Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jyh-Cherng Shieh
Department of Bio-Industrial Mechatronics Engineering National Taiwan University 12/21/2009 1
MAIN TOPICS
General Characteristics of Pipe Flow Fully Developed Laminar Flow Fully Developed Turbulent Flow Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow Pipe Flow Examples Pipe Flowrate Measurement
Introduction
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called INTERNAL FLOWS which include flows through pipes (Round cross section), ducts (NOT Round cross section), nozzles, diffusers, sudden contractions and expansions, valves, and fittings. The basic principles involved are independent of the cross-sectional shape, although the details of the flow may be dependent on it. The flow regime (laminar or turbulent) of internal flows is primarily a function of the Reynolds number. BLaminar flow: Can be solved analytically. BTurbulent flow: Rely heavily on semi-empirical theories and experimental data. Internal flow
Pipe System
A pipe system include the pipes themselves (perhaps of more than one diameter), the various fittings, the flowrate control devices valves , and the pumps or turbines.
Pipe flow: Flows completely filling the pipe. (a) The pressure gradient along the pipe is main driving force. Open channel flow: Flows without completely filling the pipe. (b) The gravity alone is the driving force.
Open channel flow
Pipe flow
The flow of a fluid in a pipe may be Laminar ? Turbulent ? Reynolds Osborne Reynolds, a British scientist and mathematician, was the first to distinguish the difference between these classification of flow by using a simple apparatus as shown. Reynolds
7
>For small enough flowrate the dye streak will remain as a well-defined line as it flows along, with only slight blurring due to molecular diffusion of the dye into the surrounding water. >For a somewhat larger intermediate flowrate the dye fluctuates in time and space, and intermittent bursts of irregular behavior appear along the streak. >For large enough flowrate the dye streak almost immediately become blurred and spreads across the entire pipe in a random fashion.
streakRandom
The term flowrate should be replaced by Reynolds number, R e = VD / ,where V is the average velocity in the pipe. It is not only the fluid velocity that determines the character of the flow its density, viscosity, and the pipe size are of equal importance. For general engineering purpose, the flow in a round pipe
10
In honor of Osborne Reynolds (1842~1912), the British engineer who first demonstrated that this combination of variables could be used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent flow. The Reynolds number is a measure of the ration of the inertia forces to viscous forces. If the Reynolds number is small (Re<<1), this is an indication that the viscous forces are dominant in the problem, and it may be possible to neglect the inertial effects; that is, the density of the fluid will no be an important variable.
Re << 1viscous forcesinertial force
11
Flows with very small Reynolds numbers are commonly referred to as creeping flows. Reynolds numberflowcreeping flows For large Reynolds number flow, the viscous effects are small relative to inertial effects and for these cases it may be possible to neglect the effect of viscosity and consider the problem as one involving a nonviscous fluid. Flows with large Reynolds number generally are turbulent. Flows in which the inertia forces are small compared with the viscous forces are characteristically laminar flows.
Re>>1inertial forceviscous forceviscous effect Reynolds numberturbulent flow inertial force<viscous forcelaminar flow
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13
V = 2100 / D = 0 .486 ft / s
V V = = .... = 8 .85 s t= 2 Q ( / 4 ) D V
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How flowing fluid developed within pipe
15
..
Any fluid flowing in a pipe had to enter the pipe at some location. The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is termed the entrance region.
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uniform flows
The fluid typically enters the pipe with a nearly uniform velocity profile at section (1). The region of flow near where the fluid enters the pipe is termed the entrance region. As the fluid moves through the pipe, viscous effects cause it to stick to the pipe wall (the no slip boundary condition).
uniform flow No slip boundary condition
viscous effect
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BLviscous effect
Viscous effects are of considerable importance within the boundary layer. Outside the boundary layer, the viscous effects are negligible. BLPIPE.. The shape of the velocity profile in the pipe depends on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, as does the length of the entrance region, ll .
For laminar flow For turbulent flow
ll = 0.06R e D
ll 1/ 6 = 4.4R e D
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velocity profiles
Once the fluid reaches the end of the entrance region, section (2), the flow is simpler to describe because the velocity is a function of only the distance from the pipe centerline, r, and independent of x. The flow between (2) and (3) is termed fully developed.
velocity profile
velocity profilesfunction of r
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pressure distribution
21
p .. x
The magnitude of the pressure gradient is larger than that in the fully developed region.
p p = < 0 x l
22
F = ma
z Force balance ma z Laminar flowTurbulent flow z Laminar flow Laminar flow z Turbulent flow
24
25
Because the velocity is not uniform across the pipe, the initially flat end of the cylinder of fluid at time t become distorted at time t+t when the fluid element has moved to its new location along the pipe. If the flow is fully developed and steady, the distortion on each end of the fluid element is the same, and no part of the fluid experiences any acceleration as it flows. r r r V u Steady Fully developed V V = u i = 0 =0 x t
fluid element
26
Fx = ma x
The force balance
2 2
p 2 p1r (p p )r l(2r ) = 0 = r l
Basic balance in forces needed to drive each fluid particle along the pipe with constant velocity
Not function of r
p 2 = l r
? = Cr
B.C. r=0 =0 r=D/2 = w
2 w r = D B.C.
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The pressure drop and wall shear stress are related by 2 r p 2 4 l w = w = = p D l r D Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.
LaminarTurbulent flow Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Laminar du = dr
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Laminar flow
p du = r dr 2 l p 2 p 4 l r + C1 du = 2l rdr u =
Turbulent flow
4 l w p = D
2r 2 2r 2 1 = VC 1 D D 2 r w D 1 u(r) = 4 R pD 2 u(r) = 16 l
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Poiseuilles Law
Valid for Laminar flow only
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31
From F=ma
8/8
p p l sin
p l sin 2 = l r
Vaverage
( p l sin )D 2 =
32l
(p l sin )D 4 Q= 128l
32
33
The flow is laminar flow 128 l Q p = p1 p 2 = = ... = 20 .4 kPa 4 D If the pipe is on the hill of angle with p=0
sin =
35
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Steady flow 0
r r p r r V r 2 + V V = + g + V t momentum
equation
For steady, fully developed flow in a pipe, the velocity contains only an axial component, which is a function of r r only the radial coordinate V = u ( r ) i r
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u xx yx zx u u u + + = +u +v +w g x + x y z y z t x xy yy zy v v v v g y + + + = +u +v +w x y z x y z t w xz yz zz w w w g z + + + = +u +v +w x y z x y z t
These are the differential equations of motion for any fluid satisfying the continuum assumption.
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Stress-Deformation chapter 6
The stresses must be expressed in terms of the velocity and pressure field.
Cartesian coordinates
r u 2 xx = p V + 2 x 3 r v 2 yy = p V + 2 y 3 r w 2 zz = p V + 2 z 3 v u xy = yx = x + y xz = zx yz = zy w u = + x z w v = y + z
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Under incompressible flow with constant viscosity conditions, the Navier-Stokes equations are reduced to:
constant
2u 2u 2u u u u u p + t + u x + v y + w z = x + g x + 2 + 2 2 x y z 2v 2v 2v v v v v p + t + u x + v y + w z = y + g y + 2 + 2 2 x y z 2w 2w 2w w w w w p + + t + u x + v y + w z = z + g z + 2 2 2 x y z
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r r 2 p + gk = V
r V = 0
Navier-Stokes equation
The flow is governed by a balance of pressure, weight, and viscous forces in the flow direction.
pressureweightviscous force
41
p p p = const. = x x l
Integrating
p = F ( V , l, D , )
D p l = V D
UNKNOWN
43
C
Vaverage Q Q pD 2 = = = 2 A R 32 l
44
l V 2 p = f D 2
D p l f= V 2 2
f is termed the friction factor, or sometimes the Darcy friction factor.
64 8 w f= = Re V 2
4 l w p = D
45
47
pD4 = Kp Q= 128l
1 .60 10 5 K=
pD 4 l w p = w = = ... = 1.24lb / ft 2 D 4l
48
The values of these two forces are the same. The net force is zero; there is no acceleration.
49
Turbulent flow
50
Turbulent pipe flow is actually more likely to occur than laminar flow in practical situations. Turbulent flow is a very complex process. Numerous persons have devoted considerable effort in an attempting to understand the variety of baffling aspects of turbulence. Although a considerable amount if knowledge about the topics has been developed, the field of turbulent flow still remains the least understood area of fluid mechanics. turbulent pipe flow
Much remains to be learned about the nature of turbulent flow.
Turbulent flow
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Consider a long section of pipe that is initially filled with a fluid at rest.
52
Turbulent flows involve randomly fluctuating parameters. The character of many of the important properties of the flow (pressure drop, heat transfer, etc.) depends strongly on the existence and nature of the turbulent fluctuations or randomness.
A typical trace of the axial component of velocity measured at a given location in the flow, u=u(t).
turbulent status
Turbulent flows are characterized by random, three dimensional vorticity. Turbulent flows can be described in terms of their mean values on which are superimposed the fluctuations.
turbulent flow
1 u= T
tO +T
tO
u (x , y, z, t )dt
u' = u u
u = u + u'
55
t +T
O
tO
(u')2 dt > 0
t O +T
Turbulence intensity
( u' ) 2 u
1 T =
tO
(u') dt u
2
The larger the turbulence intensity, the larger the fluctuations of the velocity. Welldesigned wind tunnels have typical value of =0.01, although with extreme care, values as low as =0.0002 have been obtained. 56
57
Laminar flow is modeled as fluid particles that flow smoothly along in layers, gliding past the slightly slower or faster ones on either side. The fluid actually consists of numerous molecules darting about in an almost random fashion. The motion is not entirely random a slight bias in one direction. As the molecules dart across a given plane (plane A-A, for example), the ones moving upward have come from an area of smaller average x component of velocity than the ones moving downward, which have come from an area of large velocity.
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dy
59
The turbulent flow is thought as a series of random, threedimensional eddy type motions. These eddies range in size from very small diameter to fairly large diameter. This eddy structure greatly promotes mixing within the fluid.
random3Deddy
Laminar flow
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u' v'
u' v' 0
As we approach wall, and is zero at the wall wall (the wall tends to suppress the fluctuations.)
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Laminar flow
Near the wall (the viscous sublayer), the laminar shear stress lam is dominant. laminar shear stress Away from the wall (in the outer layer) , the turbulent shear stress turb is dominant. The transition between these two regions occurs in the overlap layer.
Laminar flow Turbulent flow transition
62
63
turb: requiring an accurate knowledge of the fluctuations u and v, or u ' v ' The shear stress for turbulent flow is given in terms of the eddy viscosity .
turb
?
du = dy
This extension of of laminar flow terminology was introduced by J. Boussubesq, a French scientist, in 1877.
du = l dy
2 m
There is no general, all-encompassing, useful model that can accurately predict the shear stress throughout a general incompressible, viscous turbulent flow.
modelviscous turbulent flowshear stress
65
Fully developed turbulent flow in a pipe can be broken into three region: the viscous sublayer, the overlap region, and the outer turbulent sublayer. sublayerstress Within the viscous sublayer the shear stress is dominant compared with the turbulent stress, and the random, eddying nature of the flow is essentially absent. In the outer turbulent layer the Reynolds stress is dominant, and there is considerable mixing and randomness to the flow. Within the viscous sublayer the fluid viscosity is an important parameter; the density is unimportant. In the outer layer the opposite is true. viscous sublayer
shear stress vs. velocity gradient
66
Considerable information concerning turbulent velocity profiles has been obtained through the use of dimensional analysis, and semiempirical theoretical efforts. layer In the viscous sublayer the velocity profile can be written in dimensionless form as * u yu + u = * = = y + Law of the wall u
Kinematic viscosity
u * = ( w / )
1/ 2
yu * 0 5
67
u yu = 2 .5 ln + 5 .0 u y
Determined experimentally
yu for > 30
U u R = 2 .5 ln u y
for
yu * 5-7 30
68
u yu = * u
yu u = 2.5 ln + 5.0 u y
69
The velocity profile for turbulent flow through a smooth pipe may also be approximated by the empirical power-law equation
u y = U R
1/ n
r = 1 R
1/ n
70
71
su =5
*
s = 5 * u
Dp w = = ... = 64.8N / m 2 4l
u * = ( w / )
1/ 2
= ... = 0 .255 m / s
The centerline velocity can be obtained from the average velocity and the assumption of a power-law velocity profile
Q 0 .04 m 3 / s V= = = 5 .09 m / s 2 A ( 0 .1m ) / 4
R e = VD / = ... = 5 .07 10 5
72
u y = U R
1/ n
r = 1 R
1/ n
V 2n 2 = Vc ( n + 1)( 2 n + 1)
Vc = ... = 6 .04 m / s
2 w r D
n=8.4
R e = VD / = ... = 5 .07 10 5
73
lam
du Vc r = = 1 dr nR R
(1 n ) / n
= 0.0266 N / m 2
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75
& +W Shaft
in
& Q net
r r r r e d V + e V n dA in + nn V n dA = CS CV CS t r r r r & + WShaft in = e d V + e V n dA nn V n dA CS CS t CV
Energy equation
CS
r r r r nn V n dA = p V n dA
CS
Negligibly small
+-
77
78
p + Enthalpy h = u
V2 + e=u + gz 2
& m
p out
out u in q net u
in
=0
Frictionless flow
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out u in q net u
in
>0
Frictional flow
Lossin out
in
= loss
2 in
p2 V2 + + gz 2 2
p1 V + + gz1 2
2 1
81
& m
2 out
2 in
in out
pout V p V + + z out = in + + z in + h s h L 2g 2g
w shaft g
net / in
2 out
2 in
in out
Shaft head h S =
net / in
& W shaft Q
net / in
Head loss hL =
loss g
82
in out
For turbine h s = h T ( h T > 0 ) hT is turbine head For pump h s = h P hp is pump head in out The actual head drop across the turbine The actual head drop across the pump
h T = ( h s + h L )T
loss
h p = (hs h L )p
loss
83
1/8~7/8
p2 V p1 V + + z2 = + + z1 + h s h L 2g 2g
Pipe system LOCATION 1 LOCATION 2
2 2 2 1
h L = h L major + h L min or
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h L = h L major + h L min or
85
1V12 2 V22 = 2g 2g
p1 p 2 >>> = ( z 2 z1 ) + h L g
p1 p 2 p >>> = = hL g g
86
Poiseuilles Law
Valid for Laminar flow only
Vaverage
Q Q pD 2 = = = 2 A R 32 l
87
In fully developed laminar flow in a horizontal pipe, the pressure drop laminar flow l V 2
p = 128 l Q 128 l V (D / 4 ) l V D 2 = = 32 p D 4 D 4 D D = hL g p l 64 l 2 = 64 = 2/4 V l Q=V A=V D 1 VD D Re D hL f V 2 D 2g 2 64 l V 2 l V 2 l V l V2 p = f >> h L = 32 = = 64 R D 2 D D D 2 VD eD 2
2
p = f
f la min ar
64 = Re
88
In turbulent flow we cannot evaluate the pressure drop analytically; we must resort to experimental results and use dimensional analysis to correlate the experimental data. In fully developed turbulent flow the pressure drop, p , caused by friction in a horizontal constant-area pipe is known to depend on pipe diameter,D, pipe length, l, pipe roughness,e, dimensional analysis average flow velocity, V, fluid density, and fluid viscosity,.
p = F(V , D, l, , , )
89
Applying dimensional analysis, the result were a correlation of the form VD l head p = , , 2 loss l/D 1 V D D 2
l p = Re, 2 1 D D 2 V
l/D
f Re, D
91
92
Moody chart
For laminar flow, f=64/Re, which is independent of the relative roughness. Laminar flowf For very large Reynolds numbers, f=(/D), which is independent of the Reynolds numbers. For flows with very large value of Re, commonly termed completely turbulent flow (or wholly turbulent flow), the laminar sublayer is so thin (its thickness decrease with increasing Re) that the surface roughness completely dominates the character of the flow near the wall. For flows with moderate value of Re, the friction factor f=(Re,/D). Reynolds number
Reynolds numberf
93
Colebrook To avoid having to use a graphical method for obtaining f for turbulent flows. Valid for the entire nonlaminar
1 2 .51 range of the Moody chart. / D = 2 .0 log + Laminar flow f 3 .7 Re f Colebrook formula
Miler suggests that a single iteration will produce a result within 1 percent if the initial estimate is calculated from
f
94
95
f=64/Re==0.0467
l 1 p = f V 2 = ... = 0 .179 kPa D2
96
97
Most pipe systems consist of considerably more than straight pipes. These additional components (valves, bends, tees, and the like) add to the overall head loss of the system. Such losses are termed MINOR LOSS.
Additional componentsloss
MINOR LOSS
The flow pattern through a valve
98
The theoretical analysis to predict the details of flow pattern (through these additional components) is not, as yet, possible. head loss information The head loss information for essentially all components is given in dimensionless form and based on experimental data. The most common method used to determine these head losses or pressure drops is to specify the loss
coefficient, KL
Loss coefficienthead loss
99
KL =
1 2 p K = V L 2 V / 2g 1 V 2 2 minor lossmajor loss 2 l eq V 2 V2 h Lmin or = K L =f Minor losses are sometimes 2g D 2g given in terms of an equivalent D length leq l eq = K L f The actual value of KL is strongly dependent on the geometry of the component considered. It may also dependent on the fluid properties. That is =
h Lmin or
K L = (geometry, Re)
100
For many practical applications the Reynolds number is large enough so that the flow through the component is dominated by inertial effects, with viscous effects being of secondary importance. Viscous effect In a flow that is dominated by inertia effects rather than viscous effects, it is usually found that pressure drops and head losses correlate directly with the dynamic pressure. This is the reason why the friction factor for very large Reynolds number, fully developed pipe flow is independent of the Reynolds number.
Minor lossFriction factorRe head lossdynamic pressure
101
K L = ( geometry)
major lossRefrictional factorroughness
102
A vena contracta region may result because the fluid cannot turn a sharp right-angle corner. The flow is said to separate from the sharp corner. The maximum velocity velocity at section (2) is greater than that in the pipe section (3), and the pressure there is lower. (2)(3) If this high speed fluid could slow down efficiently, the kinetic energy could be converted into pressure.
kinetic energy
104
Such is not the case. Although the fluid may be accelerated very efficiently, it is very difficult to slow down (decelerate) the fluid viscous dissipationloss efficiently.(1)(2) (2)(3) The extra kinetic energy of the fluid is partially lost because of viscous dissipation, so that the pressure does not return to the ideal value.
Kinetic energy(2)(3)
107
A1 KL = 1 A 2
108
Carefully designed guide vanes help direct the flow with less unwanted swirl and disturbances.
109
Valves
(a) globe valve (b) gate valve (c) swing check valve (d) stop check valve
110
111
112
113
p 9 V9 2 p1 V12 + + z1 = + + z 9 + h L19 2g 2g
h L19
p1 p 9 =
p1 p 9 hp = = h L19
The actual power supplied to the air (horsepower, Pa) is obtained from the fan head by
Pa = Qh p = A 5 V5 h p = A 5 V5 h L19
115
116
The empirical correlations for pipe flow may be used for computations involving noncircular ducts, provided their cross sections are not too exaggerated. The correlation for turbulent pipe flow are extended for use with noncircular geometries by introducing the hydraulic diameter, defined as A 4A Dh P
Where A is crosssectional area, and P is wetted perimeter.
Dh
P
117
The hydraulic diameter concept can be applied in the approximate range <ar<4. So the correlations for pipe flow give acceptably accurate results for rectangular ducts.
118
h L major
l V2 f D 2g
119
The Moody chart, developed for round pipes, can also be used for noncircular ducts.
120
121
122
h L f V2 = l D 2g
For given pressure and temperature =1.8910-4ft2/s
VD Re = = 35300
123
(2)
Have three unknown (a,f, and Reh) and three equation Eqs. 1, 2, and either in graphical form the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation
Find a
124
The energy equation, relating the conditions at any two points 1 and 2 for a single-path pipe system
p1 1V12 p 2 2 V2 2 g + 2 g + z1 g + 2 g + z 2 = h L =
L major
+ h L min or
by judicious choice of points 1 and 2 we can analyze not only the entire pipe system, but also just a certain section of it that we may be interested in.
Major loss
h Lmajor
l V f D 2g
Minor loss
h Lmin or
V = KL 2g
126
127
128
Given pipe (L and D), and flow rate, and Q, find pressure drop p Given p, D, and Q, find L. Given p, L, and D, find Q. Given p, L, and Q, find D.
129
CASE 1
The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the friction factor for the flow. QD Reynolds number f Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and equivalent lengths. Minor loss coefficients Leq The energy equation can then be used to directly to obtain the pressure drop.
130
CASE 2
The flow rate leads to the Reynolds number and hence the friction factor for the flow. QD Reynolds numberf Tabulated data can be used for minor loss coefficients and equivalent lengths. Minor loss coefficients Leq The energy equation can then be rearranged and solved directly for the pipe length.
Pipe length
131
z Water at 60F flows from the basement to the second floor through the 0.75-in. (0.0625-ft)-diameter copper pipe (a drawn tubing) at a rate of Q = 12.0 gal/min = 0.0267 ft3/s and exits through a faucet of diameter 0.50 in. as shown in Figure E8.8. Determine the pressure at point (1) if: (a) all losses are neglected, (b) the only losses included are major losses, or (c) all losses are included.
132
p1 = z 2 + ( V2 V ) + h L hL
z1 = 0, z 2 = 20ft , p2 = 0(free jet ) V2 = Q / A 2 = ... = 19.6ft / s
Head loss is different for each of the three cases.
133
2 1
(b) If the only losses included are the major losses, the head loss is
l V12 hL = f D 2g
Moody chartf Moody chart
= 0.000005 / D = 8 10 5 Re = 45000
p1 = z 2 + 1 1 ) + f 2 ( V2 V
2 2 2 1
f=0.0215
V2 p1 = 21.3psi + K L 2
Minor loss
136
137
p 2 V2 p1 V1 + + z1 + h P = + + z2 + h L 2g 2g
Assume that z1=z2, p1=p2=V1=V2=0 (large, open tank) Minor losses are negligible because of the large length-todiameter ratio of the relatively straight, uninterrupted pipe.
l V2 hL = hP = f = ... = 17700ft D 2g
139
CASE 3
These types of problems required either manual iteration or use of a computer application. The unknown flow rate or velocity is needed before the Reynolds number and hence the friction factor can be found.
flowrateReynolds number frictional factorf
CASE 4
These types of problems required either manual iteration or use of a computer application. The unknown diameter is needed before the Reynolds number and relative roughness, and hence the friction factor can be found.
DQvelocityReynolds number
142
143
144
Application of the energy equation between the inside of the dryer, point (1), and the exit of the vent pipe, point (2) gives
p1 V1 p 2 V2 V2 l V2 + + z1 = + + z2 + f + KL 2g D 2g 2g 2g
2 2
(1) fvelocity
145
We have three relationships (Eq. 1, 2, and the /D=0.0015 curve of the Moody chart) from which we can solve for the three unknowns f, Re, and V. This is done easily by iterative scheme as follows. Assume f=0.022V=10.4ft/s (Eq. 1)Re=19,300 (Eq.2)f=0.029 Assume f=0.029 V=10.1ft/sRe=18,800 f=0.029
Q = AV = ... = 0.881ft /s
3
146
Turbine
50 hp
147
The energy equation can be applied between the surface of the lake and the outlet of the pipe as
p V p1 V1 + + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + h L + h T 2g 2g
2 2
Where p1=V1= p2=z2=0, z1=90ft, and V2=V, the fluid velocity in the pipe
l V2 hL = f = 0.0932V 2ft D 2g
3
hT =
Pa 561 = ... = ft Q V
149
150
Q 2.55 V= = 2 A D
D = 0.404f
1/5
(1)
151
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, /D, and Re) from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.
153
Q 33.1 V= = 2 A D
We have four equations (Eq. 1, 2, 3, and either the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation) and four unknowns (f, D, /D, and Re) from which the solution can be obtained by trial-and-error methods.
Multiple-Path Systems
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
h L1 = h L 2 = h L 3
156
Multiple-Path Systems
Multiple Pipe Loop System
Q1 = Q2 + Q3
2 2 p B VB p A VA + + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 2 (1 2 ) 2g 2g 2 2 p A VA p B VB + + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 3 (1 3) 2g 2g h L 2 = h L3
157
Multiple-Path Systems
Three-Reservoir System
If valve (1) was closed, reservoir B reservoir C If valve (2) was closed, reservoir A reservoir C If valve (3) was closed, reservoir A reservoir B Q With all valves open . 1 = Q2 + Q3
2 2 p A VA p B VB + + zA = + + z B + h L1 + h L 2 (A B) 2g 2g 2 2 p B VB pC VC + + zB = + + z C + h L 2 + h L 3 (B C ) 2g 2g
158
159
l 1 V12 l 3 V32 + f3 z A = f1 D1 2g D 3 2g
l 2 V22 l 3 V32 + f3 zB = f2 D 2 2g D 3 2g
No solution to Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 with real, positive values of V1, V2, and V3. Thus, our original assumption of flow out of
161
(5) (6)
Solve
V1 = 15.9ft / s V2 = 2.88ft / s
162
163
Pipe Flowrate
Meters1/2
The theoretical flow rate may be related to the pressure differential between section 1 and 2 by applying the continuity and Bernoulli equations. Then empirical correction factors may be applied to obtain the actual flow rate.
Basic equation
r r dV + V dA = 0 CV CS t 2 2 p 2 V2 p1 V1 + + gz 1 = + + gz 2 2 2
164
A 2 2 1 A 1
V2 =
2 ( p1 p 2 ) 1 ( A 2 / A1 )2
Q ideal = V2 A 2 = A 2
2(p 1 p 2 ) (1 (D 2 /D 1 ) 4 )
Q ideal
Q actual ??
165
Q actual = C o Q ideal = C o A o
A 0 = d 2 / 4
2 ( p1 p 2 ) (1 4 )
Orifice meter discharge coefficient
C0
166
C o = C o ( = d / D , Re = VD / )
Q actual = C n Q ideal = C n A n
2 ( p1 p 2 ) (1 4 )
Q actual = C V Q ideal = C V A T
A T = d 2 / 4
2 ( p1 p 2 ) (1 4 )
169
170
171