Manufacturing Process

Common Machining Processes
Tool Tool (b) Cutting off (a) Straight turning
Cutter End mill
(c) Slab milling
(d) End milling
FIGURE 8.1 Some examples of common machining processes.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Orthogonal Cutting
tc
Rough surface - + Tool Rake angle V Flank Relief or clearance angle Shear angle (a)
tc
Shiny surface Tool face
Chip
Shear plane
to
Workpiece
Rough surface Tool face - + Rake angle Flank V Relief or clearance angle Rough surface Tool
Chip
Primary shear zone
to
FIGURE 8.2 Schematic illustration of a two-dimensional cutting process, or orthogonal cutting. (a) Orthogonal cutting with a well-dened shear plane, also known as the Merchant model; (b) Orthogonal cutting without a well-dened shear plane.
(b)
Chip Formation
Rake angle, Chip Tool Vc ( - ) (90 - ) V A ( - ) O B (a) (b) C B Shear plane A C Vs (90 - + )
Workpiece
FIGURE 8.3 (a) Schematic illustration of the basic mechanism of chip formation in cutting. (b) Velocity diagram in the cutting zone.
Secondary shear zones
Tool Chip Tool Primary shear zone BUE
Chip
Primary shear Workpiece zone
Types of Chips
(a)
(b)
(c)
Low shear strain
High shear strain
(d)
(e)
FIGURE 8.4 Basic types of chips produced in metal cutting and their micrographs: (a) continuous chip with narrow, straight primary shear zone; (b) secondary shear zone at the tool-chip interface; (c) continuous chip with built-up edge; (d) segmented or nonhomogeneous chip; and (e) discontinuous chip. Source: After M.C. Shaw, P.K. Wright, and S. Kalpakjian.
FIGURE 8.5 Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool side of a continuous chip produced in turning.
Hardness in Cutting Zone

Chip
316 Built-up edge

372 329 325 289 289 306
Hardness (HK) (b)
474 661 588 565 492 588 331 286 656
371 418 604 684 432 383 386 306 656 589 281 466 704567 578 261 361 289 327 512 587 281 704 639 565 704 410 734770655 341 297 409 544 503 231 377 308 229 266 251 317 201
Workpiece 230 (a) (c)
FIGURE 8.6 (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3115 steel. Note that some regions in the built-up edge are as much as three times harder than the bulk workpiece. (b) Surface nish in turning 5130 steel with a built-up edge. (c) Surface nish on 1018 steel in face milling. Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.
Chip Breakers
Rake face of tool Clamp Chip breaker Tool
Chip breaker
Before
Chip
After
Tool
Workpiece (b)
(a)
Rake face
FIGURE 8.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves on the rake face of cutting tools, acting as chip breakers. Most cutting tools now are inserts with built-in chip-breaker features.
Radius 0 rake
Positive rake
(c)
FIGURE 8.8 Various chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially outward from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Oblique Cutting
a At Chip o Chip i o i = 15 a Tool i = 0 Top view
Tool
Ac
Workpiece Workpiece (b) (c) i = 30
(a)
FIGURE 8.9 (a) Schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with different inclination angles.
Right-Hand Cutting Tool
Ax is
S h an k
Side-rake angle, + (SR) Face Toolholder Clamp screw Clamp Insert Seat or shim
Axis Side-relief angle Side-cutting edge angle (SCEA) Clearance or end-relief angle
End-cutting edge angle (ECEA)
Cutting edge Back-rake angle, + (BR) Nose radius Flank
Axis (a) (b)
FIGURE 8.10 (a) Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool for turning. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they are now replaced by inserts of carbide or other tool materials of various shapes and sizes, as shown in (b).
Cutting Forces
Tool V Fs Tool V Ft R F Workpiece N Fc Chip
Chip
Ft
Fs
Fc
Fn
Workpiece
FIGURE 8.11 (a) Forces acting on a cutting tool in two-dimensional cutting. Note that the resultant forces, R, must be collinear to balance the forces. (b) Force circle to determine various forces acting in the cutting zone. Source: After M.E. Merchant.
(a)
(b)
Cutting force
wto cos ( ) sin cos ( + )
Friction coefcient
= tan = Ft + Fc tan Fc Ft tan
Fc = R cos ( ) =
Cutting Data
TABLE 8.1 Data on orthogonal cutting of 4130 steel.
0.2 = 5 800 0.3
mm/rev
200
0.1
150 10
100 20 25 30 0 35 40 (N) 15 400
Ft (lb)
25 20.9 35 31.6 40 35.7 45 41.9 to = 0.0025
2.55 1.46 56 1.56 1.53 57 1.32 1.54 57 1.06 1.83 62 in.; w = 0.475 in.;
ut (in.-lb/in3 Fc (lb) Ft (lb) 103 ) us uf 380 224 320 209 111 254 102 214 112 102 232 71 195 94 101 232 68 195 75 120 V = 90 ft/min; tool: high-speed steel.
uf /ut (%) 35 48 52 62
50
TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.

+10 V 197 17 3.4 400 19 3.1 642 21.5 2.7 1186 25 2.4 -10 400 16.5 3.9 637 19 3.5 1160 22 3.1 to = 0.037 in.; w = 0.25 Fc Ft ut 1.05 46 370 273 400 1.11 48 360 283 390 0.95 44 329 217 356 0.81 39 303 168 328 0.64 33 416 385 450 0.58 30 384 326 415 0.51 27 356 263 385 in.; tool: cemented carbide. us 292 266 249 225 342 312 289 uf 108 124 107 103 108 103 96 uf /ut (%) 27 32 30 31 24 25 25
250
2200 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 Feed (in./rev)
FIGURE 8.12 Thrust force as a function of rake angle and feed in orthogonal cutting of AISI 1112 cold-rolled steel. Note that at high rake angles, the thrust force is negative. A negative thrust force has important implications in the design of machine tools and in controlling the stability of the cutting process. Source: After S. Kobayashi and E.G. Thomsen.
Shear Force & Normal Force

0 320 1200 1200 A 240 800 (N) Ft (lb) 160 120 400 80 40 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 As (in2 x 10-3) (b) 6 0 6 T = 50,000 psi 0 (a) 1 2 3 4 5 As (in2 x 10-3) S 200 280 A = 20 to 40 1 mm2 2 3 0 1 mm2 2 3
320
280
240
200
Fs (lb)
120 80 40 0
20 25 800 30 35 40 400
FIGURE 8.13 (a) Shear force and (b) normal force as a function of the area of the shear plane and the rake angle for 85-15 brass. Note that the shear stress in the shear plane is constant, regardless of the magnitude of the normal stress, indicating that the normal stress has no effect on the shear ow stress of the material. Source: After S. Kobayashi and E.G. Thomsen.
(N)
160
Shear Stress on Tool Face

Tool face
Sliding Tool
Sticking Stresses on tool face Tool tip
Flank face
FIGURE 8.14 Schematic illustration of the distribution of normal and shear stresses at the tool-chip interface (rake face). Note that, whereas the normal stress increases continuously toward the tip of the tool, the shear stress reaches a maximum and remains at that value (a phenomenon known as sticking; see Section 4.4.1).
Shear-Angle Relationships
60 =0 (deg.) 20 0 = 10 30 0.5 1 2 50 70 (deg.) =0 30 40 (b) 50 60 40
50
(deg.)
40
Tin
m inu m u Al
30
20
Eq . (8 Eq .20 .( ) 8. 21 Lead )
Shear angle,
10
Co
Mild steel
ppe r
0 230
FIGURE 8.15 (a) Comparison of experimental and theoretical shear-angle relationships. More recent analytical studies have resulted in better agreement with experimental data. (b) Relation between the shear angle and the friction angle for various alloys and cutting speeds. Source: After S. Kobayashi.
220 210
20 10 ( - )
(a)
Merchant [Eq. (8.20)]

2 2
Mizuno [Eqs. (8.22)-(8.23]

= = 15 for for > 15 < 15
= 45 +
Shaffer [Eq. (8.21)]
= 45 +
Specic Energy
Specic Energy Material W-s/mm3 hp-min/in3 Aluminum alloys 0.4-1.1 0.15-0.4 Cast irons 1.6-5.5 0.6-2.0 Copper alloys 1.4-3.3 0.5-1.2 High-temperature alloys 3.3-8.5 1.2-3.1 Magnesium alloys 0.4-0.6 0.15-0.2 Nickel alloys 4.9-6.8 1.8-2.5 Refractory alloys 3.8-9.6 1.1-3.5 Stainless steels 3.0-5.2 1.1-1.9 Steels 2.7-9.3 1.0-3.4 Titanium alloys 3.0-4.1 1.1-1.5 At drive motor, corrected for 80% eciency; multiply the energy by 1.25 for dull tools.
TABLE 8.3 Approximate Specic-Energy Requirements in Machining Operations
Chip Temperature (C)

0 2000 1400 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 700 0 .008 .016 .024 .032 .040 .048 .056 Distance from tool tip (in.) 400 0
20
600
mm 0.5 1.0 1.5
5 600 00
Temperatures in Cutting
1100 1300 700 1200 C 1100
300
450
400
Work material: AISI 52100 Annealed: 188 HB Tool material: K3H carbide
in
650
Tool
600 Feed: 0.0055 in./rev (0.14 mm/rev) 500
ft/ m i n 55 0 = V
360
Workpiece
800
Flank surface temperature (F)
Local temperature at tool-chip interface (F)
FIGURE 8.1 Typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone. Note the severe temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, and that the workpiece is relatively cool. Source: After G.Vieregge.
(a)
T=
1.2Y f c
Energy (%)
FIGURE 8.18 Proportion of the heat generated in cutting transferred to the tool, workpiece, and chip as a function of the cutting speed. Note that most of the cutting energy is carried away by the chip (in the form of heat), particularly as speed increases.
600 500
1000
200
130 80 30
900
0
500
300 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Fraction of tool-chip contact length measured in the direction of chip flow (b)
V to K
FIGURE 8.2 Temperature distribution in turning as a function of cutting speed: (a) ank temperature; (b) temperature along the tool-chip interface. Note that the rake-face temperature is higher than that at the ank surface. Source: After B.T. Chao and K.J. Trigger.
l Too e piec k r o W
Chip
Cutting speed
38 0
65 0
550 ft/m
0 70
900
00
700
Terminology in Turning
Feed (mm/rev or in./rev) Depth of cut (mm or in.)
Chip Tool
FIGURE 8.19 Terminology used in a turning operation on a lathe, where f is the feed (in mm/rev or in./rev) and d is the depth of cut. Note that feed in turning is equivalent to the depth of cut in orthogonal cutting (see Fig. 8.2), and the depth of cut in turning is equivalent to the width of cut in orthogonal cutting. See also Fig. 8.42.
Rake face Depth-of-cut line Crater wear VBmax VB Flank face
Flank wear
Tool Wear
Taylor tool life equation:
Rake face
Nose radius
Crater wear depth (KT)
Tool
Flank wear Depth-of-cut line (a)
Flank face
Rake face Crater wear Flank face
Rake face
Flank wear
VTn = C
Flank face
(b) (c)
Thermal cracking Flank face
BUE
Rake face
TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various cutting tools.

(e)
(d)
FIGURE 8.20 Examples of wear in cutting tools. (a) Flank wear; (b) crater wear; (c) chipped cutting edge; (d) thermal cracking on rake face; (e) ank wear and built-up edge; (f) catastrophic failure (fracture). Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
High-speed steels Cast alloys Carbides Ceramics
0.08-0.2 0.1-0.15 0.2-0.5 0.5-0.7
Effect of Workpiece on Tool Life

50 0.1 100 d 80 60 40 20 Ferrite 20% 40 60 97 100 0 20 30 (a) Pearlite 80% 60 40 3 _ 40 50 60 70 80 Cutting speed (ft/min) 90
he ro id ize d
120 a b c Tool life (min) e
m/min 100 150 200 250 0.2 m/s 0.3 0.4
80
Tool life (min) 0 100 300 500 700 900 Cutting speed (ft/min)
Sp rrite e-fe t i l r a Pe sitic Marten
40
a. b. c. d. e.
Hardness (HB) 265 As cast 215 As cast 207 As cast Annealed 183 Annealed 170
(b)
FIGURE 8.21 Effect of workpiece microstructure on tool life in turning. Tool life is given in terms of the time (in minutes) required to reach a ank wear land of a specied dimension. (a) Ductile cast iron; (b) steels, with identical hardness. Note in both gures the rapid decrease in tool life as the cutting speed increases.
Tool-Life Curves
m/min 50 100 60 40 20 300 3000 Feed constant, speed variable Speed constant, feed variable 400 200 800 C 1000 1200 1400
300
100
c mi a r e Ce rbid a C
y Cast allo
Tool life (min)
10 n 0.2 1000 5000 10,000 300 Cutting speed (ft/min) 1 0.6
Tool life (min) 10 6 4 2
20
steel High-speed
1 100
1500 1800 2100 2400 Temperature (F) Work material: Heat-resistant alloy Tool material: Tungsten carbide Tool life criterion: 0.024 in. (0.6 mm) flank wear (b)
(a)
FIGURE 8.22 (a) Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent n in tool-life equations. (b) Relationship between measured temperature during cutting and tool life (ank wear). Note that high cutting temperatures severely reduce tool life. See also Eq. (8.30). Source: After H. Takeyama and Y. Murata.
500 c 0.30 mm3/min 0.15
C 700 900 1100
20
Tool Wear
Rake face
Crater wear rate (in3/min x 10-6)
10
0 0 800 1200 1600 2000 Average tool-chip interface temperature (F)
FIGURE 8.23 Relationship between craterwear rate and average tool-chip interface temperature in turning: (a) high-speed-steel tool; (b) C1 carbide; (c) C5 carbide. Note that crater wear increases rapidly within a narrow range of temperature. Source: After K.J. Trigger and B.T. Chao.
Crater wear
TABLE 8.5 Allowable average wear lands for cutting tools in various operations.
Chip
Flank face
Operation Turning Face milling End milling Drilling Reaming
Allowable Wear Land (mm) High-Speed Steels Carbides 1.5 0.4 1.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.15 0.15
FIGURE 8.23 Interface of chip (left) and rake face of cutting tool (right) and crater wear in cutting AISI 1004 steel at 3 m/s (585 ft/min). Discoloration of the tool indicates the presence of high temperature (loss of temper). Note how the crater-wear pattern coincides with the discoloration pattern. Compare this pattern with the temperature distribution shown in Fig. 8.16. Source: Courtesy of P.K. Wright.
Acoustic Emission and Wear

mm in. in. mm 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0 1500 0.050 0.040 0.030 0.020 0.010 0 Mean flank wear Maximum crater depth
ear er w Crat ar k we Fla n
0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0
Mean RMS (mV) 1000 500 0 10 50 20 30 40 Elapsed machining time (min) 60
FIGURE 8.25 Relationship between mean ank wear, maximum crater wear, and acoustic emission (noise generated during cutting) as a function of machining time. This technique has been developed as a means for continuously and indirectly monitoring wear rate in various cutting processes without interrupting the operation. Source: After M.S. Lan and D.A. Dornfeld.
Roughness (Ra) 12.5 500 Average application Less frequent application 6.3 250 3.2 125 1.6 63 0.8 32 0.40 16 0.20 8 0.10 4 0.05 2 0.025 0.012 1 0.5
Process
m 50 in. 2000
25 1000
Rough cutting
Flame cutting
Snagging (coarse grinding)
Surface Finish
Sawing
Casting
Sand casting
Permanent mold casting
Investment casting
Die casting
Forming
Hot rolling
Forging
Extruding
Cold rolling, drawing
Roller burnishing
Machining
Planing, shaping
Milling
Broaching
Reaming
Turning, boring
Drilling
Advanced machining
Chemical machining
Electrical-discharge machining
Electron-beam machining
Laser machining
Electrochemical machining
Finishing processes Honing
Barrel finishing
Electrochemical grinding
Grinding
Electropolishing
Polishing
Lapping
FIGURE 8.26 Range of surface roughnesses obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each group, especially in turning and boring. (See also Fig. 9.27).
Superfinishing
Surfaces in Machining
FIGURE 8.27 Surfaces produced on steel in machining, as observed with a scanning electron microscope: (a) turned surface, and (b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J.T. Black and S. Ramalingam.
(a)
(b)
Increasing depth of cut
Tool
FIGURE 8.28 Schematic illustration of a dull tool in orthogonal cutting (exaggerated). Note that at small depths of cut, the rake angle can effectively become negative. In such cases, the tool may simply ride over the workpiece surface, burnishing it, instead of cutting.
Workpiece
Machined surface
Inclusions in Free-Machining Steels
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.29 Photomicrographs showing various types of inclusions in low-carbon, resulfurized freemachining steels. (a) Manganese-sulde inclusions in AISI 1215 steel. (b) Manganese-sulde inclusions and glassy manganese-silicate-type oxide (dark) in AISI 1215 steel. (c) Manganese sulde with lead particles as tails in AISI 12L14 steel. Source: Courtesy of Ispat Inland Inc.
Hardness of Cutting Tools

C 500 700
95
100
300
Cera mics
70 65 60 55
st a
90
85
Ca rbid es
80
Ca
r
HRC
Ca
llo ys
45 40 35 30 25 20 50
to
st ol
n bo
75
Hardness (HRA)
70
e e ls
65
ls tee s ed spe h Hig
60
55
FIGURE 8.30 Hardness of various cutting-tool materials as a function of temperature (hot hardness). The wide range in each group of tool materials results from the variety of compositions and treatments available for that group.
200
400
600 800 1000 1200 1400 Temperature (F)
Tool Materials
Carbides High-Speed Steel 83-86 HRA WC 90-95 HRA 4100-5850 600-850 3100-3850 450-560 2750-4500 400-650 6900 1000 TiC 91-93 HRA Ceramics 91-95 HRA 1500-2300 220-335 Cast Alloys 82-84 HRA Cubic Boron Nitride 4000-5000 HK 6900 1000 Single Crystal Diamond 7000-8000 HK
TABLE 8.6 Typical range of properties of various tool materials.
1380-2050 200-300 0.34-1.25 3-11 8000-8700 0.29-0.31 10-20 70-90 10,000-15,000 0.36-0.54 5500-5800 0.2-0.22 520-690 75-100 310-450 45-65 0.34-1.35 3-12 0.79-1.24 7-11 < 0.1 <1 310-410 45-60 4000-4500 0.14-0.16 100
1050-2600 150-375
1380-1900 200-275
345-950 50-135
700 105-200 < 0.5 <5 850 125 3500 0.13 95
1350
< 0.2 <2 820-1050 120-150 3500 0.13 95
1400 2550 42-125
1400 2550 17
2000 3600 29
1300 2400 13 4.8
700 1300 500-2000 1.5-4.8
Property Hardness Compressive strength MPa 4100-4500 psi 103 600-650 Transverse rupture strength MPa 2400-4800 psi 103 350-700 Impact strength J 1.35-8 in.-lb 12-70 Modulus of elasticity GPa 200 psi 106 30 Density kg/m3 8600 lb/in3 0.31 Volume of hard phase (%) 7-15 Melting or decomposition temperature C 1300 F 2370 Thermal conductivity, W/mK 30-50 Coecient of thermal expansion, 106 / C 12 The values for polycrystalline diamond 4-6.5 7.5-9 6-8.5 are generally lower, except impact strength, which is higher.
Properties of Tungsten-Carbide Tools

600 HRA 92.4 1750 500 90.5 1500 88.5 1250 85.7 1000 750 400 300 200
n Tra
Co mp res sive Ha stre r dn ngth ess

ru p t rs e ur e str
e n gt h
100
Wear (mg), compressive and transverserupture strength (kg/mm2)
r Wea
0 5 10 15 20 25 Cobalt content (% by weight)
500 30
FIGURE 8.31 Effect of cobalt content in tungsten-carbide tools on mechanical properties. Note that hardness is directly related to compressive strength (see Section 2.6.8) and hence, inversely to wear [see Eq. (4.6)].
Vickers hardness (HV)
sve
Inserts
Insert Lockpin Seat Shank
Toolholder
Clamp screw
Clamp
Insert Seat or shim (b) (c)
(a)
FIGURE 8.32 Methods of mounting inserts on toolholders: (a) clamping, and (b) wing lockpins. (c) Examples of inserts mounted using threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws. Source: Courtesy of Valenite.
Insert Strength
Increasing strength 80 60 55 35
100
90
Increased chipping and breaking
FIGURE 8.33 Relative edge strength and tendency for chipping and breaking of inserts with various shapes. Strength refers to that of the cutting edge shown by the included angles. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Negative with land Negative honed Negative sharp Negative with land and hone Positive with hone Positive sharp Increasing edge strength
FIGURE 8.34 Edge preparations for inserts to improve edge strength. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Historical Tool Improvement

100 Carbon steel
26 High-speed steel Cast cobalt-based alloys Cemented carbides Improved carbide grades First coated grades First double-coated grades First triple-coated grades Functionally graded triple-coated 15 6 3 1.5 1 0.7 0.5 1900 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 00 Year
FIGURE 8.35 Relative time required to machine with various cutting-tool materials, with indication of the year the tool materials were introduced. Note that, within one century, machining time has been reduced by two orders of magnitude. Source: After Sandvik Coromant.
Machining time (min)
Coated Tools
TiN TiC + TiN Al2O3 TiN Al2O3 TiN Al2O3 TiC + TiN Carbide substrate
Rake face Tool
TiN coated Uncoated
Flank wear
FIGURE 8.36 Wear patterns on high-speed-steel uncoated and titanium-nitride-coated cutting tools. Note that ank wear is lower for the coated tool.
FIGURE 8.37 Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide are separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. Inserts with as many as 13 layers of coatings have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range of 2 to 10 m. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, Inc.
Properties of Cutting Tool Materials

Diamond, cubic boron nitride Aluminum oxide (HIP) Aluminum oxide + 30% titanium carbide Silicon nitride Cermets Coated carbides Carbides
Hot hardness and wear resistance
HSS
Strength and toughness
FIGURE 8.38 Ranges of properties for various groups of cutting-tool materials. (See also Tables 8.1 through 8.5.)
Tungsten-carbide insert Braze Polycrystalline cubic boron nitride or diamond layer Carbide substrate
FIGURE 8.39 Construction of polycrystalline cubicboron-nitride or diamond layer on a tungsten-carbide insert.
Characteristics of Machining
Commercial tolerances (mm) Fine: 0.05-0.13 Rough: 0.13 Skiving: 0.025-0.05 0.025
Process Turning
Boring
Drilling
0.075
Milling
0.13-0.25
Planing
0.08-0.13
Shaping
0.05-0.13
Broaching
0.025-0.15
Sawing
Characteristics Turning and facing operations are performed on all types of materials; requires skilled labor; low production rate, but medium to high rates can be achieved with turret lathes and automatic machines, requiring less skilled labor. Internal surfaces or proles, with characteristics similar to those produced by turning; stiness of boring bar is important to avoid chatter. Round holes of various sizes and depths; requires boring and reaming for improved accuracy; high production rate, labor skill required depends on hole location and accuracy specied. Variety of shapes involving contours, at surfaces, and slots; wide variety of tooling; versatile; low to medium production rate; requires skilled labor. Flat surfaces and straight contour proles on large surfaces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. Flat surfaces and straight contour proles on relatively small workpieces; suitable for low-quantity production; labor skill required depends on part shape. External and internal at surfaces, slots, and contours with good surface nish; costly tooling; high production rate; labor skill required depends on part shape. Straight and contour cuts on ats or structural shapes; not suitable for hard materials unless the saw has carbide teeth or is coated with diamond; low production rate; requires only low skilled labor. 0.8
TABLE 8.7 General characteristics of machining processes.
Depth of cut
Lathe Operations
(b) Taper turning (c) Profiling
Feed, f
Tool
(a) Straight turning
(d) Turning and external grooving (e) Facing (f) Face grooving
(g) Cutting with a form tool Workpiece
(h) Boring and internal grooving
(i) Drilling
(j) Cutting off
(k) Threading
(l) Knurling
FIGURE 8.40 Variety of machining operations that can be performed on a lathe.
Tool Angles
End cutting-edge angle (ECEA) Rake face Shank Nose angle Nose radius
Side rake angle (RA)
Back rake angle (BRA)
Wedge angle
Side relief angle (SRA) (b) Side view (c) Top view
End relief angle (ERA)
Flank face
Side cutting-edge angle (SCEA)
FIGURE 8.41 Designations and symbols for a right-hand cutting tool. The designation right hand means that the tool travels from right to left, as shown in Fig. 8.19.
(a) End view
Material
Back rake 20 5 10 5 0 0 0 5 0 0 20 5 10 0 0 15 10 12 8-10 10 12 8 5 5 5 5 5 5 20-30 20-30
Side rake
High-speed steel End Side Side and end relief relief cutting edge 10 8 5 5 5 5 5 5 15-20 15-20 5 5 15 15 15 5 15 15 10 10
Back rake 0 0 -5 -5-0 5 0 -5 -5 0 0
Side rake 5 5 -5 -5-5 0 0 -5 -5 0 15
Carbide inserts End Side Side and end relief relief cutting edge 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 20-30 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 15-20 5 15 15 15 15 45 15 5 15 10 15
TA B L E 8.8 General recommendations for tool angles in turning.
Aluminum and magnesium alloys Copper alloys Steels Stainless steels High-temperature alloys Refractory alloys Titanium alloys Cast irons Thermoplastics Thermosets
Turning Operations
N N Workpiece d Df Do
Fc Ft Fr
Chuck
Tool (a)
Feed, f
Tool
Feed, f (b)
FIGURE 8.42 (a) Schematic illustration of a turning operation, showing depth of cut, d, and feed, f. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b) Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning. Fc is the cutting force; Ft is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of feed); and Fr is the radial force that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this gure with Fig. 8.11 for a two-dimensional cutting operation.
Cutting Speeds for Turning

0.50 0.75
0.10
mm/rev 0.20 0.30
3000 900 Cubic boron nitride, diamond, and 600 ceramics
2000
1000 m/min 150 100 50 Coated carbides
Cermets 300
Cutting speed (ft/min)
500
Uncoated carbides
300
200 0.020 0.030
0.004
0.008 0.012 Feed (in./rev)
Cutting Speed Workpiece Material m/min ft/min Aluminum alloys 200-1000 650-3300 Cast iron, gray 60-900 200-3000 Copper alloys 50-700 160-2300 High-temperature alloys 20-400 65-1300 Steels 50-500 160-1600 Stainless steels 50-300 160-1000 Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-240 300-800 Titanium alloys 10-100 30-330 Tungsten alloys 60-150 200-500 Note: (a) The speeds given in this table are for carbides and ceramic cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed-steel tools are lower than indicated. The higher ranges are for coated carbides and cermets. Speeds for diamond tools are signicantly higher than any of the values indicated in the table. (b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 0.5-12 mm (0.020.5 in.). (c) Feeds, f , are generally in the range of 0.15-1 mm/rev (0.0060.040 in./rev).
FIGURE 8.43 The range of applicable cutting speeds and feeds for a variety of cutting-tool materials.
TABLE 8.9 Approximate Ranges of Recommended Cutting Speeds for Turning Operations
Lathe
Compound rest Carriage Ways Dead center Tailstock quill Tailstock assembly Handwheel
Tool post
Spindle (with chuck) Headstock assembly
Spindle speed selector
Cross slide
Clutch
Longitudinal & transverse feed control Bed Lead screw Feed rod Clutch
Feed selector
Apron
Split nut
Chip pan
FIGURE 8.44 General view of a typical lathe, showing various major components. Source: Courtesy of Heidenreich & Harbeck.
CNC Lathe
Chuck Drill Round turret for OD operations Multitooth cutter
CNC unit
Tool for turning or boring
Reamer Individual motors Drill Tailstock (a) (b)
End turret for ID operations
FIGURE 8.45 (a) A computer-numerical-control lathe, with two turrets; these machines have higher power and spindle speed than other lathes in order to take advantage of advanced cutting tools with enhanced properties; (b) a typical turret equipped with ten cutting tools, some of which are powered.
Typical CNC Parts
67.4 mm (2.654") 235.6 mm (9.275") 50.8 mm (2")
87.9 mm (3.462") 98.4 mm (3.876") 53.2 mm (2.094") 78.5 mm (3.092") Material: 52100 alloy steel Number of tools: 4 Total machining time (two operations): 6.32 minutes (b) Inner bearing race
23.8 mm (0.938")
85.7 mm (3.375") 32 threads per in.
Material: Titanium alloy Number of tools: 7 Total machining time (two operations): 5.25 minutes
Material: 1020 Carbon Steel Number of tools: 8 Total machining time (two operations): 5.41 minutes (c) Tube reducer
(a) Housing base
FIGURE 8.46 Typical parts made on computer-numerical-control machine tools.
Typical Production Rates

Operation Rate Turning Engine lathe Very low to low Tracer lathe Low to medium Turret lathe Low to medium Computer-control lathe Low to medium Single-spindle chuckers Medium to high Multiple-spindle chuckers High to very high Boring Very low Drilling Low to medium Milling Low to medium Planing Very low Gear cutting Low to medium Broaching Medium to high Sawing Very low to low Note: Production rates indicated are relative: Very low is about one or more parts per hour; medium is approximately 100 parts per hour; very high is 1000 or more parts per hour.
TABLE 8.10 Typical production rates for various cutting operations.
Boring Mill
Cross-rail
Tool head Workpiece Work table Bed Column
FIGURE 8.47 Schematic illustration of the components of a vertical boring mill.
Drills
Point angle Drill diameter Body diameter clearance Flutes Helix angle Lip-relief angle
Web
Tang
Taper shank
Tang drive Clearance diameter
Chisel-edge angle
Shank diameter Chisel edge Flute length Margin Lip Body
Neck Straight shank
Shank length
nd La
Overall length (a) Chisel-point drill
FIGURE 8.48 Two common types of drills: (a) Chisel-point drill. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hole as it penetrates into the workpiece. Drills with four margins (double-margin) are available for improved drill guidance and accuracy. Drills with chip-breaker features are also available. (b) Crankshaft drills. These drills have good centering ability, and because chips tend to break up easily, they are suitable for producing deep holes.
Drilling
Core drilling
Step drilling
Counterboring
Countersinking
Reaming
Center drilling
Gun drilling
(b) Crankshaft-point drill
High-pressure coolant
FIGURE 8.49 Various types of drills and drilling operations.
Speeds and Feeds in Drilling

Surface Speed
Feed, mm/rev (in./rev) Spindle speed (rpm) Drill Diameter Drill Diameter Workpiece 1.5 mm 12.5 mm 1.5 mm 12.5 mm Material m/min ft/min (0.060 in.) (0.5 in.) (0.060 in.) (0.5 in.) Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 6400-25,000 800-3000 Magnesium alloys 45-120 150-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000 Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500 Steels 20-30 60-100 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-6400 500-800 Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.001) 0.18 (0.007) 2100-4300 250-500 Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (0.0004) 0.15 (0.006) 1300-4300 150-500 Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) 4300-12,000 500-1500 Thermoplastics 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.13 (0.005) 6400-12,000 800-1500 Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.10 (0.004) 4300-12,000 500-1500 Note: As hole depth increases, speeds and feeds should be reduced. Selection of speeds and feeds also depends on the specic surface nish required.
TABLE 8.11 General recommendations for speeds and feeds in drilling.
Reamers and Taps

Radial rake Margin width Land width
Chamfer length
Chamfer angle
Chamfer relief
FIGURE 8.50 Terminology for a helical reamer.
Helix angle, Primary relief angle
Chamfer angle Land
Chamfer relief
Tap Nut Rake angle
Heel Cutting edge
FIGURE 8.51 (a) Terminology for a tap; (b) illustration of tapping of steel nuts in high production.
Flute
Hook angle (a) (b)
Typical Machined Parts
(a) Stepped cavity
(b)
(c) Drilled and tapped holes
(d)
(e)
(f)
FIGURE 8.52 Typical parts and shapes produced by the machining processes described in Section 8.10.
Conventional and Climb Milling

D D tc N d f v lc v Workpiece l Cutter
Cutter d
Workpiece Conventional Climb milling milling (b)
(a)
(c)
FIGURE 8.53 (a) Illustration showing the difference between conventional milling and climb milling. (b) Slab-milling operation, showing depth of cut, d; feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, tc and workpiece speed, v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, lc, to reach full depth of cut.
Face Milling
lc Workpiece v v v D l d w Machined surface lc Cutter w l f Workpiece
Insert
Cutter
FIGURE 8.54 Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
(a)
(b) (c) (d)
End cutting-edge angle Corner angle Axial rake, 1
Peripheral relief (radial relief)
FIGURE 8.55 Terminology for a facemilling cutter.
End relief (axial relief)
Radial rake, 2
Cutting Mechanics
Lead angle
Insert
Undeformed chip thickness Depth of cut, d f
Feed per tooth, f
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.56 The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling. Note that as the lead angle increases, the undeformed chip thickness (and hence the thickness of the chip) decreases, but the length of contact (and hence the width of the chip) increases. Note that the insert must be sufciently large to accommodate the increase in contact length.
Workpiece
Exit Entry
Re-entry Exit Cutter Milled surface
Desirable Cutter (a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 8.57 (a) Relative position of the cutter and the insert as it rst engages the workpiece in face milling, (b) insert positions at entry and exit near the end of cut, and (c) examples of exit angles of the insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle) positions. In all gures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page.
Undesirable
Milling Operations
Arbor
(a) Straddle milling
(b) Form milling
Cutting Speed Workpiece Material m/min ft/min Aluminum alloys 300-3000 1000-10,000 Cast iron, gray 90-1300 300-4200 Copper alloys 90-1000 300-3300 High-temperature alloys 30-550 100-1800 Steels 60-450 200-1500 Stainless steels 90-500 300-1600 Thermoplastics and thermosets 90-1400 300-4500 Titanium alloys 40-150 130-500 Note: (a) These speeds are for carbides, ceramic, cermets, and diamond cutting tools. Speeds for high-speed-steel tools are lower than those indicated in this table. (b) Depths of cut, d, are generally in the range of 1-8 mm (0.04-0.3 in.). (c) Feeds per tooth, f , are generally in the range of 0.08-0.46 mm/rev (0.003-0.018 in./rev).
(c) Slotting
(d) Slitting
FIGURE 8.58 Cutters for (a) straddle milling; (b) form milling; (c) slotting; and (d) slitting operations.
TABLE 8.12 Approximate range of recommended cutting speeds for milling operations.
Milling Machines
Head Overarm Column Work table Saddle T-slots Knee Base Workpiece Saddle Work table
Arbor
Column
Workpiece
T-slots Knee
Base
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 8.59 (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine. Source: After G. Boothroyd.
Broaching
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.60 (a) Typical parts nished by internal broaching. (b) Parts nished by surface broaching. The heavy lines indicate broached surfaces; (c) a vertical broaching machine. Source: (a) and (b) Courtesy of General Broach and Engineering Company, (c) Courtesy of Ty Miles, Inc.
Broaches
Rake or hook angle Land Pitch Backoff or clearance angle Tooth depth
Chip gullet
Cut per tooth Workpiece Root radius (b)
FIGURE 8.61 (a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features. (b) Terminology for a broach.
(a)
Semifinishing teeth Front pilot Roughening teeth Finishing teeth
Pull end
Rear pilot Follower diameter Root diameter
Shank length
Cutting teeth Overall length
FIGURE 8.62 Terminology for a pull-type internal broach, typically used for enlarging long holes.
Saws and Saw Teeth

Tooth set Straight tooth Width Raker tooth
Back edge
Tooth spacing
Tooth face Gullet depth Tooth rake angle (positive) Wave tooth (a) (b)
Tooth back (flank)
Tooth back clearance angle
FIGURE 8.63 (a) Terminology for saw teeth. (b) Types of saw teeth, staggered to provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent binding during sawing.
M2 HSS 64-66 HRC Electron-beam weld Flexible alloy-steel backing Carbide insert
FIGURE 8.64 (a) High-speed-steel teeth welded on a steel blade. (b) Carbide inserts brazed to blade teeth.
(a)
(b)
Gear cutter Base circle Cutter spindle Spacer
Pitch circle
Gear blank Pinion-shaped cutter (b) Gear blank Gear teeth
Gear Manufacture
Pitch circle
Base circle
(a)
Top view
Gear blank
Hob
Rack-shaped cutter Hob
Gear blank
Gear blank
FIGURE 8.65 (a) Schematic illustration of gear generating with a pinion-shaped gear cutter. (b) Schematic illustration of gear generating in a gear shaper, using a pinion-shaped cutter; note that the cutter reciprocates vertically. (c) Gear generating with a rack-shaped cutter. (d) Three views of gear cutting with a hob. Source: After E.P. DeGarmo.
(d)
(c)
Machining Centers
Tool-interchange arm Traveling column Spindle Spindle carrier Computer numerical-control panel Pallets Bed
Tool storage
Tools (cutters)
FIGURE 8.66 A horizontal-spindle machining center, equipped with an automatic tool changer. Tool magazines in such machines can store as many as 200 cutting tools, each with its own holder. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Machine.
Index table
1st Turret head 2nd Turret head 1st Spindle head 2nd Spindle head 3rd Turret head
FIGURE 8.67 Schematic illustration of a computer numerical-controlled turning center. Note that the machine has two spindle heads and three turret heads, making the machine tool very exible in its capabilities. Source: Courtesy of Hitachi Seiki Co., Ltd.
Recongurable Machines
Magazine unit Rotational motion
Arm unit Functional unit
Rotational motion Linear motion
Linear motion
Bed unit
Base unit
Arm unit
FIGURE 8.68 Schematic illustration of a recongurable modular machining center, capable of accommodating workpieces of different shapes and sizes, and requiring different machining operations on their various surfaces. Source: After Y. Koren.
Recongurable Machining Center
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 8.69 Schematic illustration of assembly of different components of a recongurable machining center. Source: After Y. Koren.
Machining of Bearing Races

Tube
Form tool 2. Boring and grooving on outside diameter 3. Internal grooving with a radius-form tool
1. Finish turning of outside diameter
Form tool
Bearing race 6. Cutting off finished part; inclined bar picks up bearing race
4. Finish boring of internal groove and rough boring of internal diameter
5. Internal grooving with form tool and chamfering
FIGURE 8.70 Sequences involved in machining outer bearing races on a turning center.
Hexapod
Hexapod legs
Spindle
Cutting tool Workpiece (a) (b)
FIGURE 8.71 (a) A hexapod machine tool, showing its major components. (b) Closeup view of the cutting tool and its head in a hexapod machining center. Source: National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Chatter & Vibration

10-1 V 10-1 V
1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0 -0.4 -0.8 -1.2 -1.6 -2.0 Cast iron 0 (a) 1000 2000 10-5 s 3000 4000 0 1000
1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0 20.4 20.8 21.2 21.6 22.0
Epoxy/graphite 2000 10-5 s (b) 3000 4000
FIGURE 8.72 Chatter marks (right of center of photograph) on the surface of a turned part. Source: Courtesy of General Electric Company.
FIGURE 8.73 Relative damping capacity of (a) gray cast iron and (b) epoxy-granite composite material. The vertical scale is the amplitude of vibration and the horizontal scale is time.
Increasing damping
Bed only Bed + headstock
Bed + carriage
Bed + carriage + headstock
Complete machine
FIGURE 8.74 Damping of vibrations as a function of the number of components on a lathe. Joints dissipate energy; thus, the greater the number of joints, the higher the damping. Source: After J. Peters.
Total cost Machining cost Tool-change cost Nonproductive cost Tool cost
Machining Economics
Cost per piece
Cutting speed
(a) High-efficiency machining range
Total time
Time per piece
Machining time Tool-changing time Nonproductive time
FIGURE 8.75 Qualitative plots showing (a) cost per piece, and (b) time per piece in machining. Note that there is an optimum cutting speed for both cost and time, respectively. The range between the two optimum speeds is known as the high-efciency machining range.
Cutting speed
(b)
Case Study: Ping Golf Putters
FIGURE 8.76 (a) The Ping Anser golf putter; (b) CAD model of rough machining of the putter outer surface; (c) rough machining on a vertical machining center; (d) machining of the lettering in a vertical machining center; the operation was paused to take the photo, as normally the cutting zone is ooded with a coolant; Source: Courtesy of Ping Golf, Inc.

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Manufacturing Process

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Common Machining Processes

Tool Tool (b) Cutting off (a) Straight turning

Cutter End mill

(c) Slab milling

(d) End milling

FIGURE 8.1 Some examples of common machining processes.

Shiny surface Tool face

Primary shear zone

Secondary shear zones

Tool Chip Tool Primary shear zone BUE

Primary shear Workpiece zone

Low shear strain

High shear strain

Hardness in Cutting Zone

316 Built-up edge

Hardness (HK) (b)

474 661 588 565 492 588 331 286 656

Workpiece 230 (a) (c)

Workpiece Workpiece (b) (c) i = 30

Right-Hand Cutting Tool

End-cutting edge angle (ECEA)

Cutting edge Back-rake angle, + (BR) Nose radius Flank

Axis (a) (b)

100 20 25 30 0 35 40 (N) 15 400

25 20.9 35 31.6 40 35.7 45 41.9 to = 0.0025

TABLE 8.2 Data on orthogonal cutting of 9445 steel.

2200 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 Feed (in./rev)

Shear Force & Normal Force

Shear Stress on Tool Face

Sticking Stresses on tool face Tool tip

Merchant [Eq. (8.20)]

Mizuno [Eqs. (8.22)-(8.23]

Shaffer [Eq. (8.21)]

TABLE 8.3 Approximate Specic-Energy Requirements in Machining Operations

Chip Temperature (C)

Flank surface temperature (F)

Local temperature at tool-chip interface (F)

Rake face Depth-of-cut line Crater wear VBmax VB Flank face

Crater wear depth (KT)

Flank wear Depth-of-cut line (a)

Rake face Crater wear Flank face

Thermal cracking Flank face

TABLE 8.4 Range of n values for various cutting tools.

High-speed steels Cast alloys Carbides Ceramics

0.08-0.2 0.1-0.15 0.2-0.5 0.5-0.7

Effect of Workpiece on Tool Life

120 a b c Tool life (min) e

m/min 100 150 200 250 0.2 m/s 0.3 0.4

Sp rrite e-fe t i l r a Pe sitic Marten

Tool life (min)

10 n 0.2 1000 5000 10,000 300 Cutting speed (ft/min) 1 0.6

Tool life (min) 10 6 4 2

500 c 0.30 mm3/min 0.15

C 700 900 1100

Crater wear rate (in3/min x 10-6)

0 0 800 1200 1600 2000 Average tool-chip interface temperature (F)

Operation Turning Face milling End milling Drilling Reaming

Acoustic Emission and Wear

ear er w Crat ar k we Fla n

0.005 0.004 0.003 0.002 0.001 0

Mean RMS (mV) 1000 500 0 10 50 20 30 40 Elapsed machining time (min) 60

Snagging (coarse grinding)

Permanent mold casting

Cold rolling, drawing