.
Braggs X-ray spectrometer and determination of crystal structure

W.H. Bragg designed the X-ray spectrometer; it was similar to the optical spectrometer except the
ionization chamber. It consists of a circular table on which a suitable reflecting crystal can be mounted
,The table rotates about its vertical axis along with the ionization chamber, which is attached to the
rotating table .It is usual to arrange such that the ionization chamber rotates through twice the angle of
rotation of the crystal table . This arrangement is to satisfy the law of reflection, which states that
whenever a reflecting surface turns through an angle , the reflected rays turns through an angle 2.
The ionization chamber is filled with suitable gas, which gets ionized by x-rays and the ionization
current is measured by electrometer.
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Monochromatic x-rays are obtained from the target of x-ray tube and allowed to pass through the
lead screen to get thin parallel beam of rays. It is made to fall on crystal at the glancing angle. The
reflected rays are allowed to enter the ionization chamber at an angle 2, for few seconds ,the
ionization current is proportional to the intensity of the x-rays ,is measured. the glancing angle of
incidence is gradually increased in small steps and measurement is repeated.

A graph is plotted between ionization current and the glancing angle of incidence as shown in
figure,
While the experiment is carried out, the turn table is rotated till the crystal receives the x-ray beam at an
angle of incidence satisfying the Braggs law, 2d sin = n
This is indicated by a sudden increase in ionization current. This rise in current occurs more than once as
varied, since n varies from 1, 2, 3,. For first, second, third order spectrum
Braggs spectrometer can be used to determine x-ray wavelength, determination of inter planar
distance and hence it is useful in the study of crystal structures.

Determination of crystal structure:
Different values ofd depend upon the particular set of parallel planes that satisfy Bragg reflection as
is changed. By taking the ratios of the different values ofd obtained, it is possible to decide the
particular crystal system to which the experimental crystal would belong.
For example:
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Consider the cubic crystal. Let its inter planar spacing for (100) planes be d
1
, and that for (110) and (111)
planes be d
2
and d
3
respectively. By the geometry of the planes in a cubic crystal, it can be shown that,
d
1
: d
2
: d
3
= 1:

Further for fcc, d
1:
d
2
: d
3
= 1:

And for bcc, d
1:
d
2
: d
3
= 1:
.

UNIT:8
MATERIAL SCIENCE
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Introduction to nanoscience and nanotechnology:

Nanotechnology is a field of applied science and technology covering a broad range of topics. The main
unifying theme is the control of matter on a scale smaller than 1 micrometer. Normally between 1-
100nanometer, as well as the fabrication of devices on this same length scale. It is highly
multidisciplinary field, drawing from fields such as colloidal science, device physics and super molecular
chemistry.
The impetus for nanotechnology has stemmed from a renewed interest in colloidal science,
coupled with a new generation of analytical tools such as the atomic force microscope (AFM), and the
scanning tunneling microscope (STM).Combined with processes such as electron beam lithography and
molecular beam epitaxy, these instruments allow the deliberate manipulation of nanostructure and in
turn led to the observation of novel phenomena. The manufacture of polymers based on molecular
structure, or the design of computer chip layouts based on surface science are examples of
nanotechnology in modern use.
Applications that have moved out of the lab and into the market place have mainly utilized
the advantages of colloidal nanoparticles in bulk form, such as suntan lotion, cosmetics, protective
coatings, and stain resistant clothing.

NANOMATERIALS:
When matter is arranged by exercising control over lengths of 1 to 100 nanometer and the formulating
structures exhibit characteristics that are specific to their size and dimensions, the resulting materials
are termed nanomaterials.

SHAPES OF NANOMATERIALS:
Quantum structures: For bulk scale nanomaterials the lower dimensions in the nanoscale is as follows:
When the reduction from the bulk material in 3 dimensions is in one direction, it results in a
structure in 2-dimensions and is called Quantum film. Which is as shown in fig1 and fig2

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Fig1 Fig2
If the reduction is in two directions the resultant structure will be in one dimension which is called as
Quantum wire. This is as shown in fig3.

Fig3
If the reduction is in all the three directions the material reduces to a point which is well know
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


as a Quantum dot. it is also called as nanoparticle or cluster. which is as shown in fig4

Fig4
The charge carriers which were able to move in all directions in a 3-D material, will be confined to a
plane in a Quantum film, and one direction in a Quantum wire, but in a 0-D structure they will remain
confined to a very small space called Quantum dot.

METHODS OF PREPARATION OF NANOMATERIALS:

There are two methods followed in preparing nanomaterials.
1. Top-down approach
2. Bottom-up approach.

1. Top-down approach:
In the top-down approach, the material is reduced from bulk size of nanoscale as shown in fig
5. There are many methods which follow this approach. The examples are, ball milling method
and nanolithography.
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Fig 5: Size reduction
In ball milling method, the bulk material which is taken in powdered form is reduced further by grinding
technic until nanoscale size is reached. Lithography is a process which involves forming a thin film of a
material on a substrate, wherein a precise control over its thickness and area is maintained. It is basically
used in semiconductor technology in the manufacture of integrated circuits and VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integrated Circuits).

2. Bottom-up approach:
In Bottom up approach, matter in atomic or molecular level get assembled to form tiny clusters
which grow to reach nano-size as shown in fig6.

Fig6
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Few examples for this approach are, arc discharge, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor
deposition, sol-gel method etc.
The arc discharge set-up consists of two carbon rods placed end to end separated by a few
millimeter gap in an enclosure that is usually filled with inert gas at low pressure. A direct current of
50 to 100A driven by a potential difference of about 20V creates a high temperature discharge
between the electrodes. Condensed vapors comprises of Bucky ball.
Nanotubes are formed on the body of the electrode.

Wonders of Nanotechnology:
1. Fullerenes
2. Carbon nanotubes.

FULLERENES:

DISCOVERY OF FULLERENES:

In 1985, a group of researchers lead investigations by focusing high powered lasers on certain solids.
Certain type of carbon compound was found to be scattered in interstellar space. To do this the
temperature to be attained in the laboratory was also many thousands of degree-celsius.Curl
coordinated between these two ideas and Kroto took up the investigations along with Smalley. They
succeeded in producing the type of carbon compounds what they planned to get. However along
with it, they observed the presence of what seemed to be a cluster of 60 Carbon atoms about which
nothing was known. This cluster was found to be having extraordinary stability. Investigations
conducted using mass spectroscopy technic suggested that the whole cluster of 60 carbon atoms
must be single giant molecule.inorder to arrive at the structure of this molecule , Smalley and Kroto
considered stability factor. For stability, a carbon atom requires bonding with 3 carbon atoms. But
the atoms at the edge of a planar sheet have only 2 bonding atoms. Hence a plane molecular
structure will not be stable for small number like 60 atoms.
Since considerable number of atoms will have to occupy the edge of the plane.
Thus necessarily the molecule must be a 3-dimensional structure with no dangling bonds for any of
the 60 atoms.

SHAPE OF FULLERENES:

While considering all the possible 3-dimensional configurations, somehow Kroto got in his mind the
picture of an architectural design called Geodesic Dome by the American architect by name
BUCKMINSTER FULLER. Immediately Smalley tried various combinations of pentagons and hexagons
that form a closed structure in 3-dimensions. He succeeded in forming the structure finally with a
combination of 12 pentagons and 20 hexagons. The resulting structure is as shown in fig7.
It has 32 faces with 60 vertices where the 60 carbon atoms are located. They are called 3-
dimensional molecular structure as Buckminster Fullerene, which is also called as Bucky ball. The
molecule is denoted as C
60
. The diameter of C
60
is about 0.71nm. it became the third allotropic
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


form of carbon. It resembles the shape of a foot ball and the shape is known as truncated
icosahedrons, Smalley along with Kroto and Curl were awarded the Nobel Prize in chemistry for the
year 1996.

.
Fig 7
Following the discovery of C60 a number of such giant molecules with different number of carbon
atoms such as C
32
, C
70
, C
76
, C
78
,C
84
,C
90
, C
94
,C
100
, C
120
.have been discovered. All these together
formulate what is known as fullerene family.

APPLICATIONS AND THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FULLERENES:

1. Each C
60
molecule can take in and give out 6 electrons easily. This property enables fir its use as
an organic molecular conductor.
2. Since they are very tough and can smoothly roll over each other, fullerene molecules are
excellent lubricating agents.
3. They act as antioxidants which have good medical applications. C
60
a medical company is
pursuing this aspect of application. Because of the large number of carbon atoms in each
molecule, it can bond to many free radicals at a time. Based on this anti-aging and anti-wrinkle
cream can be produced in the market.
4. Research is going on about using fullerenes for the storage of hydrogen gas. its potential of 5%
storage capacity is attractive to that of metal hydrides which are being presently used and have
only 2% capacity.

DISCOVERY OF CARBON NANOTUBES:

In 1991, a Japanese researcher Iijima of NEC was synthesizing C60 fullerenes by striking an electric
arc between two graphite rods. He found that, needle like cylindrical tubes of graphite sheet were
formed on the graphite electrodes. He named those tubes as nanotubes .
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A carbon nanotube is a sheet of carbon atoms joined in a pattern of hexagons rolled into a cylinder.
They also belong to the class of fullerenes. Varieties of such nanotubes were formulated. Many of
them consisted of several coaxial cylinders. The number of coaxial tubes varied from two to as many
as 30 with interlayer spacing of 3.4A
0
.

SHAPE OF CARBON NANOTUBES:

Tubes are obtained with one or both the ends either open or closed by half fullerene as cap. If there
is only one layer of graphite sheet, then it is called single wall nanotube (SWNT).
If there are a number of such coaxial tubes with bigger ones enclosing the smaller ones
layer-wise, then each unit is called multiwall nanotube (MWNT) as shown in fig 8.

Fig8: Roll-up vector or Graphene sheet
The nanotubes conducting properties depend upon how the two ends of the sheet is connected.
It can happen in 3 different ways leading to 3 different varieties. The resulting molecular
structures are defined by what is called roll-up vector, denoted by T.(Fig8)
T signifies the axis about which the sheet is rolled. If T is plotted to C-C bonds, then it is armchair
structure as shown in fig9

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Fig9

Fig10

Fig11
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There are two more structures in which the nanotubes are found called Zigzag structure (fig10) and
Chiral structure (fig11). To obtain these 2 structures, the graphite sheet is to be rolled with T at certain
angles to C-C bond. All nanotubes with armchair structure conduct like metals. Regarding the other two
structures, depending on the actual angles made by T with respect to the bond angle, the conducting
property also varies. About one third of all Zigzag and chiral nanotubes conduct like metals. The
remaining two third exhibit less conductivity.(some like semiconductors)

APPLICATIONS AND ITS PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
New type of composite materials comprising of nanotubes have been synthesized which conduct
electricity better. They are also light and strong. These materials find wide variety of applications
ranging from making of high quality tennis rackets to building aircrafts and making electromechanical
systems(MEMS).
Using semiconductor nanotubes, it has been possible to make electronic components such as transistors
and even logic gates which could be used for computing purposes. Also it has been possible to make
nanowires using nanotubes. The impressive advantages with nanotubes is that they are 100 times
stronger than steel. In addition to it their weight is about only one sixth that of steel.
Nanotubes are not only strong, they are non-reactive and can withstand high temperatures.
Researchers at Holland have fabricated a transistor from a carbon nanotube, it can be switched on and
off with the flow of a single electron. This technique holds promise of shrinking the circuits in
computers.
Both the fullerenes and the nanotubes are the wonders of nanotechnology.

APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLGY:
1. Physical system: There are nanoscale magnetic materials called nanomagnets. By a process
known as spin transfer that when occurs in one nanomagnet, it becomes possible to reversibly
switch the magnetic orientation of a nearby nanomagnet. This serves as a new method for Ultra
high density information storage. Further, the same process points towards development of
high frequency electronic components in nanoscale.
2. Chemical system: Nanoscale chemicals are of interest because of the novel photochemical,
electrochemical and catalytic behavior they exhibit depending on composition, size and shape of
the particles.
3. Biological system: DDS (drug delivery system) is one of the most important biological
nanosystem. Nanotechnology has potential for application in tissue engineering. It is helpful in
treating a patient who needs bones, teeth etc.

ULTRASONICS:

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


ULTRASONIC NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF MATERIALS:
When a product supplied by a manufacturers, or a starting material about to be used in a
manufacturing process, seems to be of expected quality by an external inspection, but whether
it is internally bearing a defect is not known, then the material needs to be tested. Special
testing methods will have to be followed if the material needs to be preserved exactly in the
same form, even after the completion of testing.
Such a testing method is named non-destructive testing and defined as follows;
The procedure employed to detect the internal defects of a material or a product without
causing any damage in it is called non-destructive tasting.

PRINCIPLE: The method is based upon the principle that , when a beam of ultrasonic waves is
incident at the boundary between two different media, a part of the wave is reflected back into
the medium in which it is incident, and the remaining part is transmitted into the adjoining
medium. as shown in fig12.

Fig 12
Consider an ultrasonic wave travelling in a medium and density
1.
If I
1
and I
2
are the intensities of the
incident and reflected waves
1
and
2
are the densities of the first and second media and C1,C2 are the
velocities of the ultrasonic waves in the first and second media respectively , then the ratio of the
reflected and incident intensities is given by,
I
2/
I
1=
*
+
2
............................. (1)
Since C1=C2
I
2
=I
1
*
+
2
(2)
The intensity of the reflected wave is basically dependent upon the difference between for a
given incident wave intensity. That means, if the wave is travelling from a medium of high density to
very low density, then an intense reflection of the wave takes place at the boundary of separation.

DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


WORKING PROCEDURE:
The working procedure follows the pulse-echo method; the arrangement consists of a pulse generator, a
transmitter, a receiver, a signal amplifier and a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO). The time base of the CRO
is connected to the pulse generator. The pulse generator produces pulses each comprising of electric
oscillations of ultrasonic frequency. The crystal exhibit mechanical vibrations of the same frequency as
that of the pulse waves, the crystal performs the function of transmitter.

Fig13

The echo appears as the pip Q on the CRO screen, similarly some part of the beam reflected at B. Since
it had travelled a longer distance to reach the receiver, its echo appears later than Q as pip R on the
screen. After this cycle of events, the transmitter will be ready to inject the next pulse into the specimen
as shown in fig 13.
Let x and y be the distances of the echoes Q and R respectively from the source pulse P , with the
help of the time base calculation of CRO , the lengths x and y can be evaluated. The values of x and
y are proportionate measures of the path distances MAN and MBN. The specimen is studied by placing
the transmitter and receiver of various places on it, which provides a set of values for x and a
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


corresponding set of values for y. The size of the flaw and its location in the specimen are determined
on the basis of the values of x and y so obtained.

APPLICATIONS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING:

Non destructive testing can be employed to detect the defects or flaws in,
1. Metallic plates or sheets, due to irregularities or discontinuities developed while they are rolled or
present.
2. Concrete structure, in the form of obstruction or imperfections.
3. Large castings and
4. Rails and massive axles of railway engines.
The test is sensitive enough to detect cracks of the order of one hundredth part of a millimeter in
the material.

ULTRASONIC WAVES IN SOLIDS:

There are many types of elastic waves in which ultrasonic waves manifest in a solid. They are mainly,
1. Longitudinal waves or compressional wave.
2. Transverse waves, or shear waves.

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCITY OF ULTRASONIC WAVES IN SOLIDS:

The velocity of ultrasonic waves in a solid can be measured by pulse-echo method. The set up used will
be essentially same as the one described in the non destructive testing of materials.
The material, in which the velocity of ultrasonic waves is required to be found out, is used as the
specimen. The frequency of the pulse generator is adjusted to match the natural frequency of the
crystal. The generator then sends the pulses at periodic intervals into the specimen. Every time the
pulse is injected, it travels through the specimen and a part of it gets reflected from the opposite face.
The receiver sends signals which will be seen as a train of echos on the CRO Screen as shown in fig14.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


Fig14.
The time t between any two echoes is the length of the time required for the pulse to travel through
the specimen and back to the transmitter. The amplitude decays exponentially with time.
By knowing the dimensions of the specimen, it is possible to estimate the distanced travelled between
the transmitter and the reflecting end, which is also equal to the distance between the receiver and the
reflecting end. knowingd andt one can evaluate the longitudinal velocity C
L
of ultrasonics in the
specimen using the relation,
C
L
=2d/t.(!)
Following the same procedure, the transverse or the shear velocity C
S
of the ultrasonics in the specimen
can be determined by using a piezoelectric crystal that issues transverse waves for the transmitter in the
set-up.
DETERMINATION OF ELASTIC CONSTANTS IN SOLIDS:

The speeds of ultrasonics of longitudinal and shear waves are given by;
C
L
=
.(2)
And
C
S
=
(3)

Where, E is the youngs modulus
is the poissons ratio
is the density of the solid
n is the rigidity modulus
Solving equation (2) and (3), we get;
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


,
.(4)

E=2
..(5)

And n=

Thus, knowing C
L
and C
S
for a solid, , E, and n of the solid can be determined.

MEASUREMENT OF VELOCTYOF ULTRASONIC WAVES IN A LIQUID:

The experimental set-up consists of a properly cut piezoelectric crystal such as an X-cut quartz crystal
which is placed in between two plates in a watertight encapsulation provided with two leads they are
connected to the plates inside as shown in fig 15. The natural frequency of oscillation of the crystal is
available as data.
The given liquid is taken in a small transparent rectangular cell. After the preliminary adjustments of
the spectrometer, the glass vessel filled with the given liquid is placed on the spectrometer turn table
with its length normal to the incident beam from the collimator as shown in the figure.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


The leads in the crystal are connected to the oscillator; the frequency of the oscillator is varied, when
its frequency becomes equal to the crystal frequency. The pressure waves generated due to the
vibration, start from the crystal and propagate through the liquid and then get reflected from the
reflector. The position of the reflector will be such that, a standing wave pattern will be set up between
the crystal and the reflector.
In the standing wave, there will be nodes and antinodes. The nodes and antinodes create regions of
maximum and minimum density for the liquid causing opaque and clear regions at perfectly regular
intervals. Thus the liquid turns essentially into a grating and hence referred to as acoustic grating.

THEORY: we know that, if d is the grating constant and
L
is the wavelength of light, then for normal
incidence, the equation for diffraction is,
d
L
,
Where is the angle of deviation of the spectral line of order n.
Since the grating constant is the distance between consecutive opaque lines, it corresponds to the
distance between corresponding nodes, which must be equal to half the wavelength u of the ultrasonic
waves as per the theory of standing waves.
Therefore d=

L

Or u=

Velocity v of a wave of wavelength and frequency f is given by,
V=f
f is the frequency of the ultrasonic wave,
Therefore velocity of the ultrasonic wave Vu is,
Vu=fu
Vu=

Since n, f and
L
are known, by measuring one can evaluate Vu the velocity of ultrasonic waves in the
liquid.
DEPT OF PHYSICS SCE


ELASTIC CONSTANTS OF LIQUIDS;
The elastic behavior of a liquid is characterized by its bulk modulus K. it is related to the velocity Vu of
the Ultrasonic waves through the equation;
Vu=

Where is the density of the liquid
K=Vu
2

Hence knowing Vu and , k can be determined.

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SCE

SAPTHAGIRI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, BANGALORE

, where is the difference

is very small its higher power terms could be neglected.)

is the rest mass of the electron.

will also be constant.

where p is the momentum of the particle.

is the velocity of the particle.

, which leads to an interesting observation that matter waves

represents large probability of finding

gives the probability of finding the atomic

V (divide & multiply by m)

, then the result is

this is called ground state energy or zero point energy (E

from eqn(4) we get,

for both x=0 & x=a. But

has maximum value for

for both x=0 & x=a. It is maximum at

it means in the ground state the

has maximum value for

it means in the first excited energy

has maximum value for

it means in the second

versus x for above three cases is shown in the below graph

x=a x=0 x=a

where h is Plancks constant.

this process is known as stimulated emission.

are incident on the system of atoms there will be induced

in the wavelength range +d of incident

is required to stimulate the

for large energy difference between the ground staste and

where m is an integer >0

is the residual resistivity

, the material can now

the magnetic flux is completely expelled from the body

the flux fills the body completely. The

and the upper critical field

the material is said to be in a mixed state called

is many more times the lower critical

= (number of atoms in a unit cell) X [volume of an atom]

= (number of atoms in a unit cell) X [volume of an atom]

= (number of atoms in a unit cell) X [volume of an atom]

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